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replaced with the appropriate sequence of DNA nucleotides. Because the two complementary strands of the DNA molecule are oriented in opposite directions and the DNA polymerase can only accommodate replication in one direction, two different mechanisms for copying the strands of DNA are employed. One strand is replicated continuously towards unwinding, separating the portion of the original DNA molecule; while the other strand is replicated discontinuously in the opposite direction with the formation of a series of short DNA segments called
1851:
309:
nucleotides, complementary to a small, initial section of the DNA strand being prepared for replication. DNA polymerase is then able to add DNA nucleotides to the RNA primer and thus begin the process of constructing a new complementary strand of DNA. Later the RNA primer is enzymatically removed and
233:
Meiosis creates new combinations of genetic material in each of the four daughter cells. These new combinations result from the exchange of DNA between paired chromosomes. Such an exchange means that the gametes produced through meiosis often exhibit considerable genetic variation.
198:. Everyone has a unique genetic blueprint, even identical twins. Forensic departments such as the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension (BCA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are able to use techniques involving nuclear DNA to compare samples in a case. Techniques used include
237:
Meiosis involves two rounds of nuclear division, not just one. Prior to undergoing meiosis, a cell goes through an interphase period in which it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and checks all of its systems to ensure that it is ready to divide.
751:
Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, Eperon IC, Nierlich DP, Roe BA, Sanger F, Schreier PH, Smith AJ, Staden R, Young IG (Apr 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
296:
engages the separated portion of the molecule and initiates the process of replication. DNA polymerase can only connect new DNA nucleotides to a pre-existing chain of nucleotides. Therefore, replication begins as an enzyme called
314:. Each Okazaki fragment requires a separate RNA primer. As the Okazaki fragments are synthesized, the RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides and the fragments are bonded together in a continuous complementary strand.
353:. Such repair processes are essential for maintaining nuclear DNA stability. Failure of repair activity to keep up with the occurrence of damages has various negative consequences. Nuclear DNA damages, as well as the
176:
and contains for example 3 billion nucleotides in humans while the structure of
Mitochondrial DNA chromosome is usually closed, circular, and contains for example 16,569 nucleotides in humans. Nuclear DNA in animals is
265:
Prior to cell division, the DNA material in the original cell must be duplicated so that after cell division, each new cell contains the full amount of DNA material. The process of DNA duplication is usually called
257:. A key difference, however, is that during meiosis, each of these phases occurs twice — once during the first round of division, called meiosis I, and again during the second round of division, called meiosis II.
193:
Nuclear DNA is known as the molecule of life and contains the genetic instructions for the development of all eukaryotic organisms. It is found in almost every cell in the human body, with exceptions such as
278:
strand of DNA serves as a template to guide the synthesis of the new complementary polynucleotide of DNA. The DNA single-strand template serves to guide the synthesis of a complementary strand of DNA.
292:
unwinds and separates a portion of the DNA molecule after which single-strand binding proteins react with and stabilize the separated, single-stranded sections of the DNA molecule. The enzyme complex
222:. Meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells, each of which has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because meiosis creates cells that are destined to become
405:
are most often neutral or adaptively disadvantageous. However, the small proportion of mutations that prove to be advantageous provide the genetic variation upon which
988:"Accumulation of nuclear DNA damage or neuron loss: molecular basis for a new approach to understanding selective neuronal vulnerability in neurodegenerative diseases"
202:(PCR), which allows one to utilize very small amounts of DNA by making copies of targeted regions on the molecule, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
869:
112:. Each nucleotide is composed of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and an organic base. Nucleotides are distinguished by their bases:
185:, coming only from the mother. The mutation rate for nuclear DNA is less than 0.3% while that of mitochondrial DNA is generally higher.
894:
722:
908:
803:
1446:
933:
1200:
140:
state that adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always with cytosine. The phosphate groups are held together by a
829:
401:
pathway for repair of double-strand breaks is particularly prone to mutation. Mutations arising in the nuclear DNA of the
851:
398:
350:
226:(or reproductive cells), this reduction in chromosome number is critical — without it, the union of two gametes during
1532:
1819:
322:
1824:
274:
since each new cell contains one strand of original DNA and one newly synthesized strand of DNA. The original
1721:
1607:
730:
1382:
1834:
1829:
1814:
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419:
160:
differ in many ways, starting with location and structure. Nuclear DNA is located within the nucleus of
346:
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93:
633:
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1413:
342:
17:
873:
1135:"MMEJ repair of double-strand breaks (director's cut): deleted sequences and alternative endings"
951:
Freitas AA, de Magalhães JP (2011). "A review and appraisal of the DNA damage theory of ageing".
325:
is a persistent problem arising from a variety of disruptive endogenous and exogenous sources.
