658:"For all that die from the preying of the Un-dead become themselves Un-dead, and prey on their kind. And so the circle goes on ever widening, like as the ripples from a stone thrown in the water. Friend Arthur, if you had met that kiss which you know of before poor Lucy die, or again, last night when you open your arms to her, you would in time, when you had died, have become nosferatu, as they call it in Eastern Europe, and would for all time make more of those Un-Deads that so have filled us with horror." (Stoker 1897). This seems to be the motivation for Leonard Wolf to gloss
327:). There are several difficulties with this etymology. Schmidt, Gerard, and Wlislocki, all three sometime residents of Transylvania, identified the word as Romanian, and even proponents of the "nosophoros" etymology (as well as most other commentators) seem to have little doubt that this is correct; Wlislocki particularly was regarded as an expert in Transylvanian languages and folklore and was a prolific author on the subjects. Curiously, in Wlislocki's 1896 article, he presents a parenthetical analysis of the related Romanian term
343:, as do most European languages, Greek is generally considered to be only a minor contributor to the Romanian vocabulary—absent any other information, any given Romanian word is much more likely to be of Latin origin than Greek. Second, the word appears to be quite rare in Greek. One instance of a Greek word similar to νοσοφόρος, νοσηφόρος ("nosēphoros"), is attested in fragments from a 2nd-century AD work by
598:
Vukodlak oder polnischen Mora und russische
Kikimora als Incubus oder Succubus – zburatorul – namentlich bei Neuverlobten sein böses Wesen treibt. Was hierüber vor mehr als hundert Jahren geglaubt und zur Abwehr geübt wurde, ist noch heute wahr, und es dürfte kaum ein Dorf geben, welches nich im Stande ware Selbsterlebtes oder doch Gehörtes mit der festen Ueberzeugung der Wahrheit vorzubringen
119:, in which every Romanian peasant believes as firmly as he does in heaven or hell. There are two sorts of vampires-—living and dead. The living vampire is in general the illegitimate offspring of two illegitimate persons, but even a flawless pedigree will not ensure anyone against the intrusion of a vampire into his family vault, since every person killed by a
249:, so this citation seems unreliable. Skal identifies a similar reference to the word "nosferat" in an article by Wlislocki dating from 1896. Since this postdates Gerard and has a number of parallels to Gerard's work, Skal considers it likely that Wlislocki is derivative from Gerard. There is also evidence to suggest that Haining derived his citation for
413:
A final possibility is that the form given by Gerard and the German folklorists is a well-known
Romanian term without the benefit of normalized spelling, or possibly a misinterpretation of the sounds of the word due to Gerard's limited familiarity with the language, or possibly a dialectal variant of
159:. It is this, the illegitimate offspring of two illegitimately begotten people or the unfortunate spirit of one killed by a vampire, who can appear in the form of dog, cat, toad, frog, louse, flea, bug, in any form, in short, and plays his evil tricks on newly engaged couples as incubus or succubus –
597:
Hieran reihe ich den Vampyr – nosferatu. Es ist dies die uneheliche Frucht zweier unehelich
Gezeugter oder der unselige Geist eines durch Vampyre Getödteten, der als Hund, Katze, Kröte, Frosch, Laus, Floh, Wanze, kurz in jeder Gestalt erscheinen kann und wie der altslavische und böhmische Blkodlak,
123:
becomes likewise a vampire after death, and will continue to suck the blood of other innocent people till the spirit has been exorcised, either by opening the grave of the person suspected and driving a stake through the corpse, or firing a pistol shot into the coffin. In very obstinate cases it is
128:
However, the word had already appeared in an 1865 German-language article by
Wilhelm Schmidt. Schmidt's article discusses Transylvanian customs and appeared in an Austro-Hungarian magazine, which Gerard could have encountered as a reviewer of German literature living in Austria-Hungary. Schmidt's
185:. That which was believed about this and used as a defense more than 100 years ago is still true today, and there can hardly dare to be a village which would not be in a position to present a personal experience or at least hearsay with firm conviction of the veracity.
287:, one of Saxon Transylvania's "seven cities"), it is difficult not to get the impression that both the term and the idea must have been quite well known in his community, which makes the inability to confirm its existence in Romanian literature rather puzzling.
