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replaced with the appropriate sequence of DNA nucleotides. Because the two complementary strands of the DNA molecule are oriented in opposite directions and the DNA polymerase can only accommodate replication in one direction, two different mechanisms for copying the strands of DNA are employed. One strand is replicated continuously towards unwinding, separating the portion of the original DNA molecule; while the other strand is replicated discontinuously in the opposite direction with the formation of a series of short DNA segments called
1862:
320:
nucleotides, complementary to a small, initial section of the DNA strand being prepared for replication. DNA polymerase is then able to add DNA nucleotides to the RNA primer and thus begin the process of constructing a new complementary strand of DNA. Later the RNA primer is enzymatically removed and
244:
Meiosis creates new combinations of genetic material in each of the four daughter cells. These new combinations result from the exchange of DNA between paired chromosomes. Such an exchange means that the gametes produced through meiosis often exhibit considerable genetic variation.
209:. Everyone has a unique genetic blueprint, even identical twins. Forensic departments such as the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension (BCA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are able to use techniques involving nuclear DNA to compare samples in a case. Techniques used include
248:
Meiosis involves two rounds of nuclear division, not just one. Prior to undergoing meiosis, a cell goes through an interphase period in which it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and checks all of its systems to ensure that it is ready to divide.
762:
Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, Eperon IC, Nierlich DP, Roe BA, Sanger F, Schreier PH, Smith AJ, Staden R, Young IG (Apr 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
307:
engages the separated portion of the molecule and initiates the process of replication. DNA polymerase can only connect new DNA nucleotides to a pre-existing chain of nucleotides. Therefore, replication begins as an enzyme called
325:. Each Okazaki fragment requires a separate RNA primer. As the Okazaki fragments are synthesized, the RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides and the fragments are bonded together in a continuous complementary strand.
364:. Such repair processes are essential for maintaining nuclear DNA stability. Failure of repair activity to keep up with the occurrence of damages has various negative consequences. Nuclear DNA damages, as well as the
187:
and contains for example 3 billion nucleotides in humans while the structure of
Mitochondrial DNA chromosome is usually closed, circular, and contains for example 16,569 nucleotides in humans. Nuclear DNA in animals is
276:
Prior to cell division, the DNA material in the original cell must be duplicated so that after cell division, each new cell contains the full amount of DNA material. The process of DNA duplication is usually called
268:. A key difference, however, is that during meiosis, each of these phases occurs twice — once during the first round of division, called meiosis I, and again during the second round of division, called meiosis II.
204:
Nuclear DNA is known as the molecule of life and contains the genetic instructions for the development of all eukaryotic organisms. It is found in almost every cell in the human body, with exceptions such as
289:
strand of DNA serves as a template to guide the synthesis of the new complementary polynucleotide of DNA. The DNA single-strand template serves to guide the synthesis of a complementary strand of DNA.
303:
unwinds and separates a portion of the DNA molecule after which single-strand binding proteins react with and stabilize the separated, single-stranded sections of the DNA molecule. The enzyme complex
233:. Meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells, each of which has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because meiosis creates cells that are destined to become
416:
are most often neutral or adaptively disadvantageous. However, the small proportion of mutations that prove to be advantageous provide the genetic variation upon which
999:"Accumulation of nuclear DNA damage or neuron loss: molecular basis for a new approach to understanding selective neuronal vulnerability in neurodegenerative diseases"
213:(PCR), which allows one to utilize very small amounts of DNA by making copies of targeted regions on the molecule, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
880:
123:. Each nucleotide is composed of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and an organic base. Nucleotides are distinguished by their bases:
196:, coming only from the mother. The mutation rate for nuclear DNA is less than 0.3% while that of mitochondrial DNA is generally higher.
905:
733:
919:
814:
1457:
944:
1211:
151:
state that adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always with cytosine. The phosphate groups are held together by a
840:
412:
pathway for repair of double-strand breaks is particularly prone to mutation. Mutations arising in the nuclear DNA of the
862:
409:
361:
237:(or reproductive cells), this reduction in chromosome number is critical — without it, the union of two gametes during
1543:
1830:
333:
1835:
17:
285:
since each new cell contains one strand of original DNA and one newly synthesized strand of DNA. The original
1732:
1618:
741:
1393:
1845:
1840:
1825:
1450:
430:
171:
differ in many ways, starting with location and structure. Nuclear DNA is located within the nucleus of
357:
349:
1204:
626:
617:
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437:
210:
104:
644:
635:
1424:
353:
28:
884:
1146:"MMEJ repair of double-strand breaks (director's cut): deleted sequences and alternative endings"
962:
Freitas AA, de Magalhães JP (2011). "A review and appraisal of the DNA damage theory of ageing".
336:
is a persistent problem arising from a variety of disruptive endogenous and exogenous sources.
