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devise best the solutions that benefit the entire society. In the words of the country's founding father, Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore is a society based on effort and merit, not wealth or privilege depending on birth. This system primarily works due to citizensâ belief that political leaders tend to have a better understanding of country's long-term plans than themselves; therefore, as they see positive policy outcomes, they tend to go along with the system, rather than complain about the meritocratic dimensions. For example, most citizens praise their government in
Singapore, stating that it managed to transform Singapore from a third world country to a developed economy, and that it successfully fostered loyalty in its citizens towards the country and gave birth to a unique concept of Singaporean citizenship despite a great level of ethnic diversity. In order to develop further Singapore's technocratic system, some thinkers, like Parag Khanna, have proposed for the country to adapt a model of direct technocracy, demanding citizen input in essential matters through online polls, referendums, etc., and asking for a committee of experts to analyze this data to determine the best course of action.
1930:, Caleb Crain notes that there is little to say that the vulcans that Brennan exalts actually exist. Crain mentions a study that appears in Brennan's book that shows that even those who have proven that they have superb skills in mathematics do not employ those skills if their use threatens their already-held political belief. While Brennan utilized that study to demonstrate how deeply rooted political tribalism is in all people, Crain drew on this study to question the very nature of an epistocratic body that can make policy with a greater regard to knowledge and truth than the ordinary citizen can. The only way to correct for that seems, to many, to be to widen the circle of deliberation (as discussed above) because policy decisions that were made with more input and approval from the people last longer and even garner the agreement of the experts. To further illustrate that experts, too, are flawed, Crain enumerates some of the expert-endorsed political decisions that he has deemed failures in recent years: "invading Iraq, having a single European currency, grinding subprime mortgages into the sausage known as collateralized debt obligations."
1923:
diversity in their approaches to problem-solving (cognition) is more likely to succeed than groups that do not. She further illustrates her point by employing the example of a New Haven task force made up of private citizens of many careers, politicians, and police who needed to reduce crime on a bridge without lighting, and they all used different aspects of their experiences to discover the solution that was to install solar lamps on the bridge. That solution has proven effective, with not a single mugging reported there since the lamp installation as of
November 2010. Her argument lies mainly in the refutation of noocratic principles, for they do not utilize the increased problem solving skill of a diverse pool, when the political system because as debate between elites alone, and not a debate between the whole polity.
1836:
such as economics, sociology, international relations, and public policy; however, an ordinary voter is hardly specialized enough in any of those fields to make the optimal decision. To address this issue, Christiano proposes a ruling system based on division of political labor, in which citizens set the agenda for political discussions and determine the aims of the society, whereas legislators are in charge of deciding on the means to achieve these aims. For noocrats, transferring the decision-making mechanism to a body of specifically trained, specialized and experienced body is expected to result in superior and more efficient policy outcomes. Recent economic success of some countries that have a sort of noocratic ruling element provides basis for this particular argument in favor of noocracy.
1900:
epistocracy. In the eighth chapter of his book, Brennan posits a system of graduated voting power that gives people more votes based on established levels of education achieved, with the number of additional votes granted to a hypothetical citizen increasing at each level, from turning sixteen to completing high school, a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, and so forth. Dahl wrote, however, that any democracy that rules over a large group of people must accept and validate "alternative sources of information." Granting the full powers of citizenship based on a system like formal education attainment does not account for the other ways that people can consume information, is the commonly cited argument, and still eschews consideration for the uneducated within a group.
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patterns. Firstly, most of the voters think that the marginal contribution of their vote will not make a difference on election outcomes; therefore, they do not find it useful to inform themselves on political matters. In other terms, due to the required time and effort of acquiring new information, voters rationally prefer to remain ignorant. Moreover, it has been shown that most citizens process political information in deeply biased, partisan, motivated ways rather than in dispassionate, rational ways. This psychological phenomenon causes voters to strongly identify themselves with a certain political group, specifically find evidence to support arguments aligning with their preferred ideological inclinations, and eventually vote with a high level of bias.
