723:
1975:, between two or more computers, which is called a "session". Common functions of the session layer include user logon (establishment) and user logoff (termination) functions. Including this matter, authentication methods are also built into most client software, such as FTP Client and NFS Client for Microsoft Networks. Therefore, the session layer establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. The session layer also provides for
7843:
974:
2167:(MPLS), ATM, and X.25 are 3a protocols. OSI subdivides the Network Layer into three sublayers: 3a) Subnetwork Access, 3b) Subnetwork Dependent Convergence and 3c) Subnetwork Independent Convergence. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a
647:(ISO) that "provides a common basis for the coordination of standards development for the purpose of systems interconnection." In the OSI reference model, the communications between systems are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
1403:. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals. Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, modulation scheme, channel access method and physical connectors. This includes the layout of
2010:, and possibly reversed during the deencapsulation of incoming messages when being passed up the protocol stack. For this very reason, outgoing messages during encapsulation are converted into a format specified by the application layer, while the conversion for incoming messages during deencapsulation are reversed.
3660:". TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the host-to-host transport path; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.
1612:
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source host to a destination host from one application to another across a network, while maintaining the quality-of-service functions. Transport protocols may be connection-oriented
2174:
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in wireless networks because of the time-varying nature of wireless channels. By scheduling packet transmission only in favourable channel conditions, which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel state information from the PHY layer, network throughput can
2013:
The presentation layer handles protocol conversion, data encryption, data decryption, data compression, data decompression, incompatibility of data representation between operating systems, and graphic commands. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application layer accepts,
862:
The drafters of the reference model had to contend with many competing priorities and interests. The rate of technological change made it necessary to define standards that new systems could converge to rather than standardizing procedures after the fact; the reverse of the traditional approach to
1903:
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes,
932:
OSI was an industry effort, attempting to get industry participants to agree on common network standards to provide multi-vendor interoperability. It was common for large networks to support multiple network protocol suites, with many devices unable to interoperate with other devices because of a
3703:
that was specified as part of the OSI project was considered by many as too complicated and inefficient, and to a large extent unimplementable. Taking the "forklift upgrade" approach to networking, it specified eliminating all existing networking protocols and replacing them at all layers of the
1659:
The OSI connection-oriented transport protocol defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols, ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the
Internet). Class 0 contains no error
2084:
Application-layer functions typically include file sharing, message handling, and database access, through the most common protocols at the application layer, known as HTTP, FTP, SMB/CIFS, TFTP, and SMTP. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and
1644:. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail delivery through the acknowledgment hand-shake system. The transport layer will also provide the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.
1450:
The physical layer also specifies how encoding occurs over a physical signal, such as electrical voltage or a light pulse. For example, a 1 bit might be represented on a copper wire by the transition from a 0-volt to a 5-volt signal, whereas a 0 bit might be represented by the transition from a
2089:
to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
1598:, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.
1987:
operation, and establishes procedures for checkpointing, suspending, restarting, and terminating a session between two related streams of data, such as an audio and a video stream in a web-conferencing application. Therefore, the session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application
1620:(MTU), which depends on the maximum packet size imposed by all data link layers on the network path between the two hosts. The amount of data in a data segment must be small enough to allow for a network-layer header and a transport-layer header. For example, for data being transferred across
719:(also known as peer-to-peer communication). As a result, the OSI reference model has not only become an important piece among professionals and non-professionals alike, but also in all networking between one or many parties, due in large part to its commonly accepted user-friendly framework.
2014:
to be sent across a network. Since the presentation layer converts data and graphics into a display format for the application layer, the presentation layer is sometimes called the syntax layer. For this reason, the presentation layer negotiates the transfer of syntax structure through the
1587:
it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and
2085:
availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using
928:
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200 series of recommendations. Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.
706:
In comparison, several networking models have sought to create an intellectual framework for clarifying networking concepts and activities, but none have been as successful as the OSI reference model in becoming the standard model for discussing and teaching networking in the field of
2064:
The application layer is the layer of the OSI model that is closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with a software application that implements a component of communication between the client and server, such as
1582:
and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly
3711:
has become the standard for networking. TCP/IP's pragmatic approach to computer networking and to independent implementations of simplified protocols made it a practical methodology. Some protocols and specifications in the OSI stack remain in use, one example being
3704:
stack. This made implementation difficult and was resisted by many vendors and users with significant investments in other network technologies. In addition, the protocols included so many optional features that many vendors' implementations were not interoperable.
1932:(GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint.
924:
WG6.1). In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
1469:—a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for
1660:
recovery and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode
2188:
specifications, outline any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service descriptions. Protocol specifications define a methodology for communication between peers, but the software interfaces are implementation-specific.
1624:, the MTU is 1500 bytes, the minimum size of a TCP header is 20 bytes, and the minimum size of an IPv4 header is 20 bytes, so the maximum segment size is 1500−(20+20) bytes, or 1460 bytes. The process of dividing data into segments is called
1451:
5-volt to a 0-volt signal. As a result, common problems occurring at the physical layer are often related to the incorrect media termination, EMI or noise scrambling, and NICs and hubs that are misconfigured or do not work correctly.
735:
The development of the OSI model started in the late 1970s to support the emergence of the diverse computer networking methods that were competing for application in the large national networking efforts in the world (see
1639:
The transport layer also controls the reliability of a given link between a source and destination host through flow control, error control, and acknowledgments of sequence and existence. Some protocols are state- and
1647:
Reliability, however, is not a strict requirement within the transport layer. Protocols like UDP, for example, are used in applications that are willing to accept some packet loss, reordering, errors or duplication.
2073:. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model unless they are directly integrated into the application layer through the functions of communication, as is the case with applications such as
821:, which came from considerable research into future configurations for computer systems, resulted in the UK presenting the case for an international standards committee to cover this area at the ISO meeting in
4334:
1029:
enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions, like the OSI model, abstractly describe the functionality provided to a layer
7169:
2171:-based service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. Sometimes one sees reference to a Layer 2.5.
2006:
The presentation layer establishes data formatting and data translation into a format specified by the application layer during the encapsulation of outgoing messages while being passed down the
2153:
Management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application-layer protocol,
703:. It assumed the presence of generic physical links and focused primarily on the software layers of communication, with a similar but much less rigorous structure than the OSI model.
1542:
standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both
676:
Each layer in the OSI model has well-defined functions, and the methods of each layer communicate and interact with those of the layers immediately above and below as appropriate.
1591:
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it does not need to do so.
1616:
This may require breaking large protocol data units or long data streams into smaller chunks called "segments", since the network layer imposes a maximum packet size called the
699:
is a model of networking developed contemporarily to the OSI model, and was funded primarily by the U.S. Department of
Defense. It was the foundation for the development of the
1632:
and the OSI connection-oriented transport protocol (COTP), perform segmentation and reassembly of segments on the receiving side; connectionless transport protocols, such as
829:
3696:
These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in the internal organization of the network layer.
2128:—of the transmitted data. Cross-layer functions are the norm, in practice, because the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between
2081:. Other examples of software are Microsoft Network Software for File and Printer Sharing and Unix/Linux Network File System Client for access to shared file resources.
4342:
1415:, cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as
4224:
2104:
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and
6681:
3663:
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following manner:
921:
882:. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the
2212:
modern matches. This correspondence is rough: the OSI model contains idiosyncrasies not found in later systems such as the IP stack in modern
Internet.
3506:
3692:
corresponds to the OSI data link layer and may include similar functions as the physical layer, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network layer.
837:
5405:
901:
of network concepts. It promoted the idea of a consistent model of protocol layers, defining interoperability between network devices and software.
6676:
4434:
1578:
from one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an
1664:
classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0–4 classes are shown in the following table:
7872:
6898:
3726:
6686:
1140:
s while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
6181:
5559:
4495:
4147:
745:
644:
2425:
1492:(LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
748:(ISO). While attempting to provide a comprehensive description of networking, the model failed to garner reliance during the design of the
5493:
6403:
4626:
Mao, Stephen (2009). "Chapter 8: Fundamentals of communication networks". In
Wyglinski, Alexander; Nekovee, Maziar; Hou, Thomas (eds.).
828:
Beginning in 1977, the ISO initiated a program to develop general standards and methods of networking. A similar process evolved at the
4966:
3746:
3639:
2307:
2254:
941:, would result in the best and most robust computer networks. However, while OSI developed its networking standards in the late 1980s,
7373:
7478:
7398:
7189:
7184:
7030:
2367:
7196:
3788:"X.225 : Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Connection-oriented Session protocol: Protocol specification"
1943:
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the
5457:
7892:
5550:
960:. Others say the original OSI model does not fit today's networking protocols and have suggested instead a simplified approach.
7729:
5919:
2320:
2193:
2154:
511:
5425:
4499:
956:
originally conceived for the model did not gain popularity. Some engineers argue the OSI reference model is still relevant to
6091:
5317:
5290:
5256:
5225:
5194:
5112:
4767:
4727:
4639:
4602:
4479:
4234:
4131:
4104:
3907:
3791:
2158:
883:
475:
4500:"ISO/IEC 7498-4:1989 – Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Basic Reference Model: Naming and addressing"
893:
OSI had two major components: an abstract model of networking, called the Basic
Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a
7798:
7599:
7122:
6505:
6096:
6066:
4391:
2869:
2859:
2643:
2143:
2105:
1957:(TLS) does not strictly fit inside the model either. It contains characteristics of the transport and presentation layers.