264:
Wlislocki's later description of "der
Nosferat" is more extensive than either Schmidt's or Gerard's. The former two German-language sources particularly emphasize the dual role of the creature as both blood-drinker and
335:, despite having normalized the spelling of both relative to Schmidt's earlier account. If this Romanian identification is taken to be correct, the first objection to the "nosophoros" etymology is that Romanian is a
189:
Schmidt expanded on his 1865 article in an 1866 monograph, adding the observation that the vampire was the "uncanniest spawn of national-slavic fantasy" and that his description was the
Romanian perception.
277:
is said to drink the blood of older people, while seeking to have sexual intercourse with young people and especially newlyweds, often being blamed for illegitimate children (who become
124:
further recommended to cut off the head and replace it in the coffin with the mouth filled with garlic, or to extract the heart and burn it, strewing the ashes over the grave.
197:
in that form does not appear to be a standard word in any known historical phase of
Romanian (aside from that introduced by the novel and the films). Internal evidence in
387:
is intended. As with νοσοφόρος, this supposed
Slavonic word does not appear to be attested in primary sources, which severely undermines the credibility of the argument.
458:
to which these words belong takes the ending "-ul" or even the shortened "u", as in
Romanian "l" is usually lost in the process of speaking, so the definite forms
360:, but examples of the normalized form itself seem to be lacking. In any event, supporting evidence for a relationship between this rare and obscure Greek term and
570:, 28 February. Accessed 28 March 2011. The article in question is Wilhelm Schmidt, "Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Rumänen Siebenbürgens",
87:. It is commonly thought that Gerard introduced the word into print in an 1885 magazine article, "Transylvanian Superstitions", and in her travelogue
583:
Perhaps referring to the use of the nosferatu to excuse illegitimate pregnancies and infidelity, as discussed in detail by
Wlislocki (see below)
323:(1922) strongly emphasizes this theme of disease, and Murnau's creative direction in the film may have been influenced by this etymology (or
133:
by name, which parallels Gerard's "Transylvanian Superstitions". Schmidt does not identify the language explicitly, but he puts the word
283:), impotence, and infertility. From the description by Wlislocki, who was a half-Saxon native of Kronstadt (Hungarian Brassó, Romanian
390:
Another common etymology suggests that the word meant "not breathing", which appears to be attempting to read a derivative of the
375:
is presented but both the original source for this and the justification for it are unclear. This form is often indicated to be
1300:
1237:(The information relating to the "Nosferatu" from the article written by Mrs. Gerard in 1885 is reprinted on pp. 21–22).
1200:
1181:
1153:
1127:
1091:
1048:
1025:
976:
938:
919:
874:
839:
814:
785:
749:
685:
643:
1270:
512:
35:". It was largely popularized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Western fiction such as the gothic novel
992:
613:
Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Rumänen Siebenbürgens: Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss d. Volksmythus
354:
42:
414:
the word. The standardization of Romanian was rather incomplete in the 19th century, as can be seen in
410:", viewing all these etymologies (including the widely repeated nosophoros etymology) with skepticism.