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information has a direct impact on rational voting. Moreover, supporters of noocracy see a greater danger in the fact that politicians will actually prefer to implement the policy decisions of citizens to win elections and stabilize their power, without paying particular attention to the content and further outcomes of these policies. In democracies, the problem is that voters are prone to make bad policy decisions and therefore that politicians are incentivized to implement these policies due to personal benefits. Therefore, noocrats argue that it makes sense to limit the voting power of citizens in order to prevent bad policy outcomes. Noocracy has a code of conduct to pursue philanthropic initiatives.
1793:: Every citizen retains the right to vote, but an epistocratic branch of government could overrule democratic deliberations. Membership in this deliberative body would be open to any member of society, but qualifying would require passing difficult tests and undergoing criminal background checks. People with conflicts of interest would be disqualified. This council of expert overseers couldnât create new legislation or regulation but could overrule decisions it deems misguided. The council could block the candidacies of unqualified candidates; this might create gridlock but would force voters to consider candidates carefully.
1764:: Give voting rights only to those who prove themselves sufficiently well informed to earn the right to cast a ballot. Test to determine the right to vote. Everyone would be eligible to take the exam, but only those who show mastery of the basic concepts of political science, economics, and sociology would earn permission to vote. To make the test fair, focus the questions on objective topics. To create an incentive, voters who pass the test could receive a $ 1,000 bonus. A citizen who failed the test but wanted to vote could pay a penalty of $ 2,000, similar to a
1943:
will be naturally composed of citizens with higher economic status, and thus fail to equally represent different demographics of the society. The latter argument is about the policy outcomes; since there will be a demographic overrepresentation and underrepresentation in the noocratic body, the system will produce unjust outcomes, favoring the demographically advantaged group. Brennan defends noocracy against these two criticisms, presenting a rationale for the system.
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1799:: In this model, all citizens are asked simultaneously to vote on policies or candidates, to take a test of basic political knowledge, and to indicate their demographics. With these three sets of data, the government can estimate the publicâs âenlightened preferences,â for example, what a fully-informed but demographically-identical voting public would want. It implements these enlightened preferences.
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chosen might be biased in a way that people had not been able to identify and could not, therefore, rectify. Even the aspects of the modes of selecting voters that are known cause many theorists concern, as both
Brennan and Crain note that the majority of poor black women would be excluded from the enfranchised polity and risk seeing their needs represented even less than they currently are.
1735:). Here the opinions of a likely under-informed public and those of experts are well-known to be starkly in conflict, potentially rendering it a textbook case for setting up such a polity. A council of those reasonably deemed more wise than most, would then, among other things, arguably be expected to not abide by such a strict
1879:, while arguing for representatives to effectively enact legislation important to the polity, criticizes conceptions of representation that aim especially to remove the people from the process of making decisions, and thereby nullify their political power. Noocracy, especially as it is conceived in Jason Brennan's
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assumption, de facto practices show that privileged people have more influence on election results. As a result, the representatives will not match the demographics of the society either, for which democracy seems to be unjust in practice. With the right of type of noocracy, the unfairness effect can
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As a rejection of the unfairness argument put forward by democrats, Brennan argues that the voting electorate in modern democracies is also demographically disproportionate; based on empirical studies, it has been demonstrated that voters coming from privileged background, such as white, middle aged,
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For instance, Singapore has a political system that favors meritocracy; the path to government in
Singapore is structured in such a way that only those with above-average skills are identified with strict university-entrance exams, recruiting processes, etc., and then rigorously trained to be able to
1908:
Noocracy also receives criticism for its claims to efficiency. Brennan writes that one of the many reasons that common people cannot be trusted to make decisions for the state is because reasoning is commonly motivated, and, therefore, people decide what policies to support based on their connection
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According to noocrats, given the complex nature of political decisions, it is not reasonable to assume that a citizen would have the necessary knowledge to decide on means to achieve their political aims. In general, political actions require a lot of social scientific knowledge from various fields,
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Proponents of democracy attempt to show that noocracy is intrinsically unjust on two dimensions, stating its unfairness and bad results. The former states that since people with different income levels and education backgrounds have unequal access to information, the epistocratic legislative body
1933:
With the contention around the reasoning for those political decisions, political theorist David
Estlund posited what he considered to be one of the prime arguments against epistocracy â bias in choosing voters. His fear was that the method by which voters, and voters' quantity of votes, was
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To refute the latter claim, Brennan states that voters do not vote selfishly; in other terms, the advantaged group does not attempt to undermine the interests of the minority group. Therefore, the worry that noocratic bodies that are demographically more skewed towards the advantaged group make