1486:(MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
277:
272:
145:
1387:
The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between a device, such as a
7443:
6773:
6570:
5477:
5343:
Zimmermann, Hubert (April 1980). "OSI Reference Model — The ISO Model of
Architecture for Open Systems Interconnection".
3756:
2315:
917:
614:
134:
5894:
5079:
3731:
3038:
3017:
2398:
841:
340:
124:
4284:
3869:
933:
lack of common protocols. For a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations became
6970:
5994:
4554:
3996:
3963:
3012:
1529:
1133:
The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device.
1013:
863:
developing standards. Although not a standard itself, it was a framework in which future standards could be defined.
666:. Each intermediate layer serves a class of functionality to the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.
325:
228:
7534:
6706:
6550:
5062:
2509:
1525:
526:
406:
69:
3815:
ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994 Information technology — Open
Systems Interconnection — Basic Reference Model: The Basic Model
1260:, i.e., continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes
1287:
757:
421:
7887:
7629:
7624:
7383:
7331:
3582:
995:
531:
59:
7423:
6753:
6266:
5914:
5182:
4251:
3592:
3250:
3193:
2849:
2790:
2688:
2164:
1944:
1929:
1629:
1174:
The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labelled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
909:
784:
411:
396:
262:
223:
119:
3027:
2692:
2557:
2414:
2249:
2244:
2221:
2019:
1921:
1913:
1628:; it is an optional function of the transport layer. Some connection-oriented transport protocols, such as
1388:
780:
401:
345:
233:
172:
3716:, which was specified for OSI as ISO/IEC 10589:2002 and adapted for Internet use with TCP/IP as RFC 1142.
7768:
7246:
5543:
4594:
3577:
3290:
3285:
3096:
3081:
1216:
391:
89:
64:
4719:
4712:
4706:
3452:
TCP/IP stack does not care about the physical medium, as long as it provides a way to communicate octets
3376:
7428:
7336:
7286:
7045:
6378:
6373:
5772:
3924:
3325:
3300:
3007:
2882:
2755:
1933:
1466:
1257:
991:
441:
386:
109:
4714:
Integrated management of networked systems: concepts, architectures, and their operational application
4201:
1904:
such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking,
7897:
7694:
7639:
7418:
7403:
6661:
6081:
5577:
3622:
3394:
2893:
2628:
2393:
2302:
2039:
1972:
1617:
1524:(PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as
814:
744:). In the 1980s, the model became a working product of the Open Systems Interconnection group at the
541:
416:
17:
5357:
3051:
2713:
7742:
7649:
7438:
7413:
6625:
6620:
5442:
3310:
3295:
3022:
2552:
2197:
2099:
1954:
1412:
187:
4123:
Education and
Training in Health Informatics in Europe: State of the Art, Guidelines, Applications
1588:
reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
912:. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the NPL network, ARPANET, CYCLADES,
7296:
6838:
6828:
6823:
6398:
6383:
6323:
5757:
5752:
5712:
4938:
4913:
4794:
Architecture framework for the development of signaling and OA&M protocols using OSI concepts
3736:
3708:
3597:
3381:
3366:
3230:
3225:
3183:
2362:
2227:
1937:
1550:
1521:
1436:
1325:
984:
938:
753:
716:
680:
663:
607:
546:
536:
461:
3678:
maps to the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
2708:
7877:
7846:
7614:
7604:
6733:
6151:
5732:
5536:
5501:
5426:"ISO/IEC standard 7498-1:1994 - Service definition for the association control service element"
5352:
4809:
3092:
2854:
1951:(UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer 4 protocols within OSI.
1948:
1661:
1633:
1136:
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of
1026:
708:
670:
267:
79:
4631:
4121:
1072:
The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device (layer
7882:
7035:
6545:
5767:
5737:
5630:
5620:
5581:
5573:
4544:
4317:
4094:
4079:
3648:
of the
Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering.
3464:
3459:
3356:
3348:
3271:
3209:
3204:
3043:
2964:
2795:
2718:
2570:
2388:
1989:
1984:
1656:(VoIP) are examples of applications in which loss of packets is not usually a fatal problem.
1483:
1416:
436:
365:
104:
4420:
3897:
7793:
7699:
7433:
7408:
7251:
7092:
6843:
6530:
6333:
6206:
5989:
5154:
5037:
4862:"X.700: Management framework for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) for CCITT applications"
4528:
Open
Systems Interconnection – Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service
3766:
3266:
2403:
2113:
2015:
1489:
431:
5017:
4148:"ISO/OSI (Open Systems Interconnection): 1982 - 1983 | History of Computer Communications"
8:
7634:
5100:
3988:
3242:
2377:
1905:
1641:
1625:
1470:
1443:
standards. An example of a less well-known physical layer specification would be for the
1400:
1283:
1273:
792:
659:
192:
99:
4967:"Internetworking Technology Handbook – Internetworking Basics [Internetworking]"
4018:
952:
The OSI model is still used as a reference for teaching and documentation; however, the
803:
7867:
7579:
7514:
5854:
5386:
5245:
5214:
4364:
4067:
3657:
2232:
2133:
2001:
1894:
1404:
1340:
1233:
1227:
1186:
1078:
1054:
913:
836:). Both bodies developed documents that defined similar networking models. The British
712:
600:
160:
74:
4756:
3979:
Radu, Roxana (2019). "Revisiting the Origins: The Internet and its Early Governance".
1431:. Physical layer specifications are included in the specifications for the ubiquitous
6408:
5446:
5378:
5370:
5323:
5313:
5296:
5286:
5279:
5262:
5252:
5231:
5221:
5200:
5190:
5118:
5108:
5075:
4773:
4763:
4733:
4723:
4645:
4635:
4608:
4598:
4550:
4475:
4335:"The OSI model explained: How to understand (and remember) the 7 layer network model"
4230:
4173:
4127:
4100:
4075:
4059:
3992:
3959:
3903:
3671:
maps to the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
3668:
3498:
3002:
2740:
2200:(ODI) are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
2161:(CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances.
2059:
1556:
Security, specifically (authenticated) encryption, at this layer can be applied with
1205:
1099:
1062:
856:
654:
to describe networked communication from the physical implementation of transmitting
651:
308:
84:
52:
41:
5390:
4992:
2208:
The table below presents a list of OSI layers, the original OSI protocols, and some
7142:
6883:
6211:
5528:
5362:
5144:
5027:
4467:
4266:
4051:
3984:
3751:
3649:
2602:
1547:
1543:
1428:
1237:
1210:
852:
692:
684:
669:
Classes of functionality are implemented in software development using established
4525:
3787:
7752:
7473:
7378:
7132:
7060:
7055:
7050:
6535:
6498:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6473:
6468:
5332:
5071:
4658:
4471:
4463:
IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture
4301:
4071:
3953:
3837:
3675:
2117:
1811:
1649:
1607:
1460:
1362:
1335:
1268:
1149:
The OSI model was defined in ISO/IEC 7498 which consists of the following parts:
1068:
Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices proceeds as follows:
957:
946:
905:
898:
763:
In the early- and mid-1970s, networking was largely either government-sponsored (
640:
379:
255:
5157:
5136:
5040:
5021:
4678:
3653:
696:
688:
7040:
6788:
6600:
6463:
6453:
6448:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
5787:
5777:
5485:
5478:"INFormation CHanGe Architectures and Flow Charts powered by Google App Engine"
4861:
4835:
3955:
Why distributed computing?: An NCC review of potential and experience in the UK
3682:
3557:
3122:
2938:
2683:
2372:
2129:
2121:
2070:
2043:
2007:
1575:
1574:
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
1396:
1382:
1353:
1311:
1232:
Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including
494:
5382:
5366:
5300:
5235:
4737:
4494:
1282:
Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including
1215:
High-level protocols such as for resource sharing or remote file access, e.g.
7861:
7828:
7803:
7788:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7549:
7494:
7463:
7453:
7316:
7306:
7276:
7271:
7221:
7201:
7179:
7164:
7117:
7082:
7025:
7020:
7010:
6888:
6833:
6808:
6803:
6783:
6656:
6196:
5635:
5605:
5374:
5327:
5274:
5266:
5204:
4777:
4681:
Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications
4571:
4063:
4023:
3899:
A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen
3761:
3700:
3330:
2483:
2185:
2078:
2066:
2035:
1966:
1653:
1569:
1317:
1306:
1251:
953:
934:
894:
859:, and the refined but still draft standard was published by the ISO in 1980.
741:
737:
301:
206:
5122:
4612:
1971:
The session layer creates the setup, controls the connections, and ends the
1345:
Transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer
711:. The model allows transparent communication through equivalent exchange of
7689:
7659:
7519:
6863:
6858:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6630:
6575:
6525:
6458:
6413:
6388:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6256:
6221:
6131:
6126:
5954:
5762:
5450:
5336:
4751:
4662:
3645:
3305:
3109:
2125:
1392:
1291:
1119:
650:
The model partitions the flow of data in a communication system into seven
114:
4791:
4653:
4649:
4039:
3813:
1908:
operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as
722:
7664:
7361:
7356:
7351:
6935:
6852:
5824:
4887:
4270:
3602:
3432:
3427:
3361:
3353:
3335:
2780:
2759:
2473:
2438:
2074:
1980:
1976:
1424:
1420:
764:
566:
561:
556:
480:
451:
7654:
7559:
7266:
7241:
7005:
6960:
6696:
6353:
6166:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6009:
5984:
5859:
5615:
4055:
3689:
3571:
3566:
3532:
3527:
3389:
3238:
3171:
3105:
2764:
1241:
998: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
551:
446:
426:
213:
4589:
Grigonis, Richard (2000). "Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model".