1285:
702:
491:
Wilhelm Schmidt (1865), "Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Rumänen Siebenbürgens",
314:
1040:
1017:
806:
677:
353:. These two variant forms are subsumed as examples of the main νοσοφόρος lemma in the definitive
1083:
777:
563:
230:
218:
1145:
1139:
1102:
987:
1211:
611:
83:(1922). Stoker identified his source for the term as 19th-century British author and speaker
51:(1922). One of the suggested etymologies of the term is that it is derived from the Romanian
1075:
769:
347:
on medicine plus another of the Ionic dialect variant νουσοφόρος ("nousophoros") from the
8:
380:
1280:
1265:
349:
245:-titled 1861 source doubtful. Certain details of Haining's citation also conflict with
99:
for "beyond the forest", literally "across/through the forest"). She merely refers to "
1076:
770:
1295:
1196:
1177:
1149:
1123:
1087:
1044:
1021:
972:
968:
958:
934:
915:
870:
866:
856:
835:
810:
781:
745:
681:
639:
344:
202:
104:
24:
450:("enemy", lit. "unbrothered"). The nominative masculine definite form of a Romanian
376:
336:
242:
1058:
1290:
1275:
592:
234:
1002:
528:
340:
306:
299:
1259:
964:
862:
246:
1232:
549:
407:
384:
254:
92:
84:
1120:
Hollywood Gothic: The Tangled Web Of Dracula From Novel To Stage To Screen
636:
Hollywood Gothic: The Tangled Web Of Dracula From Novel To Stage To Screen
1103:"Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Rumänen Siebenbürgens"
1004:
The Land Beyond the Forest: Facts, Figures, and Fancies from Transylvania
530:
The Land Beyond the Forest: Facts, Figures, and Fancies from Transylvania
241:, Wlislocki was born in 1856 (d. 1907), which makes his authorship of an
130:
68:
331:
but has nothing to say regarding the origin and connections of the term
161:
616:(in German). Hermannstadt, Austria-Hungary: A. Schmiedicke. p. 34.
455:
1034:
800:
367:
In some versions of the "nosophoros" etymology, an intermediate form
319:
291:
137:
in a typeface which indicates it to be a language other than German.
79:
67:
is undetermined. There is no doubt that it achieved currency through
47:
1134:(Skal reprints a large quotation of the relevant Wlislocki material)
284:
270:
181:
167:
1035:
Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott; Henry Stuart Jones (1940) .
931:
Dracula et ses Avatars: de Vlad l'Empaleur à Staline et Ceausescu
832:
Dracula et ses Avatars: de Vlad l'Empaleur à Staline et Ceausescu
801:
Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott; Henry Stuart Jones (1940) .
266:
108:
73:
37:
32:
28:
914:(in Romanian) (2nd ed.). Iași, Romania: Lumen. p. 8.
435:
212:
207:
1176:(Literary Touchstone ed.). Prestwick House. p. 349.
744:(Literary Touchstone ed.). Prestwick House. p. 349.
391:
279:
96:
723:
Hogg, Anthony (2010). "Examining Roumanian Superstitions."
451:
201:
suggests that Stoker believed the term meant "not dead" in
510:
Gerard, Emily (July 1885). "Transylvanian Superstitions".
418:
of 1871, which in a highly Latinized orthography defines
933:(in French). Editions de l'Espace Européen. p. 96.
16:
Word of disputed origin associated with vampire fiction
960:
Vampire: the Complete Guide to the World of the Undead
858:
Vampire: the Complete Guide to the World of the Undead
430:". Three candidate words that have been put forth are
402:, with the closest hypothetical Romanian word being *
1141:
V Is for Vampire: The A-Z Guide to Everything Undead
339:. While Romanian does have some words borrowed from
140:
Schmidt's description is unambiguous in identifying
233:. However, Wlislocki seems only to have written in
165:– by name, just like the Old Slavonic or Bohemian
945:(As a native Romanian, Dr. Buican's opinion that
115:More decidedly evil, however, is the vampire, or
77:and its unauthorised first cinematic adaptation,
55:("the offensive one" or "the insufferable one").
1257:
1078:the Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead
772:the Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead
1209:
956:
854:
834:. Editions de l'Espace Européen. p. 96.
700:
1122:(Revised ed.). Norton. pp. 80–81.
638:(Revised ed.). Norton. pp. 80–81.
406:. Skal notes that this is "without basis in
1191:Stoker, Bram (1975) . Leonard Wolf (ed.).
1172:Stoker, Bram (2006) . Paul Moliken (ed.).
740:Stoker, Bram (2006) . Paul Moliken (ed.).
735:
733:
298:is that the term originally came from the
1212:"Quälgeister im Volksglauben der Rumänen"
763:
761:
703:"Quälgeister im Volksglauben der Rumänen"
442:, to have an evil spirit, be possessed),
253:from a confused reading of an extract in
205:, and thus he may have intended the word
629:
627:
625:
623:
505:
503:
501:
434:("unclean", usually associated with the
1100:
1011:
902:
730:
671:
609:
398:("to breathe") as a second morpheme in
155:At this point, I come to the vampire –
1258:
1190:
1171:
1162:
1073:
1000:
985:
928:
829:
767:
758:
739:
526:
509:
58:
912:Dracula: de la Gotic la Postmodernism
909:
892:Dracula: de la Gotic la Postmodernism
889:
620:
498:
1226:
1144:(Original ed.). Plume. p.