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defined noocracy as "the thinking matter increases its mass in nature and geo- and biosphere grow into noosphere, the future of the humanity can be envisioned as noocracyâthat is the power of the collective brain rather than separate individuals representing certain social groups or society as
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sets out certain rules for democracies that govern many people and the rights that the citizens must be granted. His demand that the government not discriminatorily heed the preferences of full members of the polity is abridged by
Brennan's "restricted suffrage" and "plural voting" schemes of
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Modern political theorists do not necessarily denounce a biased viewpoint in politics, however, though those biases are not written about as they are commonly considered. Professor
Landemore utilizes the existence of cognitive diversity to argue that any group of people that represents great
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mechanism proposed by democracy cannot be used to produce efficient policy outcomes, for which the transfer of power to a smaller, informed and rational group would be more appropriate. The irrationality of voters inherent in democracies can be explained by two major behavioral and cognitive
1826:
Irrational political behaviors of voters prevent them from making calculated choices and opting for the right policy proposals. On the other hand, many political experiments have shown that as voters get more informed, they tend to support better policies, demonstrating that acquisition of
1787:: Before each election, hold a random drawing to grant voting rights. Winners would have to earn the right to vote, perhaps by participating in forums with other voters. The random nature of the lottery would ensure the electorate reflects the demographics of the larger population.
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actually be minimized; for instance, enfranchisement lottery, in which a legislative electorate is selected at random by lottery, and then incentivized to become competent to address political issues, illustrates a fair representation
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to those proposing and supporting the measures, not based on what is most effective. He contrasts real people with the ultra-reasonable vulcan that he mentions throughout the book. That vulcan reflects Plato's
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decisions in favor of the advantaged one fails. According to
Brennan, noocracy can serve in a way that improves the welfare of the overall community, rather than certain individuals.
1883:, aims specifically to separate the people from the decision on the basis of the immensely superior knowledge of officials who will presumably make superior decisions to laypeople.
1781:, holds that political participation helps voters feel empowered. It also acknowledges that stupid voters make bad decisions. It favors those who can prove their competence.
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models of law and policy. Noocracy's criticisms come in multiple forms, two of which are those focused on the efficacy of noocracies and the political viability of them.
1875:'s oft-cited book) â range from support of direct democracy instead to proposed alterations to our consideration of representation in democracy. Political theorist
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meaning 'power' or 'authority') is an ideal type of government where decisions are delegated to those deemed wisest. The idea is classically advanced, among others, by
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Landemore, HÊlène (1 May 2013). "Deliberation, cognitive diversity, and democratic inclusiveness: an epistemic argument for the random selection of representatives".
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To some theorists, noocracy is built on a fantasy that will uphold current structures of elite power, while maintaining its inefficacy. Writing for the
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Proponents of noocratic theory cite evidence that suggests voters in modern democracies are largely ignorant, misinformed and irrational. Therefore,
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Jason
Brennan's epistocracy, specifically, is at odds with democracy and with certain criteria for democracies that theorists have proposed.
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higher-income men, tend to vote at a higher rate than other demographic groups. Although de jure every group has same right to vote under
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failings, such as potentially upholding a more or less permanent ruling class. Others have highlighted more democratic ideals as better
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Maboudi, Tofigh (2016). "Crowdsourcing the
Egyptian Constitution: Social Media, Elites, and the Populace".
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Khanna, Parag (1 July 2017). "Swiss Direct Democracy + Singapore's Smart Rulers = Direct Technocracy".
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Landemore, HÊlène (2017). "Deliberative Democracy as Open, Not (Just) Representative Democracy".
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Brennan, Jason (1 February 2018). "Does the Demographic Objection to Epistocracy Succeed?".
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In a more concrete sense, one might find pertinent the paradigmatic controversy surrounding
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One of the first attempts to implement such a political system was perhaps
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taxonomy of the roughly equivalent concept he himself instead designates "
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The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy
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The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Political Thought
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Criticisms of noocracy in all its forms â including
2300:"The Internet Classics Archive | The Republic by Plato"
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In modern history, similar concepts were introduced by
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2022:. In Rowe, Christopher; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.).