4252:"Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War"
1636:
and the OSI connectionless transport protocol (CLTP), usually do not.
1427:. The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of the
813:–1975 identified the need for defining higher level protocols. The UK
7823:
7818:
7813:
7808:
7783:
7773:
7734:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7669:
7574:
7569:
7564:
7554:
7544:
7529:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7448:
7393:
7388:
7368:
7346:
7326:
7281:
7261:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7174:
7137:
7127:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7087:
7072:
7067:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6965:
6955:
6950:
6945:
6930:
6925:
6873:
6868:
6848:
6818:
6793:
6778:
6748:
6701:
6691:
6671:
6666:
6651:
6646:
6560:
6171:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5802:
5797:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5149:
5032:
3587:
3552:
3547:
3220:
3160:
3060:
3056:
2921:
2769:
2504:
2239:
2027:
1432:
1367:
Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium
1042:
is one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
845:
586:
571:
355:
4628:
Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice
4187:
3640:
Internet protocol suite § Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering
973:
7458:
7236:
6940:
6768:
6605:
6595:
6580:
6555:
6540:
6515:
6510:
6393:
6368:
6363:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6328:
6293:
6288:
6271:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6216:
6201:
6191:
6186:
6176:
6161:
6156:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6086:
6071:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6004:
5999:
5979:
5974:
5964:
5959:
5949:
5944:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5899:
5889:
5782:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5310:
Open Standards and the Digital Age: History, Ideology, and Networks
4697:
4226:
Open Standards and the Digital Age: History, Ideology, and Networks
3561:
3485:
3345:
2458:
2168:
1621:
1511:
1500:
1476:
1277:
775:
in France) or vendor-developed with proprietary standards, such as
772:
749:
700:
4704:
Hegering, Heinz-Gerd; Abeck, Sebastian; Neumair, Bernhard (1999).
2139:
Specific examples of cross-layer functions include the following:
1594:
A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the
7747:
7539:
7524:
7321:
7311:
7301:
7077:
6893:
6738:
6726:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5792:
5747:
5742:
5727:
5722:
5717:
3741:
3685:
performs functions as those in a subset of the OSI network layer.
3437:
3422:
2785:
2468:
2112:
X.800 Recommendation). These services are aimed at improving the
1584:
1444:
1408:
1321:
768:
287:
218:
139:
5510:
3863:
3861:
3859:
1166:
ISO/IEC 7498-1 is also published as ITU-T Recommendation X.200.
7609:
7594:
7589:
7584:
7256:
7231:
7159:
7015:
7000:
6980:
6975:
6920:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6798:
6763:
6610:
6261:
6076:
5640:
3612:
3517:
3480:
3475:
3315:
2916:
2912:
2729:
2638:
2617:
2607:
2499:
2453:
2443:
2023:
1917:
1557:
1514:
1504:
942:
904:
The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of
822:
795:
were only just beginning to emerge, and these began to use the
788:
506:
501:
329:
129:
93:
834:
Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique
7644:
7619:
7341:
7226:
7097:
6878:
6743:
6615:
6590:
6585:
6565:
5939:
5909:
5904:
5625:
5610:
5600:
5595:
5064:
The Illustrated Network: How TCP/IP Works in a Modern Network
3856:
3713:
3542:
3537:
3442:
3399:
3127:
2991:
2800:
2633:
2463:
2336:
2297:
2292:
2147:
2109:
2031:
1925:
1536:
1507:
1497:
887:
866:
In May 1983, the CCITT and ISO documents were merged to form
521:
516:
350:
335:
238:
182:
177:
830:
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee
7291:
7154:
7147:
6813:
6758:
6358:
5969:
4037:
3617:
3607:
3522:
3418:
3371:
3340:
3320:
3261:
3188:
3153:
3149:
2982:
2974:
2960:
2926:
2908:
2864:
2696:
2648:
2612:
2597:
2592:
2547:
2448:
2357:
2346:
2331:
2287:
2259:
2086:
1539:
796:
726:
Communication in the OSI model (example with layers 3 to 5)
576:
470:
466:
456:
360:
318:
313:
282:
167:
5187:
Patterns in Network Architecture: A Return to Fundamentals
2175:
be significantly improved and energy waste can be avoided.
868:
The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection
7778:
7468:
6520:
3113:
3070:
2587:
2494:
2478:
2341:
2047:
1909:
1440:
1358:
1316:
Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including
776:
655:
581:
4038:
Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Garcia-Swartz, Daniel D (2013).
2203:
1065:(SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.
3707:
Although the OSI model is often still referenced, the
945:
came into widespread use on multi-vendor networks for
5023:
Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy
4758:
Energy and spectrum efficient wireless network design
4099:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 35.
4040:"The History of the Internet: The Missing Narratives"
1049:, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N
897:. The OSI reference model was a major advance in the
715:(PDUs) between two parties, through what is known as
5558:
4744:
4703:
4526:"ITU-T Recommendation X.224 (11/1995) ISO/IEC 8073,
1496:
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as
3896:Davies, Howard; Bressan, Beatrice (26 April 2010).
1810:Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single
5278:
5244:
5213:
4755:
4718:. San Francisco, Calif.: Morgan Kaufmann. p.
4711:
4705:
1924:over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with
756:, principally sponsored under the auspices of the
27:Model of communication of seven abstraction layers
5095:
5093:
5091:
4390:Taylor, Steve; Metzler, Jim (23 September 2008).
4016:
2022:(ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an
662:to the highest-level representation of data of a
7859:
5406:"Windows network architecture and the OSI model"
5242:
4435:"Windows Network Architecture and the OSI Model"
1479:divides the data link layer into two sublayers:
5509:EdXD; Saikot, Mahmud Hasan (25 November 2021).
5243:Piscitello, David M.; Chapin, A. Lyman (1993).
5189:. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.
5060:
4931:
4906:
3952:Down, Peter John; Taylor, Frank Edward (1976).
3727:Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile
3633:
855:, in February 1978 by French software engineer
851:The OSI model was first defined in raw form in
5088:
4496:International Organization for Standardization
1995:
1122:with a header, a footer, or both, producing a
752:, which is reflected in the less prescriptive
746:International Organization for Standardization
645:International Organization for Standardization
5544:
5281:The Open Book: A Practical Perspective on OSI
5247:Open systems networking : TCP/IP and OSI
5107:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR.
4792:"ITU-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993)],
4707:"Fundamental Structures of Networked Systems"
4582:
4563:
4546:CCNP Security VPN 642-648 Official Cert Guide
4389:
3895:
2053:
608:
5211:
5129:
4096:Computer Network Architectures and Protocols
4012:
4010:
4008:
872:Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model
4828:
4802:
4414:
4412:
3983:. Oxford University Press. pp. 43–74.
1601:
1454:
5551:
5537:
5508:
5342:
5251:. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
4306:. IDG Network World Inc. 15 February 1988.
4250:Russell, Andrew L. (July–September 2006).
3951:
3923:Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. (November 1978).
3747:List of information technology initialisms
1376:
1061:. Each PDU contains a payload, called the
935:polarized over the issue of which standard
615:
601:
5356:
5285:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
5148:
5137:"OSI IS-IS Intra-domain Routing Protocol"
5099:
5031:
4322:. IDG Network World Inc. 10 October 1988.
4005:
3806:
2184:Neither the OSI Reference Model, nor any
2179:
1960:
1563:
1014:Learn how and when to remove this message
4961:
4959:
4762:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
4750:
4619:
4588:
4418:
4409:
4392:"Why it's time to let the OSI model die"
4171:
4092:
2093:
721:
5307:
4985:
4673:
4671:
4549:(2 ed.). Cisco Press. p. 22.
4459:"5.2 RM description for end stations".
4259:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
4249:
4222:
3922:
3902:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 2–3.
14:
7873:Computer-related introductions in 1977
7860:
4570:Spott, Andrew; Leek, Tom; et al.
4542:
4119:
3867:
3656:contains a section entitled "Layering
2194:Network Driver Interface Specification
2157:(CMIP) and its corresponding service,
2155:Common Management Information Protocol
1144:
5532:
5494:"Internetworking Technology Handbook"
5462:International Telecommunication Union
5453:in order to accept licence agreement)
4956:
4880:
4854:
4679:"ITU-T Recommendation X.800 (03/91),
4569:
2204:Comparison to other networking suites
2159:Common Management Information Service
1169:
884:International Telecommunication Union
5273:
4668:
4536:
4332:
4223:Russell, Andrew L. (28 April 2014).
4152:historyofcomputercommunications.info
3978:
3891:
3889:
3794:from the original on 1 February 2021
2144:Security service (telecommunication)
1159:ISO/IEC 7498-3 Naming and addressing
1156:ISO/IEC 7498-2 Security Architecture
996:adding citations to reliable sources
967:
5345:IEEE Transactions on Communications
5212:Dickson, Gary; Lloyd, Alan (1992).
5181:
4625:
4576:Information Security Stack Exchange
4174:"Computer Pioneers by J. A. N. Lee"
3925:"The Evolution of Packet Switching"
3757:Recursive Internetwork Architecture
1162:ISO/IEC 7498-4 Management framework
918:International Network Working Group
804:Experimental Packet Switched System
24:
5175:
4017:Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013).