1854:
1547:
1432:
1880:
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1575:
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62:
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1086:"Eukaryotic translesion polymerases and their roles and regulation in DNA damage tolerance"
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Waters LS, Minesinger BK, Wiltrout ME, D'Souza S, Woodruff RV, Walker GC (March 2009).
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895:"Replication and Distribution of DNA during Meiosis | Learn Science at Scitable"
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406:
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54:
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cells and usually has two copies per cell while mitochondrial DNA is located in the
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267:
101:
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65:, with information coming from two parents, one male and one female—rather than
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at the origin of replication. The RNA primer consists of a short sequence of
227:
219:
181:, ordinarily inheriting the DNA from two parents, while mitochondrial DNA is
145:
97:
66:
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1619:
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1021:
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333:
processes that remove nuclear DNA damages. These repair processes include
165:
96:, with two strands wound around each other, a structure first described by
78:
58:
42:
1101:
781:
418:
The human nuclear DNA displayed into chromosome ideograms with label from
1711:
1557:
1424:
358:
281:
DNA replication begins at a specific site in the DNA molecule called the
173:
109:
85:
1512:
687:"* Nuclear genome (Biology) - Definition, meaning - Online Encyclopedia"
1771:
1480:
1475:
1470:
330:
302:
230:
would result in offspring with twice the normal number of chromosomes.
169:
125:
89:
1635:
773:
647:
393:
that synthesize past DNA damages in the template strand (error-prone
326:
254:
246:
168:
and contains 100–1,000 copies per cell. The structure of nuclear DNA
161:
46:
16:"NDNA" redirects here. For the 2020 Northern Ireland agreement, see
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1754:
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that such damages cause, are considered to be a major cause of
286:
113:
92:, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Its structure is a
50:
985:
1612:
986:
Brasnjevic I, Hof PR, Steinbusch HW, Schmitz C (July 2008).
1674:
1495:
306:
38:
397:). Mutations also arise by inaccurate DNA repair. The
241:
Like mitosis, meiosis also has distinct stages called
950:
151:
108:. Each strand is a long polymer chain of repeating
1034:
1867:
1037:"DNA damage and its links to neurodegeneration"
365:. Nuclear DNA damages are also implicated in
69:(through the mother) as in mitochondrial DNA.
1440:
1194:
1126:
1077:
1028:
979:
944:
744:
385:. A major cause of mutation is inaccurate
1454:
1447:
1433:
1201:
1187:
1035:Madabhushi R, Pan L, Tsai LH (July 2014).
830:"Identical Twins' Genes Are Not Identical"
23:DNA inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
1158:
1109:
1060:
1011:
172:is linear with open ends and includes 46
1132:
317:
1868:
409:operates to generate new adaptations.
1428:
1182:
827:
49:. It encodes for the majority of the
144:and the bases are held together by
61:coding for the rest. It adheres to
13:
399:microhomology-mediated end joining
351:microhomology-mediated end joining
14:
1892:
1571:Micro
1133:McVey M, Lee SE (November 2008).
1850:
1849:
1208:
852:"Forensic Science - Nuclear DNA"
675:– via The Free Dictionary.
632:
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420:Human Genome Project (1990-2003)
205:
152:Differences to mitochondrial DNA
1526:precursor, heterogenous nuclear
926:
901:
887:
104:(1953) using data collected by
1656:Trans-acting small interfering
1620:Enhancer RNAs
1538:Transfer
862:
844:
821:
796:
715:
697:
679:
665:
329:have evolved a diverse set of
260:
1:
1543:Ribosomal
1521:Messenger
658:
35:nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid
1053:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.06.034
1004:10.1016/j.dnarep.2008.03.010
270:. The replication is termed
188:
72:
7:
965:10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.05.001
723:"DNA: The Genetic Material"
641:
376:
128:, small bases that include
116:, large bases that include
10:
1897:
1722:Multicopy single-stranded
1566:Interferential
412:
381:Nuclear DNA is subject to
371:neurodegenerative diseases
347:non-homologous end joining
343:homologous recombinational
339:nucleotide excision repair
15:
1845:
1780:
1730:
1673:
1636:Guide
1628:
1556:
1511:
1494:
1463:
1389:
1375:
1348:
1225:
1216:
1151:10.1016/j.tig.2008.08.007
1090:Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev
200:polymerase chain reaction
1598:Small nuclear
938:highered.mcgraw-hill.com
870:"FBI — Nuclear-DNA Unit"
727:highered.mcgraw-hill.com
218:is a form of eukaryotic
18:New Decade, New Approach
1712:Genomic
1383:Human mitochondrial DNA
389:, often by specialized
1815:Artificial chromosomes
1603:Small nucleolar
395:trans-lesion synthesis
359:epigenetic alterations
41:contained within each
1608:Small Cajal Body RNAs
1102:10.1128/MMBR.00034-08
832:. Scientific American
709:thefreedictionary.com
323:Damage of nuclear DNA
318:DNA damage and repair
283:origin of replication
63:Mendelian inheritance
1661:Subgenomic messenger
1576:Small interfering
1548:Transfer-messenger
1402:Human Genome Project
1377:Mitochondrial genome
335:base excision repair
53:in eukaryotes, with
1409:List of human genes
804:"Mitochondrial DNA"
766:1981Natur.290..457A
142:phosphodiester bond
47:eukaryotic organism
1690:Chloroplast
1533:modified Messenger
1496:Ribonucleic acids
992:DNA Repair (Amst.)