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49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2502:Democratic authority: a philosophical framework
1938:Rejection of demographic unjustness of noocracy
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2068:"Summary: Against Democracy by Jason Brennan"
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1707:, who did not use this term, but the term "
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1822:Democracy's susceptibility to bad policies
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1660:Learn how and when to remove this message
750:List of countries by system of government
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1970:The Greek State and Other Fragments.
1642:adding citations to reliable sources
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1590:meaning 'mind" or 'intellect' and
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2066:Norman, Nina (October 27, 2023).
581:Biology and political orientation
2426:Crain, Caleb (31 October 2016).
1871:, and epistocracy (the focus of
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2324:Young, Michael Dunlop (1994).
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1211:Intergovernmental organisation
1166:Separation of church and state
576:Theories of political behavior
202:Political history of the world
1:
2055:. Princeton University Press.
2002:
1968:Nietzsche, Friedrich (2017).
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591:Critique of political economy
2464:Political Research Quarterly
2428:"The Case Against Democracy"
1008:(socio-political ideologies)
172:Outline of political science
7:
2326:The rise of the meritocracy
2150:Christiano, Thomas (1996).
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1916:The Rise of the Meritocracy
1887:Noocracy as anti-democratic
1852:, have been criticized for
1785:⢠âEnfranchisement lotteryâ
1076:(socio-economic ideologies)
746:List of forms of government
10:
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2506:Princeton University Press
2500:Estlund, David M. (2008).
2186:New Perspectives Quarterly
2171:Princeton University Press
2051:Brennan, Jason F. (2016).
2028:Cambridge University Press
1956:thanks to its randomness.
1715:is also notable. In turn,
1692:considered such a city a "
177:Index of politics articles
2556:10.1007/s11158-017-9385-y
2390:10.1007/s11229-012-0062-6
2328:. New Brunswick (U.S.A).
1725:genetically modified food
1197:(geo-cultural ideologies)
2476:10.1177/1065912916658550
2262:Dahl, Robert A. (1971).
2103:Brennan, Jason (2016).
1904:Inefficiency of experts
1809:Irrationality of voters
1804:Rationales for noocracy
1762:⢠âRestricted suffrageâ
1737:precautionary principle
1460:Administrative division
1404:International relations
586:Political organisations
349:International relations
187:Politics by subdivision
1982:Criticism of democracy
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2268:Yale University Press
1791:⢠âEpistocratic vetoâ
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1470:Democratic transition
1333:Self-governing colony
930:Military dictatorship
666:Political campaigning
406:Public administration
239:Collective leadership
2238:10.1162/DAED_a_00446
2152:The Rule of the Many
2016:Laks, AndrĂŠ (2000).
1972:Delphi Classics.
1797:⢠âSimulated oracleâ
1696:," i.e. rule of the
1638:improve this article
516:Separation of powers
387:Political psychology
362:Comparative politics
340:political scientists
327:Academic disciplines
207:Political philosophy
43:improve this article
2504:. Princeton, N.J.:
2165:Bell, D.A. (2016).
1949:one person one vote
1815:one person one vote
1743:Possible modalities
1713:Teilhard de Chardin
1509:Politics portal
1394:Supranational union
1303:Dependent territory
1216:National government
689:Politics portal
538:Election commission
509:Government branches
392:Political sociology
244:Confessional system
182:Politics by country
2198:10.1111/npqu.12093
1749:Jason F. Brennan's
1705:Vladimir Vernadsky
372:Political analysis
304:Semi-parliamentary
16:Form of government
2105:Against democracy
2053:Against Democracy
1881:Against Democracy
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2030:. p. 262.