3989:10.1093/oso/9780198833079.003.0003
3732:Hierarchical internetworking model
1940:frames inside transport segments.
1652:, real-time multiplayer games and
842:universities in the United Kingdom
25:
7909:
5511:"7 Layers of OSI Model Explained"
5398:
4204:. Standards.iso.org. 30 July 2010
4044:Journal of Information Technology
3916:
3886:
3291:NDP (Neighbor Discovery Protocol)
2108:, involve all of the layers (See
7842:
7841:
5430:ISO Standards Maintenance Portal
4504:ISO Standards Maintenance Portal
4188:"ITU-T X-Series Recommendations"
1517:operate at the data link layer.
972:
838:Department of Trade and Industry
5054:
5010:
4784:
4593:. New York: CMP Books. p.
4591:Computer Telephony Encyclopedia
4518:
4488:
4452:
4427:
4383:
4357:
4333:Shaw, Keith (22 October 2018).
4326:
4310:
4294:
4277:
4243:
4216:
4194:
4180:
4165:
4140:
4113:
4086:
4031:
4019:"OSI: The Internet That Wasn't"
3981:Negotiating Internet Governance
3644:The design of protocols in the
3395:NDP (Nortel Discovery Protocol)
1546:and flow control by means of a
983:needs additional citations for
758:Internet Engineering Task Force
7893:ITU-T X Series Recommendations
5500:. 10 July 2015. Archived from
5312:. Cambridge University Press.
5026:. December 2002. sec. 3.
4419:Crawford, JB (27 March 2021).
4229:. Cambridge University Press.
4202:"Publicly Available Standards"
3972:
3945:
3871:Guide to Networking Essentials
3830:
3780:
2932:Port number can be specified.
1153:ISO/IEC 7498-1 The Basic Model
963:
840:acted as the secretariat, and
13:
1:
5303:– via Internet Archive.
5269:– via Internet Archive.
5238:– via Internet Archive.
5018:"Layering Considered Harmful"
4780:– via Internet Archive.
4740:– via Internet Archive.
3773:
2165:Multiprotocol Label Switching
1945:Transmission Control Protocol
1930:Generic Routing Encapsulation
1730:Concatenation and separation
1465:The data link layer provides
1126:. It is then passed to layer
1057:(PDUs) by means of a layer N
910:Honeywell Information Systems
870:, usually referred to as the
807:
785:Digital Equipment Corporation
5216:Open Systems Interconnection
4993:"3GPP specification: 36.300"
4892:Open Systems Interconnection
4840:Open Systems Interconnection
4472:10.1109/IEEESTD.2014.6847097
3634:Comparison with TCP/IP model
2020:Abstract Syntax Notation One
1750:Segmentation and reassembly
1690:Connection-oriented network
1389:network interface controller
799:standard in the late 1970s.
781:Systems Network Architecture
629:Open Systems Interconnection
7:
5308:Russell, Andrew L. (2014).
5220:. New York: Prentice Hall.
4027:. Vol. 50, no. 8.
3719:
3174: (type 1 / 2)
1996:Layer 6: Presentation layer
1873:Reliable transport service
1097:, where it is known as the
10:
7914:
5458:"ITU Recommendation X.200"
4126:. IOS Press. p. 251.
4093:Sunshine, Carl A. (1989).
3637:
2687:(session establishment in
2097:
2057:
2054:Layer 7: Application layer
1999:
1964:
1893:If an excessive number of
1853:Retransmission on timeout
1605:
1567:
1467:node-to-node data transfer
1458:
1380:
730:
7837:
7761:
7487:
6639:
5588:
5570:
5367:10.1109/TCOM.1980.1094702
4939:"ISO/IEC 9596-2:1993(en)"
4914:"ISO/IEC 9596-1:1998(en)"
4506:. ISO Central Secretariat
3818:. June 1999. Introduction
2264:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2231:
2226:
2220:
2217:
1892:
1618:maximum transmission unit
1297:
1209:
1196:
1182:
895:set of specific protocols
819:Why Distributed Computing
815:National Computing Centre
5061:Walter Goralski (2009).
4754:; Song, Guocong (2014).
4365:"An OSI Model for Cloud"
4176:. IEEE Computer Society.
3838:"What is the OSI Model?"
2198:Open Data-Link Interface
2100:Cross-layer optimization
1955:Transport Layer Security
1602:Layer 4: Transport layer
1455:Layer 2: Data link layer
4810:"ITU-T X.227 (04/1995)"
4543:Hooper, Howard (2012).
4439:Microsoft Documentation
3874:(7th ed.). Cengage
3737:History of the Internet
3709:Internet protocol suite
3377:Linux interface bonding
3108:can be used instead of
2265:Miscellaneous examples
1710:Connectionless network
1551:sliding-window protocol
1522:Point-to-Point Protocol
1377:Layer 1: Physical layer
1256:Managing communication
1027:Communication protocols
939:Internet protocol suite
937:, the OSI model or the
754:Internet Protocol Suite
717:peer-to-peer networking
681:Internet protocol suite
671:communication protocols
664:distributed application
4421:"The actual OSI model"
2180:Programming interfaces
1990:remote procedure calls
1988:environments that use
1961:Layer 5: Session layer
1949:User Datagram Protocol
1833:Explicit flow control
1790:Reinitiate connection
1564:Layer 3: Network layer
727:
709:information technology
7888:ITU-T recommendations
4814:ITU-T Recommendations
4798:. ITU. pp. 4, 7.
3868:Tomsho, Greg (2016).
2150:X.800 recommendation.
2098:Further information:
2094:Cross-layer functions
1484:Medium access control
1242:encryption/decryption
890:) as standard X.200.
832:(CCITT, from French:
725:
660:communications medium
5504:on 6 September 2015.
5101:Tanenbaum, Andrew S.
4630:. Elsevier. p.
4572:"What layer is TLS?"
4498:(15 November 1989).
4271:10.1109/MAHC.2006.42
3958:. NCC Publications.
3767:Session multiplexing
2016:Basic Encoding Rules
1906:tunnelling protocols
1897:are unacknowledged.
1490:Logical link control
992:improve this article
793:Public data networks
4868:. 10 September 1992
4461:IEEE Std 802-2014,
4120:Hasman, A. (1995).
3507:UMTS air interfaces
3243:Ethernet II framing
3168:ISO/IEC 8802-2
2979:ISO/IEC 8473-1
2674:ISO/IEC 9548-1
2535:ISO/IEC 9576-1
1642:connection-oriented
1613:or connectionless.
1401:transmission medium
1179:
1145:Standards documents
1093:is passed to layer
1055:protocol data units
876:OSI Reference Model
713:protocol data units
5564:by standard number
5482:infchg.appspot.com
4371:. 24 February 2017
4056:10.1057/jit.2013.4
3932:IEEE Invited Paper
3701:OSI protocol suite
3658:considered harmful
3239:IEEE 802.3 framing
2988:ISO/IEC 10589
2134:network management
2002:Presentation layer
1234:character encoding
1187:Protocol data unit
1177:
1170:Layer architecture
1079:protocol data unit
848:of the standards.
728:
652:abstraction layers
161:Presentation layer
7855:
7854:
5578:ISO romanizations
5498:docwiki.cisco.com
5412:. 2 February 2024
5319:978-1-139-91661-5
5292:978-0-13-643016-2
5275:Rose, Marshall T.
5258:978-0-201-56334-4
5227:978-0-13-640111-7
5196:978-0-13-225242-3
5114:978-0-13-066102-9
5105:Computer networks
4973:. 15 January 2014
4769:978-1-139-62677-4
4729:978-1-55860-571-8
4641:978-0-08-087932-1
4604:978-1-929629-51-0
4481:978-0-7381-9219-2
4345:on 4 October 2020
4236:978-1-139-91661-5
4133:978-90-5199-234-2
4106:978-1-4613-0809-6
3909:978-3-527-32710-2
3669:application layer
3631:
3630:
3453:
3146:ISO/IEC 7666
2971:ISO/IEC 8878
2957:ISO/IEC 8208
2837:ISO/IEC 8602
2819:ISO/IEC 8073
2667:ISO/IEC 8327
2528:ISO/IEC 8823
2262:-based protocols
2192:For example, the
2060:Application layer
1901:
1900:
1399:, and a physical
1371:
1370:
1100:service data unit
1063:service data unit
1024:
1023:
1016:
857:Hubert Zimmermann
625:
624:
53:Application layer
16:(Redirected from
7905:
7898:Reference models
7845:
7844:
5565:
5553:
5546:
5539:
5530:
5529:
5525:
5523:
5521:
5505:
5489:
5484:. Archived from
5473:
5471:
5469:
5440:
5438:
5436:
5421:
5419:
5417:
5394:
5360:
5331:
5304:
5284:
5270:
5250:
5239:
5219:
5208:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5164:
5152:
5150:10.17487/RFC1142
5141:IETF Datatracker
5133:
5127:
5126:
5097:
5086:
5085:
5069:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5049:
5047:
5035:
5033:10.17487/RFC3439
5014:
5008:
5007:
5005:
5003:
4989:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4963:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4910:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4899:
4884:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4806:
4800:
4799:
4788:
4782:
4781:
4761:
4748:
4742:
4741:
4717:
4709:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4675:
4666:
4657:
4623:
4617:
4616:
4586:
4580:
4579:
4567:
4561:
4560:
4540:
4534:
4533:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4416:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4402:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4341:. Archived from
4330:
4324:
4323:
4314:
4308:
4307:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4285:"Standards Wars"
4281:
4275:
4274:
4256:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4211:
4209:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4184:
4178:
4177:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4144:
4138:
4137:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4014:
4003:
4002:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3938:
3929:
3920:
3914:
3913:
3893:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3865:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3844:. 10 August 2018
3834:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3784:
3752:Management plane
3451:
3064:
2834:TP4 (X.224)
2700:
2603:Percent-encoding
2228:TCP/IP protocols
2215:
2214:
2034:-coded file, or
1667:
1666:
1596:management annex
1548:selective-repeat
1544:error correction
1429:network topology
1238:data compression
1180:
1176:
1019:
1012:
1008:
1005:
999:
976:
968:
853:Washington, D.C.