1865:
1558:
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1891:
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1586:
405:
293:
73:
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1097:"Eukaryotic translesion polymerases and their roles and regulation in DNA damage tolerance"
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8:
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715:
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Waters LS, Minesinger BK, Wiltrout ME, D'Souza S, Woodruff RV, Walker GC (March 2009).
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683:
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1387:
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906:"Replication and Distribution of DNA during Meiosis | Learn Science at Scitable"
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65:
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cells and usually has two copies per cell while mitochondrial DNA is located in the
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112:
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76:, with information coming from two parents, one male and one female—rather than
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at the origin of replication. The RNA primer consists of a short sequence of
238:
230:
192:, ordinarily inheriting the DNA from two parents, while mitochondrial DNA is
156:
108:
77:
1886:
1810:
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1407:
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663:
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processes that remove nuclear DNA damages. These repair processes include
176:
107:, with two strands wound around each other, a structure first described by
89:
69:
53:
1112:
792:
429:
The human nuclear DNA displayed into chromosome ideograms with label from
1722:
1568:
1435:
369:
292:
DNA replication begins at a specific site in the DNA molecule called the
184:
120:
96:
1523:
698:"* Nuclear genome (Biology) - Definition, meaning - Online Encyclopedia"
1782:
1491:
1486:
1481:
341:
313:
241:
would result in offspring with twice the normal number of chromosomes.
180:
136:
100:
1646:
784:
658:
404:
that synthesize past DNA damages in the template strand (error-prone
337:
265:
257:
179:
and contains 100–1,000 copies per cell. The structure of nuclear DNA
172:
57:
27:"NDNA" redirects here. For the 2020 Northern Ireland agreement, see
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1820:
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that such damages cause, are considered to be a major cause of
297:
124:
103:, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Its structure is a
61:
996:
1623:
997:
Brasnjevic I, Hof PR, Steinbusch HW, Schmitz C (July 2008).
1685:
1506:
317:
49:
408:). Mutations also arise by inaccurate DNA repair. The
252:
Like mitosis, meiosis also has distinct stages called
961:
162:
119:. Each strand is a long polymer chain of repeating
1045:
1878:
1048:"DNA damage and its links to neurodegeneration"
376:. Nuclear DNA damages are also implicated in
80:(through the mother) as in mitochondrial DNA.
1451:
1205:
1137:
1088:
1039:
990:
955:
755:
396:. A major cause of mutation is inaccurate
1465:
1458:
1444:
1212:
1198:
1046:Madabhushi R, Pan L, Tsai LH (July 2014).
841:"Identical Twins' Genes Are Not Identical"
34:DNA inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
1169:
1120:
1071:
1022:
183:is linear with open ends and includes 46
1143:
328:
14:
1879:
420:operates to generate new adaptations.
1439:
1193:
838:
60:. It encodes for the majority of the
155:and the bases are held together by
72:coding for the rest. It adheres to
24:
410:microhomology-mediated end joining
362:microhomology-mediated end joining
25:
1903:
1582:Micro
1144:McVey M, Lee SE (November 2008).
1861:
1860:
1219:
863:"Forensic Science - Nuclear DNA"
686:– via The Free Dictionary.
643:
634:
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431:Human Genome Project (1990-2003)
216:
163:Differences to mitochondrial DNA
1537:precursor, heterogenous nuclear
937:
912:
898:
115:(1953) using data collected by
1667:Trans-acting small interfering
1631:Enhancer RNAs
1549:Transfer
873:
855:
832:
807:
726:
708:
690:
676:
340:have evolved a diverse set of
271:
13:
1:
1554:Ribosomal
1532:Messenger
669:
46:nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid
1064:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.06.034
1015:10.1016/j.dnarep.2008.03.010
281:. The replication is termed
199:
83:
7:
976:10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.05.001
734:"DNA: The Genetic Material"
652:
387:
139:, small bases that include
127:, large bases that include
10:
1908:
1733:Multicopy single-stranded
1577:Interferential
423:
392:Nuclear DNA is subject to
382:neurodegenerative diseases
358:non-homologous end joining
354:homologous recombinational
350:nucleotide excision repair
26:
1856:
1791:
1741:
1684:
1647:Guide
1639:
1567:
1522:
1505:
1474:
1400:
1386:
1359:
1236:
1227:
1162:10.1016/j.tig.2008.08.007
1101:Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev
211:polymerase chain reaction
1609:Small nuclear
949:highered.mcgraw-hill.com
881:"FBI — Nuclear-DNA Unit"
738:highered.mcgraw-hill.com
229:is a form of eukaryotic
29:New Decade, New Approach
1723:Genomic
1394:Human mitochondrial DNA
400:, often by specialized
1826:Artificial chromosomes
1614:Small nucleolar
406:trans-lesion synthesis
370:epigenetic alterations
52:contained within each
1619:Small Cajal Body RNAs
1113:10.1128/MMBR.00034-08
843:. Scientific American
720:thefreedictionary.com
334:Damage of nuclear DNA
329:DNA damage and repair
294:origin of replication
74:Mendelian inheritance
1672:Subgenomic messenger
1587:Small interfering
1559:Transfer-messenger
1413:Human Genome Project
1388:Mitochondrial genome
346:base excision repair
64:in eukaryotes, with
1420:List of human genes
815:"Mitochondrial DNA"
777:1981Natur.290..457A
153:phosphodiester bond
58:eukaryotic organism
1701:Chloroplast
1544:modified Messenger
1507:Ribonucleic acids
1003:DNA Repair (Amst.)