1863:
1862:
1740:Xeno
1702:Complementary
1675:Deoxyribonucleic
1669:
1668:
1646:Small hairpin
1422:
1421:
1414:Human archaeology
1371:
1370:
934:"DNA Replication"
909:"DNA Replication"
828:Casselman, Anne.
407:natural selection
312:Okazaki fragments
158:mitochondrial DNA
106:Rosalind Franklin
77:Nuclear DNA is a
55:mitochondrial DNA
1888:
1853:
1852:
1830:Yeast
1651:Small temporal
1581:Piwi-interacting
1509:
1508:
1505:
1486:Deoxynucleotides
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911:. Archived from
905:
899:
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872:. Archived from
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860:
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842:
841:
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837:
825:
819:
818:
816:
815:
806:. Archived from
800:
794:
793:
774:10.1038/290457a0
760:(5806): 457–65.
748:
742:
741:
739:
738:
729:. Archived from
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272:semiconservative
156:Nuclear DNA and
138:Chargaff's rules
1896:
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1891:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1866:
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1782:Cloning vectors
1776:
1762:Locked
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391:DNA polymerases
387:DNA replication
379:
320:
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208:
196:red blood cells
191:
154:
102:James D. Watson
75:
24:
21:
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1767:Peptide
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1745:Glycol
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1457:nucleic acids
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1390:Related topics
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1350:Sex chromosome
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1218:Nuclear genome
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1198:
1191:
1183:
1175:
1174:
1145:(11): 529–38.
1125:
1076:
1047:(2): 266–282.
1027:
998:(7): 1087–97.
978:
959:(1–2): 12–22.
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294:DNA polymerase
276:polynucleotide
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146:hydrogen bonds
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1513:Translational
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1881:Cell nucleus
1825:Bacterial
1800:Lambda phage
1464:Constituents
1397:Human genome
1217:
1210:Human genome
1142:
1139:Trends Genet
1138:
1128:
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653:Nuclear gene
380:
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166:mitochondria
155:
94:double helix
79:nucleic acid
76:
43:cell nucleus
34:
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25:
1820:P1-derived
1588:Antisense
1481:Nucleotides
1476:Nucleosides
1471:Nucleobases
268:replication
261:Replication
174:chromosomes
170:chromosomes
126:pyrimidines
110:nucleotides
86:biomolecule
59:plastid DNA
27:Nuclear DNA
1870:Categories
1772:Morpholino
1685:Organellar
1593:Processual
1558:Regulatory
1502:non-coding
953:Mutat. Res
919:2013-04-02
880:2016-07-28
856:dps.mn.gov
836:18 January
814:2014-04-23
737:2013-03-19
691:en.mimi.hu
659:References
331:DNA repair
327:Eukaryotes
303:RNA primer
90:biopolymer
1732:Analogues
1717:Hachimoji
1500:(coding,
1455:Types of
648:Chromatin
355:mutations
255:telophase
247:metaphase
189:Forensics
162:eukaryote
83:polymeric
73:Structure
37:, is the
1855:Category
1790:Phagemid
1641:Ribozyme
1227:Autosome
1169:18809224
1120:19258535
1071:25033177
1022:18458001
973:21600302
642:See also
403:germline
383:mutation
377:Mutation
345:repair,
290:helicase
251:anaphase
243:prophase
134:cytosine
1795:Plasmid
1160:5303623
1111:2650891
1062:5564444
1013:2919205
790:4355527
782:7219534
762:Bibcode
413:Gallery
299:primase
224:gametes
216:meiosis
212:mitosis
183:haploid
179:diploid
130:thymine
122:guanine
118:adenine
114:purines
1810:Fosmid
1805:Cosmid
1755:Hexose
1677:acids
1629:Others
1167:
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1041:Neuron
1020:
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363:cancer
287:enzyme
285:. The
253:, and
124:; and
51:genome
33:), or
1835:Human
1613:Y RNA
786:S2CID
673:"DNA"
367:aging
210:Like
45:of a
1165:PMID
1116:PMID
1067:PMID
1018:PMID
969:PMID
838:2014
778:PMID
369:and
357:and
349:and
132:and
120:and
100:and
81:, a
57:and
31:nDNA
1876:DNA
1155:PMC
1147:doi
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1057:PMC
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88:or
39:DNA
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