812:
809:
617:
610:
603:
44:
32:
31:
21:
7913:
7912:
7908:
7907:
7906:
7904:
7903:
7902:
7858:
7857:
7856:
7851:
7833:
7757:
7483:
6635:
5584:
5566:
5563:
5557:
5519:
5517:
5492:
5488:on 26 May 2012.
5476:
5467:
5465:
5456:
5434:
5432:
5424:
5415:
5413:
5410:Microsoft Learn
5404:
5401:
5358:10.1.1.136.9497
5333:Partial preview
5320:
5293:
5259:
5228:
5197:
5178:
5176:Further reading
5173:
5172:
5162:
5160:
5135:
5134:
5130:
5115:
5098:
5089:
5082:
5072:Morgan Kaufmann
5067:
5059:
5055:
5045:
5043:
5016:
5015:
5011:
5001:
4999:
4991:
4990:
4986:
4976:
4974:
4965:
4964:
4957:
4947:
4945:
4937:
4936:
4932:
4922:
4920:
4912:
4911:
4907:
4897:
4895:
4886:
4885:
4881:
4871:
4869:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4845:
4843:
4842:. 10 April 1995
4834:
4833:
4829:
4819:
4817:
4816:. 10 April 1995
4808:
4807:
4803:
4790:
4789:
4785:
4770:
4749:
4745:
4730:
4702:
4698:
4688:
4686:
4677:
4676:
4669:
4659:Partial preview
4642:
4624:
4620:
4605:
4587:
4583:
4568:
4564:
4557:
4541:
4537:
4524:
4523:
4519:
4509:
4507:
4493:
4489:
4482:
4458:
4457:
4453:
4443:
4441:
4433:
4432:
4428:
4417:
4410:
4400:
4398:
4388:
4384:
4374:
4372:
4363:
4362:
4358:
4348:
4346:
4331:
4327:
4316:
4315:
4311:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4287:
4283:
4282:
4278:
4254:
4248:
4244:
4237:
4221:
4217:
4207:
4205:
4200:
4199:
4195:
4186:
4185:
4181:
4170:
4166:
4156:
4154:
4146:
4145:
4141:
4134:
4118:
4114:
4107:
4091:
4087:
4036:
4032:
4015:
4006:
3999:
3977:
3973:
3966:
3950:
3946:
3936:
3934:
3927:
3921:
3917:
3910:
3894:
3887:
3877:
3875:
3866:
3857:
3847:
3845:
3836:
3835:
3831:
3821:
3819:
3812:
3811:
3807:
3797:
3795:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3722:
3676:transport layer
3642:
3636:
3627:
3603:IEEE 802.11 PHY
3503:
3490:
3469:
3448:
3404:
3276:
3255:
3241:
3235:
3214:
3198:
3177:
3159:
3132:
3101:
3086:
3075:
3054:
3048:
3032:
2996:
2970:
2943:
2931:
2898:
2887:
2874:
2843:
2805:
2774:
2746:
2734:
2723:
2686:
2680:
2673:
2653:
2622:
2575:
2562:
2541:
2534:
2514:
2488:
2430:
2419:
2408:
2382:
2351:
2325:
2234:
2206:
2182:
2118:confidentiality
2102:
2096:
2062:
2056:
2044:data structures
2004:
1998:
1969:
1963:
1812:virtual circuit
1770:Error recovery
1650:Streaming media
1610:
1608:Transport layer
1604:
1572:
1566:
1463:
1461:Data link layer
1457:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1326:traffic control
1299:
1288:acknowledgement
1198:
1172:
1147:
1020:
1009:
1003:
1000:
989:
977:
966:
958:cloud computing
947:internetworking
906:Charles Bachman
899:standardisation
825:in March 1977.
810:
733:
641:reference model
621:
592:
591:
497:
486:
485:
382:
380:Data link layer
371:
370:
304:
293:
292:
258:
256:Transport layer
247:
246:
209:
198:
197:
163:
152:
151:
55:
39:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7911:
7901:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7853:
7852:
7850:
7849:
7838:
7835:
7834:
7832:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7765:
7763:
7759:
7758:
7756:
7755:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7737:
7732:
7727:
7722:
7717:
7712:
7707:
7702:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7657:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7491:
7489:
7485:
7484:
7482:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7436:
7431:
7426:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7365:
7364:
7359:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7193:
7192:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7151:
7150:
7145:
7135:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7064:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7013:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6918:
6917:
6916:
6911:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6801:
6796:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6771:
6766:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6730:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6649:
6643:
6641:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6538:
6533:
6528:
6523:
6518:
6513:
6508:
6503:
6502:
6501:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6285:
6284:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6244:
6239:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6063:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5821:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5709:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5592:
5590:
5586:
5585:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5556:
5555:
5548:
5541:
5533:
5527:
5526:
5506:
5490:
5474:
5454:
5422:
5400:
5399:External links
5397:
5396:
5395:
5351:(4): 425–432.
5340:
5318:
5305:
5291:
5271:
5257:
5240:
5226:
5209:
5195:
5177:
5174:
5171:
5170:
5128:
5113:
5087:
5081:978-0123745415
5080:
5074:. p. 26.
5053:
5009:
4984:
4955:
4930:
4905:
4879:
4853:
4827:
4801:
4783:
4768:
4743:
4728:
4696:
4667:
4640:
4618:
4603:
4581:
4562:
4555:
4535:
4517:
4487:
4480:
4451:
4426:
4408:
4382:
4356:
4325:
4309:
4293:
4276:
4242:
4235:
4215:
4193:
4179:
4172:J. A. N. Lee.
4164:
4139:
4132:
4112:
4105:
4085:
4030:
4004:
3997:
3971:
3964:
3944:
3915:
3908:
3885:
3855:
3829:
3805:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3694:
3693:
3686:
3683:internet layer
3679:
3672:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3608:ITU-T G.hn PHY
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3564:
3558:IEEE 802.3 PHY
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3514:
3512:
3511:Out of scope.
3509:
3504:
3502:
3501:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3456:
3454:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3372:ITU-T G.hn DLL
3369:
3364:
3359:
3351:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3279:Out of scope.
3277:
3275:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3247:
3245:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3157:
3147:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3125:
3119:
3117:
3104:Out of scope.
3102:
3100:
3099:
3089:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3078:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3067:
3065:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3035:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2986:
2980:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2958:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2205:
2202:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2151:
2146:as defined by
2130:network design
2095:
2092:
2079:email programs
2071:Microsoft Word
2058:Main article:
2055:
2052:
2008:protocol stack
2000:Main article:
1997:
1994:
1965:Main article:
1962:
1959:
1947:(TCP) and the
1899:
1898:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1707:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1606:Main article:
1603:
1600:
1568:Main article:
1565:
1562:
1532:serial lines.
1494:
1493:
1487:
1473:between them.