1137:
1117:
727:, August 22. Accessed 28 March 2011.
633:
543:
379:or Slavic. It is likely that either
129:article also mentions the legendary
426:" compared to the modern standard "
23:" has been presented as an archaic
13:
1242:
1167:. Archibald Constable and Company.
1070:("Hungarian Ethnographic Lexicon")
662:as "not dead." (Stoker, Wolf 1975)
14:
1312:
725:Diary of an Amateur Vampirologist
568:Diary of an Amateur Vampirologist
221:identifies an earlier source for
1229:Dracula: The Connoisseur's Guide
1210:von Wlislocki, Heinrich (1896).
701:von Wlislocki, Heinrich (1896).
546:Dracula: The Connoisseur's Guide
957:Dunn-Mascetti, Manuela (1992).
883:
855:Dunn-Mascetti, Manuela (1992).
848:
823:
794:
717:
694:
665:
652:
1082:. Visible Ink Press. pp.
776:. Visible Ink Press. pp.
603:
586:
577:
556:
537:
520:
485:
313:), meaning "disease-bearing".
1:
988:"Transylvanian Superstitions"
473:
1301:Romanian legendary creatures
1250:Vampirglaube in Südosteuropa
478:
7:
986:Gerard, Emily (July 1885).
953:carries particular weight.)
416:Dictionariulu Limbei Romane
10:
1317:
1271:Romanian words and phrases
1074:Melton, J. Gordon (1999).
768:Melton, J. Gordon (1999).
470:are commonly encountered.
89:The Land Beyond the Forest
63:The etymology of the word
1101:Schmidt, Wilhelm (1865).
1059:"Magyar néprajzi lexikon"
610:Schmidt, Wilhelm (1866).
310:
1138:Skal, David J. (1996) .
1118:Skal, David J. (2004) .
1014:A Dictionary of Vampires
1007:. Harper & Brothers.
910:Boboc, Anamaria (2011).
890:Boboc, Anamaria (2011).
674:A Dictionary of Vampires
634:Skal, David J. (2004) .
533:. Harper & Brothers.
440:a avea un spirit necurat
1041:Oxford University Press
1037:A Greek-English Lexicon
1018:Robert Hale and Company
1012:Haining, Peter (2000).
807:Oxford University Press
803:A Greek-English Lexicon
672:Haining, Peter (2000).
562:Hogg, Anthony (2011). "
251:Roumanian Superstitions
239:Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon
237:, and according to the
227:Roumanian Superstitions
1227:Wolf, Leonard (1997).
1195:. Crown. p. 193.
1001:Gerard, Emily (1888).
993:The Nineteenth Century
929:Buican, Denis (1991).
830:Buican, Denis (1991).
596:
544:Wolf, Leonard (1997).
527:Gerard, Emily (1888).
513:The Nineteenth Century
231:Heinrich von Wlislocki
187:
126:
1193:The Annotated Dracula
1163:Stoker, Bram (1897).
1107:Österreichische Revue
572:Österreichische Revue
493:Österreichische Revue
383:or the protolanguage
357:Greek–English Lexicon
153:
113:
1020:. pp. 184–185.
903:General bibliography
680:. pp. 184–185.
424:unu spiritu necuratu
43:German expressionist
949:is a mishearing of
564:Unearthing Nosferau
381:Old Church Slavonic
59:Origins of the word
1248:Peter M. Kreuter,
894:. Iasi. p. 8.