1874:
1873:
1751:Xeno
1713:Complementary
1686:Deoxyribonucleic
1680:
1679:
1657:Small hairpin
1433:
1432:
1425:Human archaeology
1382:
1381:
945:"DNA Replication"
920:"DNA Replication"
839:Casselman, Anne.
418:natural selection
323:Okazaki fragments
169:mitochondrial DNA
117:Rosalind Franklin
88:Nuclear DNA is a
66:mitochondrial DNA
16:(Redirected from
1899:
1864:
1863:
1841:Yeast
1662:Small temporal
1592:Piwi-interacting
1520:
1519:
1516:
1497:Deoxynucleotides
1460:
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1437:
1436:
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1190:
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1026:
994:
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941:
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922:. Archived from
916:
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896:
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883:. Archived from
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836:
830:
829:
827:
826:
817:. Archived from
811:
805:
804:
785:10.1038/290457a0
771:(5806): 457–65.
759:
753:
752:
750:
749:
740:. Archived from
730:
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705:
694:
688:
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283:semiconservative
167:Nuclear DNA and
149:Chargaff's rules
21:
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1902:
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1900:
1898:
1897:
1896:
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1793:Cloning vectors
1787:
1773:Locked
1737:
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1635:
1563:
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459:
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402:DNA polymerases
398:DNA replication
390:
331:
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219:
207:red blood cells
202:
165:
113:James D. Watson
86:
35:
32:
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1778:Peptide
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1756:Glycol
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1468:nucleic acids
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1401:Related topics
1398:
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1371:
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1361:Sex chromosome
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1229:Nuclear genome
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1202:
1194:
1186:
1185:
1156:(11): 529–38.
1136:
1087:
1058:(2): 266–282.
1038:
1009:(7): 1087–97.
989:
970:(1–2): 12–22.
954:
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305:DNA polymerase
287:polynucleotide
273:
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157:hydrogen bonds
85:
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33:
18:Nuclear genome
9:
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1706:Mitochondrial
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1524:Translational
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1892:Cell nucleus
1836:Bacterial
1811:Lambda phage
1475:Constituents
1408:Human genome
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1221:Human genome
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1150:Trends Genet
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742:the original
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664:Nuclear gene
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177:mitochondria
166:
105:double helix
90:nucleic acid
87:
54:cell nucleus
45:
41:
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36:
1831:P1-derived
1599:Antisense
1492:Nucleotides
1487:Nucleosides
1482:Nucleobases
279:replication
272:Replication
185:chromosomes
181:chromosomes
137:pyrimidines
121:nucleotides
97:biomolecule
70:plastid DNA
38:Nuclear DNA
1881:Categories
1783:Morpholino
1696:Organellar
1604:Processual
1569:Regulatory
1513:non-coding
964:Mutat. Res
930:2013-04-02
891:2016-07-28
867:dps.mn.gov
847:18 January
825:2014-04-23
748:2013-03-19
702:en.mimi.hu
670:References
342:DNA repair
338:Eukaryotes
314:RNA primer
101:biopolymer
1743:Analogues
1728:Hachimoji
1511:(coding,
1466:Types of
659:Chromatin
366:mutations
266:telophase
258:metaphase
200:Forensics
173:eukaryote
94:polymeric
84:Structure
48:, is the
1866:Category
1801:Phagemid
1652:Ribozyme
1238:Autosome
1180:18809224
1131:19258535
1082:25033177
1033:18458001
984:21600302
653:See also
414:germline
394:mutation
388:Mutation
356:repair,
301:helicase
262:anaphase
254:prophase
145:cytosine
1806:Plasmid
1171:5303623
1122:2650891
1073:5564444
1024:2919205
801:4355527
793:7219534
773:Bibcode
424:Gallery
310:primase
235:gametes
227:meiosis
223:mitosis
194:haploid
190:diploid
141:thymine
133:guanine
129:adenine
125:purines
1821:Fosmid
1816:Cosmid
1766:Hexose
1688:acids
1640:Others
1178:
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1052:Neuron
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374:cancer
298:enzyme
296:. The
264:, and
135:; and
62:genome
44:), or
1846:Human
1624:Y RNA
797:S2CID
684:"DNA"
378:aging
221:Like
56:of a
1176:PMID
1127:PMID
1078:PMID
1029:PMID
980:PMID
849:2014
789:PMID
380:and
368:and
360:and
143:and
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42:nDNA
1887:DNA
1166:PMC
1158:doi
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318:RNA
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