1459:Main article:
1456:
1453:
1397:network switch
1383:Physical layer
1381:Main article:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1280:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1134:
1131:
1108:
1087:
1045:At each level
1022:
1021:
980:
978:
971:
965:
962:
732:
729:
683:as defined in
623:
622:
620:
619:
612:
605:
597:
594:
593:
590:
589:
584:
579:
577:ITU-T G.hn PHY
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
512:ITU-T V-Series
509:
504:
498:
495:Physical layer
492:
491:
488:
487:
484:
483:
478:
473:
464:
459:
457:ITU-T G.hn DLL
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
383:
377:
376:
373:
372:
369:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
323:
322:
321:
316:
305:
299:
298:
295:
294:
291:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
259:
253:
252:
249:
248:
245:
244:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
210:
204:
203:
200:
199:
196:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
164:
158:
157:
154:
153:
150:
149:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
56:
50:
49:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7910:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7878:ISO standards
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7865:
7863:
7848:
7840:
7839:
7836:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7810:
7807:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7770:
7767:
7766:
7764:
7760:
7754:
7751:
7749:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7738:
7736:
7733:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7658:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7591:
7588:
7586:
7583:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7573:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7493:
7492:
7490:
7486:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7430:
7427:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7354:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7191:
7188:
7187:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7140:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6922:
6919:
6915:
6912:
6910:
6907:
6906:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6854:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6775:
6772:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6732:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6704:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6653:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6644:
6642:
6638:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6537:
6534:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6500:
6497:
6495:
6492:
6490:
6487:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6416:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5795:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5692:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5643:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5593:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5582:IEC standards
5579:
5575:
5574:ISO standards
5569:
5561:
5554:
5549:
5547:
5542:
5540:
5535:
5534:
5531:
5516:
5512:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5464:. 2 June 1998
5463:
5459:
5455:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5402:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5341:
5338:
5334:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5315:
5311:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5288:
5283:
5282:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5254:
5249:
5248:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5223:
5218:
5217:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5179:
5159:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5132:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5096:
5094:
5092:
5083:
5077:
5073:
5066:
5065:
5057:
5042:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5013:
4998:
4994:
4988:
4972:
4968:
4962:
4960:
4944:
4940:
4934:
4919:
4915:
4909:
4894:. 15 May 2014
4893:
4889:
4883:
4867:
4863:
4857:
4841:
4837:
4836:"ITU-T X.217"
4831:
4815:
4811:
4805:
4797:
4795:
4787:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4765:
4760:
4759:
4753:
4752:Miao, Guowang
4747:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4725:
4721:
4716:
4715:
4708:
4700:
4684:
4682:
4674:
4672:
4664:
4660:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4622:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4585:
4577:
4573:
4566:
4558:
4556:9780132966382
4552:
4548:
4547:
4539:
4531:
4529:
4521:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4491:
4483:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4455:
4440:
4436:
4430:
4422:
4415:
4413:
4397:
4396:Network World
4393:
4386:
4370:
4366:
4360:
4344:
4340:
4339:Network World
4336:
4329:
4321:
4320:
4319:Network World
4313:
4305:
4304:
4303:Network World
4297:
4286:
4280:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4246:
4238:
4232:
4228:
4227:
4219:
4203:
4197:
4189:
4183:
4175:
4168:
4153:
4149:
4143:
4135:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4116:
4108:
4102:
4098:
4097:
4089:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4026:
4025:
4024:IEEE Spectrum
4020:
4013:
4011:
4009:
4000:
3998:9780191871405
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3975:
3967:
3965:9780850121704
3961:
3957:
3956:
3948:
3933:
3926:
3919:
3911:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3892:
3890:
3873:
3872:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3817:
3816:
3809:
3793:
3789:
3783:
3779:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3762:Service layer
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3717:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3687:
3684:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3667:The Internet
3666:
3665:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3641:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3331:Fibre Channel
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3237:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3050:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2876:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2682:
2676:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:Presentation
2521:
2518:
2517:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2485:
2484:DNS over HTTP
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2229:
2223:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2187:
2173:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2101:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2067:File Explorer
2061:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2036:serialization
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1967:Session layer
1958:
1956:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1670:Feature name
1669:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1657:
1655:
1654:voice over IP
1651:
1645:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1570:Network layer
1561:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1502:
1499:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1374:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1167:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1124:layer N−1 PDU
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1018:
1015:
1007:
1004:November 2019
997:
993:
987:
986:
981:This section
979:
975:
970:
969:
961:
959:
955:
954:OSI protocols
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
930:
926:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
864:
860:
858:
854:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
826:
824:
820:
817:publication,
816:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
761:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
742:Protocol Wars
739:
738:OSI protocols
724:
720:
718:
714:
710:
704:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
677:
674:
672:
667:
665:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
618:
613:
611:
606:
604:
599:
598:
596:
595:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
499:
496:
490:
489:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
384:
381:
375:
374:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
331:
327:
324:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
310:
307:
306:
303:
302:Network layer
297:
296:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
260:
257:
251:
250:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
211:
208:
207:Session layer
202:
201:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
165:
162:
156:
155:
148:
147:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
95:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
71:
68:
66:
63:
61:
58:
57:
54:
48:
47:
43:
37:
34:
33:
30:
19:
7883:ISO/IEC 7498
7700:27000 series
6281:
6276:
5518:. Retrieved
5514:
5502:the original
5497:
5486:the original
5481:
5466:. Retrieved
5461:
5451:HTTP cookies
5449:) (requires
5443:PDF document
5433:. Retrieved
5429:
5414:. Retrieved
5409:
5348:
5344:
5337:Google Books
5309:
5280:
5246:
5215:
5186:
5183:Day, John D.
5161:. Retrieved
5140:
5131:
5104:
5063:
5056:
5044:. Retrieved
5022:
5012:
5000:. Retrieved
4996:
4987:
4975:. Retrieved
4970:
4946:. Retrieved
4942:
4933:
4921:. Retrieved
4917:
4908:
4896:. Retrieved
4891:
4882:
4870:. Retrieved
4865:
4856:
4844:. Retrieved
4839:
4830:
4818:. Retrieved
4813:
4804:
4793:
4786:
4757:
4746:
4713:
4699:
4687:. Retrieved
4680:
4663:Google Books
4627:
4621:
4590:
4584:
4575:
4565:
4545:
4538:
4527:
4520:
4508:. Retrieved
4503:
4490:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4442:. Retrieved
4438:
4429:
4399:. Retrieved
4395:
4385:
4373:. Retrieved
4368:
4359:
4347:. Retrieved
4343:the original
4338:
4328:
4318:
4312:
4302:
4296:
4279:
4265:(3): 48–61.
4262:
4258:
4245:
4225:
4218:
4208:11 September
4206:. Retrieved
4196:
4182:
4167:
4155:. Retrieved
4151:
4142:
4122:
4115:
4095:
4088:
4050:(1): 18–33.
4047:
4043:
4033:
4022:
3980:
3974:
3954:
3947:
3935:. Retrieved
3931:
3918:
3898:
3876:. Retrieved
3870:
3846:. Retrieved
3841:
3832:
3820:. Retrieved
3814:
3808:
3796:. Retrieved
3782:
3706:
3698:
3695:
3662:
3646:TCP/IP model
3643:
3306:Bit stuffing
3110:domain names
3106:IP addresses
3095: /
3059: /
2758:, including
2695: /
2691: /
2281:Application
2209:
2207:
2191:
2186:OSI protocol
2183:
2138:
2126:availability
2103:
2083:
2075:web browsers
2063:
2046:from and to
2012:
2005:
1970:
1953:
1942:
1902:
1658:
1646:
1638:
1626:segmentation
1615:
1611:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1579:
1573:
1555:
1534:
1530:asynchronous
1519:
1495:
1475:
1471:flow control
1464:
1449:
1393:Ethernet hub
1386:
1372:
1292:multiplexing
1284:segmentation
1228:Presentation
1173:
1165:
1148:
1137:
1127:
1123:
1120:concatenated
1115:
1111:
1104:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1077:
1073:
1067:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1025:
1010:
1001:
990:Please help
985:verification
982:
951:
931:
927:
903:
892:
879:
878:, or simply
875:
871:
867:
865:
861:
850:
833:
827:
818:
801:
762:
734:
705:
678:
675:
668:
649:
636:
632:
628:
626:
144:
35:
29:
7488:20000–29999
6640:10000–19999
5447:ZIP archive
4369:Cisco Blogs
3937:26 February
3674:The TCP/IP
3523:RJ45 (8P8C)
3433:EIA/TIA-449
3428:EIA/TIA-232
3362:IEEE 802.1Q
3354:IEEE 802.11
3336:Frame Relay
2985: X.233
2781:Named pipes
2765:CSRF tokens
2474:ActivityPub
2439:Web Browser
2210:approximate
2196:(NDIS) and
2136:protocols.
1981:half-duplex
1977:full-duplex
1526:synchronous
1425:full duplex
1421:half duplex
1206:Application
1053:) exchange
1034:by a layer
964:Definitions
811: 1973
771:in the US,
767:in the UK,
765:NPL network
567:IEEE 802.16
562:IEEE 802.15
557:IEEE 802.11
481:IEEE 802.11
452:Frame Relay
7862:Categories
7267:16949 (TS)
6864:11941 (TR)
5562:standards
5383:5858668034
5301:1415988401
5236:1245634475
4738:1341886747
3842:Forcepoint
3774:References
3690:link layer
3638:See also:
3572:1000BASE-T
3567:100BASE-TX
3390:Token Ring
3346:IEEE 802.3
3140:Data link
2813:Transport
2224:protocols
2042:and other
1447:standard.
1318:addressing
1178:OSI model
916:, and the
846:prototypes
844:developed
806:in the UK
552:IEEE 802.3
476:Q.922 LAPF
447:IEEE 802.3
427:IEEE 802.2
214:Named pipe
7868:OSI model
7222:15926 WIP
6586:9592/9593
6511:9000/9001
6399:8805/8806
5375:0090-6778
5353:CiteSeerX
5328:881237495
5267:624431223
5205:213482801
5002:14 August
4977:14 August
4778:898138775
4689:14 August
4654:528550718
4650:635292718
4510:17 August
4064:0268-3962
3822:26 August
3588:Bluetooth
3412:Physical
3221:LocalTalk
3161:Token Bus
3061:EtherTalk
3057:TokenTalk
2922:WebSocket
2770:WebSocket
2505:WebSocket
2240:AppleTalk
2233:Signaling
2122:integrity
2114:CIA triad
2028:text file
1433:Bluetooth
1413:impedance
1336:Data link
1269:Transport
1192:Function
1110:At layer
1076:) into a
880:OSI model
658:across a
643:from the
587:Bluetooth
572:IEEE 1394
532:SONET/SDH
493:1.
378:2.
356:AppleTalk
300:3.
254:4.
205:5.
159:6.
51:7.
36:OSI model
18:OSI Model
7847:Category
5572:List of
5391:16013989
5277:(1990).
5185:(2008).
5123:50166590
5103:(2003).
5046:25 April
4997:3gpp.org
4613:48138823
4466:. ieee.