350:Palatine Anthology
1202:978-0-517-52017-8
1183:978-1-58049-382-6
1155:978-0-452-27173-9
1129:978-0-571-21158-6
1093:978-1-57859-071-1
1050:978-0-19-864226-8
1027:978-0-7090-6550-0
978:978-0-14-023801-3
940:978-2-7388-0131-9
921:978-973-166-279-4
876:978-0-14-023801-3
841:978-2-7388-0131-9
816:978-0-19-864226-8
787:978-1-57859-071-1
751:978-1-58049-382-6
687:978-0-7090-6550-0
645:978-0-571-21158-6
428:un spirit necurat
345:Marcellus Sidetes
1308:
1286:1860s neologisms
1236:
1223:
1206:
1187:
1168:
1159:
1133:
1114:
1097:
1081:
1069:
1067:
1066:
1054:
1039:(9th ed.).
1031:
1008:
997:
982:
944:
925:
896:
895:
887:
881:
880:
852:
846:
845:
827:
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805:(9th ed.).
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535:
534:
524:
518:
517:
507:
496:
489:
422:("incubus") as "
337:Romance language
312:
259:On the Nightmare
150:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1256:
1255:
1252:. Berlin, 2001.
1245:
1243:Further reading
1240:
1203:
1184:
1156:
1130:
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1062:
1057:
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574:, 3(1):211–226.
561:
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521:
508:
499:
495:, 3(1):211–226.
490:
486:
481:
476:
371:, or sometimes
148:
61:
41:(1897) and the
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1092:
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1061:(in Hungarian)
1055:
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497:
483:
482:
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477:
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472:
364:appears weak.
273:. Wlislocki's
71:'s 1897 novel
60:
57:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1313:
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1113:(1): 211–226.
1112:
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355:Liddel-Scott
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290:One proposed
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247:David J. Skal
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219:Peter Haining
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1077:
1063:. Retrieved
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408:lexicography
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385:Proto-Slavic
373:*nosufur-atu
372:
369:*nesufur-atu
368:
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315:F. W. Murnau
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1216:Am Ur-Quell
707:Am Ur-Quell
678:Robert Hale
404:nuspirândul
131:Scholomance
69:Bram Stoker
53:Nesuferitu`
1260:Categories
1222:: 108–109.
1065:2007-02-22
996:: 128–144.
967:. p.
865:. p.
713:: 108–109.
516:: 128–144.
474:References
468:nesuferitu
456:declension
438:, compare
325:vice versa
303:nosophoros
229:(1861) by
211:to be its
175:or Polish
162:zburatorul
29:synonymous
1281:Etymology
1266:Nosferatu
947:nosferatu
660:nosferatu
479:Citations
460:nefârtatu
444:nesuferit
400:nosferatu
362:nosferatu
329:solomonar
320:Nosferatu
311:νοσοφόρος
296:nosferatu
292:etymology
257:'s book,
223:nosferatu
195:nosferatu
193:However,
157:nosferatu
142:nosferatu
135:nosferatu
121:nosferatu
117:nosferatu
107:word for
103:" as the
101:Nosferatu
80:Nosferatu
65:nosferatu
48:Nosferatu
21:Nosferatu
1296:Vampires
951:necuratu
464:necuratu
448:nefârtat
377:Slavonic
333:nosferat
317:'s film
275:nosferat
271:succubus
261:(1931).
203:Romanian
182:Kikimora
173:Vukodlak
168:Blkodlak
105:Romanian
25:Romanian
1174:Dracula
1165:Dracula
965:Penguin
863:Penguin
742:Dracula
454:in the
432:necurat
396:spirare
267:incubus
243:English
199:Dracula
109:vampire
74:Dracula
38:Dracula
33:vampire
1291:Incubi
1276:Undead
1199:
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780:–497.
748:
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642:
593:German
446:, and
436:occult
420:incubu
285:Brașov
235:German
213:calque
208:undead
146:Vampyr
144:as a "
31:with "
394:verb
392:Latin
341:Greek
307:Greek
300:Greek
280:moroi
97:Latin
95:" is
45:film
27:word
1197:ISBN
1178:ISBN
1150:ISBN
1124:ISBN
1088:ISBN
1045:ISBN
1022:ISBN
973:ISBN
935:ISBN
916:ISBN
871:ISBN
836:ISBN
811:ISBN
782:ISBN
746:ISBN
682:ISBN
640:ISBN
466:and
452:noun
177:Mora
1146:304
1084:496
969:111
867:111
778:496
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294:of
225:as
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