3798:10 March
3792:Archived
3720:See also
3562:10BASE-T
3486:PhoneNet
2951:Network
2661:Session
2459:REST API
2235:System 7
2169:datagram
2106:security
1973:teardown
1936:carries
1928:. While
1662:protocol
1622:Ethernet
1512:802.15.4
1501:Ethernet
1477:IEEE 802
1437:Ethernet
1409:voltages
1354:Physical
1278:Datagram
1258:sessions
1059:protocol
1038:, where
773:CYCLADES
760:(IETF).
750:Internet
701:Internet
146:more....
7748:29199-2
7620:23094-2
7615:23094-1
7605:23090-3
7474:19794-5
7469:19775-1
7257:16612-2
7247:16355-1
6936:13406-2
6894:12234-2
6662:10118-3
5520:12 July
5468:12 July
5445:inside
5435:12 July
5416:12 July
5163:12 July
4948:12 July
4923:12 July
4898:12 July
4888:"X.711"
4872:12 July
4846:12 July
4820:12 July
4444:24 June
4290:. 2006.
4157:12 July
3878:3 April
3742:Layer 8
3438:EIA-530
3423:X.21bis
3152: (
3082:IBM NCP
2963: (
2786:NetBIOS
2760:cookies
2756:headers
2684:Sockets
2553:SSL/TLS
2469:GraphQL
2040:objects
2026:-coded
1985:simplex
1585:routing
1580:address
1576:packets
1417:simplex
1411:, line
1322:routing
1307:Network
1300:layers
1274:Segment
1252:Session
1199:layers
769:ARPANET
731:History
219:NetBIOS
140:NETCONF
7762:30000+
6601:9797-1
6409:8820-5
6354:8501-1
5910:1073-2
5905:1073-1
5589:1–9999
5515:ByteXD
5389:
5381:
5373:
5355:
5326:
5316:
5299:
5289:
5265:
5255:
5234:
5224:
5203:
5193:
5121:
5111:
5078:
4776:
4766:
4736:
4726:
4648:
4638:
4611:
4601:
4553:
4532:. ITU.
4478:
4401:16 May
4375:16 May
4349:16 May
4233:
4130:
4103:
4080:867087
4078:
4070:
4062:
3995:
3962:
3906:
3848:20 May
3652:
3613:DOCSIS
3518:RS-232
3499:Twinax
3481:RS-422
3476:RS-232
3316:DOCSIS
2917:HTTP/3
2913:HTTP/2
2730:NWLink
2639:EBCDIC
2618:brotli
2608:base64
2500:Modbus
2454:OpenID
2444:WebDAV
2218:Layer
2124:, and
2030:to an
2024:EBCDIC
1918:Novell
1558:MACsec
1515:Zigbee
1510:, and
1505:802.11
1439:, and
1423:, and
1363:Symbol
1312:Packet
1189:(PDU)
1183:Layer
943:TCP/IP
823:Sydney
789:DECnet
695:
687:
507:RS-449
502:RS-232
469:
330:ICMPv6
130:Telnet
94:HTTP/3
85:Gopher
7829:80000
7824:56000
7819:55000
7814:50001
7809:45001
7804:42010
7799:40500
7794:39075
7789:38500
7784:37001
7779:32000
7774:31000
7769:30170
7753:29500
7743:29148
7739:29110
7735:28000
7730:27729
7725:27006
7720:27005
7715:27002
7710:27001
7705:27000
7695:26324
7690:26300
7685:26262
7680:26000
7675:25964
7670:25178
7665:24728
7660:24707
7655:24617
7650:24613
7645:24517
7640:23941
7635:23360
7630:23271
7625:23270
7610:23092
7600:23009
7595:23008
7590:23003
7585:23000
7580:22537
7575:22395
7570:22301
7565:22300
7560:22275
7555:22000
7550:21827
7545:21500
7540:21122
7535:21047
7530:21001
7525:21000
7520:20830
7515:20802
7510:20400
7505:20121
7500:20022
7495:20000
7479:19831
7464:19770
7459:19757
7454:19752
7449:19600
7444:19510
7439:19509
7434:19508
7429:19507
7424:19506
7419:19505
7414:19503
7409:19502
7404:19501
7399:19500
7394:19439
7389:19407
7384:19136
7379:19125
7374:19115
7369:19114
7352:19092
7347:19011
7342:19005
7337:18916
7332:18629
7327:18245
7322:18181
7317:18014
7312:18004
7307:17799
7302:17506
7297:17442
7292:17369
7287:17203
7282:17100
7277:17025
7272:17024
7262:16750
7252:16485
7242:16262
7237:16023
7232:15938
7227:15930
7217:15926
7212:15924
7207:15919
7202:15897
7197:15707
7185:15706
7180:15693
7175:15686
7170:15511
7165:15504
7160:15438
7155:15445
7138:15444
7133:15408
7128:15398
7123:15291
7118:15288
7113:15189
7108:15022
7103:14971
7098:14882
7093:14764
7088:14698
7083:14651
7078:14649
7073:14644
7068:14617
7016:14496
7011:14443
7006:14396
7001:14289
6996:14224
6991:14031
6986:14000
6981:13818
6976:13816
6971:13616
6966:13584
6961:13568
6956:13567
6951:13490
6946:13485
6941:13450
6931:13399
6926:13250
6921:13216
6904:13211
6899:12620
6889:12207
6884:12182
6879:12052
6874:12006
6869:11992
6859:11941
6849:11940
6844:11898
6839:11889
6834:11801
6829:11785
6824:11784
6819:11783
6814:11544
6809:11404
6804:11179
6799:11172
6794:11170
6789:11073
6784:10967
6779:10962
6774:10957
6769:10861
6764:10746
6759:10664
6754:10646
6749:10628
6744:10589
6739:10585
6734:10383
6702:10303
6697:10279
6692:10218
6687:10206
6682:10179
6677:10165
6672:10161
6667:10160
6657:10116
6652:10007
6647:10006
5387:S2CID
5068:(PDF)
4971:Cisco
4685:. ITU
4288:(PDF)
4255:(PDF)
4072:41013
4068:S2CID
3928:(PDF)
3714:IS-IS
3583:SONET
3543:I.431
3538:I.430
3465:Q.710
3443:G.703
3400:IS-IS
3386:Q.921
3210:Q.710
3165:X.222
3128:Q.931
3008:IPsec
2992:IS-IS
2975:X.223
2840:X.234
2801:SOCKS
2754:HTTP
2677:X.235
2670:X.225
2634:ASCII
2538:X.236
2531:X.226
2464:OAuth
2337:HTTPS
2298:X.500
2293:X.400
2273:Name
2148:ITU-T
2110:ITU-T
2032:ASCII
1983:, or
1926:IPsec
1537:ITU-T
1508:Wi-Fi
1498:802.3
1395:, or
1341:Frame
1298:Media
1051:peers
888:ITU-T
639:is a
637:model
522:I.431
517:I.430
407:CSLIP
351:IS-IS
336:IPsec
243:X.225
239:SOCKS
183:ASCII
178:ASN.1
42:layer
6727:-238
6631:9995
6626:9985
6621:9984
6616:9945
6611:9899
6606:9897
6596:9660
6591:9594
6581:9564
6576:9529
6571:9506
6566:9496
6561:9407
6556:9362
6551:9314
6546:9293
6541:9241
6536:9227
6531:9141
6526:9126
6521:9075
6516:9036
6506:8879
6459:-8-I
6414:8859
6404:8807
6394:8691
6389:8652
6384:8651
6379:8632
6374:8613
6369:8601
6364:8583
6359:8571
6349:8373
6344:8217
6339:8178
6334:8093
6329:8000
6324:7942
6319:7816
6314:7813
6309:7812
6304:7811
6299:7810
6294:7736
6289:7637
6277:7498
6272:7200
6267:7185
6262:7098
6257:7064
6252:7027
6247:7010
6242:7002
6237:7001
6232:6943
6227:6709
6222:6523
6217:6438
6212:6429
6207:6425
6202:6385
6197:6373
6192:6346
6187:6344
6182:6166
6177:5964
6172:5807
6167:5800
6162:5776
6157:5775
6152:5725
6147:5428
6142:5427
6137:5426
6132:5218
6127:4909
6122:4217
6117:4165
6112:4157
6107:4031
6102:3977
6097:3950
6092:3901
6087:3864
6082:3602
6077:3601
6072:3307
6067:3297
6045:3166
6040:3103
6035:3029
6030:2921
6025:2852
6020:2848
6015:2788
6010:2720
6005:2711
6000:2709
5995:2533
5990:2281
5985:2240
5980:2146
5975:2145
5970:2108
5965:2047
5960:2033
5955:2022
5950:2015
5945:2014
5940:1989
5935:1745
5930:1629
5925:1538
5920:1413
5915:1155
5900:1007
5895:1004
5890:1000
5713:68-1
5522:2024
5470:2024
5437:2024
5418:2024
5379:OCLC
5371:ISSN
5324:OCLC
5314:ISBN
5297:OCLC
5287:ISBN
5263:OCLC
5253:ISBN
5232:OCLC
5222:ISBN
5201:OCLC
5191:ISBN
5165:2024
5158:1142
5119:OCLC
5109:ISBN
5076:ISBN
5048:2022
5041:3439
5004:2015
4979:2015
4950:2024
4925:2024
4900:2024
4874:2024
4848:2024
4822:2024
4774:OCLC
4764:ISBN
4734:OCLC
4724:ISBN
4691:2015
4646:OCLC
4636:ISBN
4609:OCLC
4599:ISBN
4551:ISBN
4512:2015
4476:ISBN
4446:2020
4403:2020
4377:2020
4351:2020
4231:ISBN
4210:2010
4159:2024
4128:ISBN
4101:ISBN
4076:SSRN
4060:ISSN
3993:ISBN
3960:ISBN
3939:2022
3904:ISBN
3880:2022
3850:2022
3824:2022
3800:2023
3699:The
3688:The
3681:The
3654:3439
3618:DWDM
3578:POTS
3533:V.34
3528:V.35
3419:X.25
3341:HDLC
3321:FDDI
3262:PDCP
3251:SDLC
3194:SLIP
3189:SBTV
3154:LAPB
3150:X.25
3114:URLs
3039:SCCP
3023:OSPF
3018:IGMP
3013:ICMP
2983:CLNP
2961:X.25
2927:DTLS
2909:HTTP
2870:DCCP
2865:QUIC
2860:SCTP
2714:ADSP
2697:PPTP
2649:MPEG
2644:MIDI
2613:gzip
2598:MIME
2593:JSON
2548:MIME
2510:CoAP
2449:SOAP
2426:APPC
2399:RTMP
2373:ISUP
2368:TCAP
2358:INAP
2347:SMTP
2332:HTTP
2321:CMIP
2316:ACSE
2312:RTSE
2308:ROSE
2288:FTAM
2260:HTTP
2255:UMTS
2132:and
2087:HTTP
2077:and
2069:and
1934:L2TP
1895:PDUs
1888:Yes
1868:Yes
1848:Yes
1828:Yes
1785:Yes
1765:Yes
1745:Yes
1725:Yes
1705:Yes
1685:TP4
1540:G.hn
1535:The
1528:and
1520:The
1405:pins
1324:and
1290:and
1240:and
1217:HTTP
1211:Data
1197:Host
1114:the
1089:The
922:IFIP
802:The
797:X.25
783:and
740:and
697:1123
691:and
689:1122
679:The
656:bits
627:The
471:LAPB
467:X.25
442:L2TP
422:PLIP
412:SLIP
402:HDLC
397:SDLC
361:X.25
341:IGMP
326:ICMP
319:IPv6
314:IPv4
283:QUIC
278:DCCP
273:SCTP
229:PPTP
168:MIME
135:DHCP
125:SNMP
120:SMTP
110:SMPP
90:HTTP
60:NNTP
7061:-20
7056:-17
7051:-14
7046:-12
7041:-11
7036:-10
6722:-28
6717:-22
6712:-21
6707:-11
6499:-16
6494:-15
6489:-14
6484:-13
6479:-12
6474:-11
6469:-10
5885:999
5880:965
5875:898
5870:860
5865:843
5860:838
5855:764
5850:732
5845:704
5840:690
5835:668
5830:657
5825:646
5793:639
5788:519
5783:518
5778:500
5773:361
5768:306
5763:302
5758:262
5753:261
5748:259
5743:233
5738:228
5733:226
5728:217
5723:216
5718:128
5706:-13
5701:-12
5696:-11
5691:-10
5560:ISO
5363:doi
5335:at
5155:RFC
5145:doi
5038:RFC
5028:doi
4943:ISO
4918:ISO
4866:ITU
4661:at
4632:201
4595:331
4468:doi
4267:doi
4052:doi
3985:doi
3650:RFC
3623:OTN
3598:DSL
3593:SDH
3460:MTP
3382:PPP
3367:ISL
3357:MAC
3349:MAC
3326:FDP
3311:CDP
3301:ATM
3296:ARQ
3286:ARP
3272:MAC
3267:LLC
3231:PPP
3226:ARA
3205:MTP
3184:PPP
3172:LLC
3123:NBF
3112:in
3097:BMC
3093:RRC
3071:IPX
3052:ATP
3044:MTP
3028:RIP
2965:PLP
2939:NBF
2894:SPX
2883:DDP
2855:UDP
2850:TCP
2831:TP3
2828:TP2
2825:TP1
2822:TP0
2796:RPC
2791:SAP
2741:DLC
2719:PAP
2709:ASP
2693:RTP
2689:TCP
2629:TDI
2588:XML
2571:AFP
2558:XDR
2495:HL7
2479:Git
2415:SAP
2404:NBP
2394:ZIP
2389:AFP
2378:TUP
2363:MAP
2342:FTP
2303:DAP
2270:No.
2250:SNA
2245:IPX
2222:OSI
2048:XML
2038:of
2018:of
1938:PPP
1922:IPX
1920:'s
1916:or
1914:SNA
1912:'s
1910:IBM
1885:Yes
1879:Yes
1845:Yes
1842:Yes
1825:Yes
1822:Yes
1805:No
1802:Yes
1796:Yes
1782:Yes
1779:Yes
1776:Yes
1762:Yes
1759:Yes
1756:Yes
1753:Yes
1742:Yes
1739:Yes
1736:Yes
1702:Yes
1699:Yes
1696:Yes
1693:Yes
1682:TP3
1679:TP2
1676:TP1
1673:TP0
1634:UDP
1630:TCP
1445:CAN
1441:USB
1359:Bit
1138:SDU
1128:N−2
1118:is
1116:SDU
1112:N−1
1105:SDU
1095:N−1
1091:PDU
1084:PDU
1036:N−1
994:by
914:EIN
908:at
886:or
787:'s
779:'s
777:IBM
693:RFC
685:RFC
633:OSI
582:USB
547:DSL
542:OTN
537:PON
527:PDH
462:PPP
437:MAC
432:LLC
417:GFP
392:ARP
387:ATM
366:PLP
346:IPX
288:SPX
268:UDP
263:TCP
234:RTP
224:SAP
193:PGP
188:TLS
173:XDR
115:SSH
105:NTP
100:NFS
80:FTP
75:DNS
70:SSI
65:SIP
40:by
7864::
7362:-2
7357:-1
7190:-2
7148:-9
7143:-3
7031:-6
7026:-3
7021:-2
6914:-2
6909:-1
6853:-2
6464:-9
6454:-8
6449:-7
6444:-6
6439:-5
6434:-4
6429:-3
6424:-2
6419:-1
6282:-1
6060:-3
6055:-2
6050:-1
5818:-6
5813:-5
5808:-3
5803:-2
5798:-1
5686:-9
5681:-8
5676:-7
5671:-6
5666:-5
5661:-4
5656:-3
5651:-1
5646:-0
5641:31
5636:17
5631:16
5580:–
5576:–
5513:.
5496:.
5480:.
5460:.
5428:.
5408:.
5385:.
5377:.
5369:.
5361:.
5349:28
5347:.
5322:.
5295:.
5261:.
5230:.
5199:.
5153:.
5143:.
5139:.
5117:.
5090:^
5070:.
5036:.
5020:.
4995:.
4969:.
4958:^
4941:.
4916:.
4890:.
4864:.
4838:.
4812:.
4772:.
4732:.
4722:.
4720:54
4710:.
4670:^
4652:,
4644:.
4634:.
4607:.
4597:.
4574:.
4502:.
4474:.
4437:.
4411:^
4394:.
4367:.
4337:.
4263:28
4261:.
4257:.
4150:.
4074:.
4066:.
4058:.
4048:28
4046:.
4042:.
4021:.
4007:^
3991:.
3930:.
3888:^
3858:^
3840:.
3790:.
3553:E1
3548:T1
3409:1
3137:2
3116:.
3003:IP
2948:3
2810:4
2658:5
2519:6
2278:7
2120:,
2050:.
1992:.
1979:,
1882:No
1876:No
1865:No
1862:No
1859:No
1856:No
1839:No
1836:No
1819:No
1816:No
1799:No
1793:No
1773:No
1733:No
1722:No
1719:No
1716:No
1713:No
1560:.
1553:.
1503:,
1435:,
1419:,
1407:,
1391:,
1361:,
1350:1
1332:2
1320:,
1303:3
1286:,
1276:,
1265:4
1248:5
1236:,
1224:6
1219:.
1202:7
1107:).
1086:).
949:.
874:,
808:c.
791:.
673:.
635:)
309:IP
6855:)
6851:(
5626:9
5621:7
5616:6
5611:4
5606:3
5601:2
5596:1
5552:e
5545:t
5538:v
5524:.
5472:.
5441:(
5439:.
5420:.
5393:.
5365::
5339:.
5330:.
5207:.
5167:.
5147::
5125:.
5084:.
5050:.
5030::
5006:.
4981:.
4952:.
4927:.
4902:.
4876:.
4850:.
4824:.
4796:"
4693:.
4683:"
4665:.
4656:.
4615:.
4578:.
4559:.
4530:"
4514:.
4484:.
4470::
4448:.
4423:.
4405:.
4379:.
4353:.
4273:.
4269::
4239:.
4212:.
4190:.
4161:.
4136:.
4109:.
4082:.
4054::
4001:.
3987::
3968:.
3941:.
3912:.
3882:.
3852:.
3826:.
3802:.
3574:)
3560:(
3445:)
3421:(
3156:)
3063:)
3055:(
2967:)
2915:/
2911:/
2743:?
2699:)
2116:—
1130:.
1103:(
1082:(
1074:N
1047:N
1040:N
1032:N
1017:)
1011:(
1006:)
1002:(
988:.
920:(
631:(
616:e
609:t
602:v
332:)
328:(
96:)
92:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.