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1717:Mikhail Epstein
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1482:Democratisation
1475:Autocratization
1451:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1398:
1359:
1338:Tributary state
1328:Satellite state
1283:
1253:
1252:Power structure
1245:
1244:
1196:
1195:
1177:
1148:
1134:
1125:Totalitarianism
1075:
1074:
1056:
1007:
1006:
987:
979:
978:
973:
949:
941:
906:
898:
829:
821:
768:
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758:Source of power
736:Basic forms of
730:Politics series
719:
681:
676:
675:
606:
605:
596:
595:
553:
552:
543:
542:
511:
510:
501:
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496:Public interest
481:Domestic policy
471:
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451:
416:
409:
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397:
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358:
351:
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224:
223:
212:
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167:
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126:Politics series
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2605:
2595:
2594:
2578:
2577:
2529:
2514:
2489:
2470:(4): 716â731.
2454:
2433:The New Yorker
2411:
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2291:
2276:
2251:
2211:
2176:
2157:
2142:
2113:
2080:
2058:
2043:
2036:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1977:
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1965:
1962:
1939:
1936:
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1530:
1523:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1487:Hybrid regimes
1484:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1467:
1462:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1436:
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1430:
1425:
1420:
1418:Regional power
1415:
1407:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1368:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1340:
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1330:
1325:
1323:Puppet monarch
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1292:
1291:
1285:
1284:
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1276:
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1194:
1193:
1188:
1182:
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1175:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1158:
1156:State religion
1150:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
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1097:
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1073:
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1058:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1049:
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1039:
1034:
1029:
1027:Constitutional
1024:
1019:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1004:
999:
993:
988:
986:Power ideology
985:
984:
981:
980:
975:
974:
972:
971:
966:
961:
953:
952:
950:(rule by none)
943:
942:
940:
939:
934:
933:
932:
922:
914:
913:
900:
899:
897:
896:
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861:
856:
851:
846:
841:
833:
832:
823:
822:
820:
819:
814:
809:
804:
802:Representative
799:
794:
789:
784:
776:
775:
760:
757:
756:
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741:
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733:
732:
721:
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695:
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691:
678:
677:
674:
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668:
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635:
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613:
607:
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601:
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588:
583:
578:
573:
560:
554:
551:Related topics
550:
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530:
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518:
512:
508:
507:
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486:Foreign policy
483:
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459:
458:
457:
454:
453:
450:
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448:
447:
433:
428:
423:
410:
404:
403:
402:
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389:
384:
382:Policy studies
379:
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165:Primary topics
164:
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129:
128:
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116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2604:
2593:
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2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2515:9781400831548
2511:
2507:
2503:
2496:
2494:
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2481:
2477:
2473:
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2458:
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2420:
2418:
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2370:
2368:
2359:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2335:9781560007043
2331:
2327:
2320:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2277:9780300015652
2273:
2269:
2266:. New Haven:
2265:
2258:
2256:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2226:
2218:
2216:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
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2172:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2146:
2138:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2114:9780691162607
2110:
2107:. Princeton.
2106:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2069:
2062:
2054:
2047:
2039:
2037:0-521-48136-8
2033:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2012:
2008:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1973:
1971:
1961:
1957:
1955:
1950:
1944:
1935:
1931:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1873:Jason Brennan
1870:
1866:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1850:technocracies
1841:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1816:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1774:
1773:Plural voting
1768:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1718:
1714:
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1701:
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1691:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1664:
1661:
1653:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1627:This section
1625:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1547:
1536:
1531:
1529:
1524:
1522:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1499:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1447:
1446:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1374:Confederation
1372:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1269:Unitary state
1267:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1249:
1248:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1181:
1180:
1172:
1171:State atheism
1169:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1161:Secular state
1159:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1065:Authoritarian
1063:
1062:
1060:
1059:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1042:Parliamentary
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1012:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
994:
992:
991:
983:
982:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
955:
954:
948:
945:
944:
938:
935:
931:
928:
927:
926:
923:
921:
918:
917:
916:
915:
910:
905:
902:
901:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
836:
835:
834:
830:(rule by few)
828:
825:
824:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
779:
778:
777:
772:
767:
764:
763:
755:
754:
751:
748:
747:
743:
742:
739:
735:
734:
731:
727:
726:
716:
711:
709:
704:
702:
697:
696:
694:
693:
690:
685:
680:
679:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
649:
645:
641:
640:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
622:
619:
618:
617:
614:
612:
609:
608:
600:
599:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
568:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
547:
546:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
520:
517:
514:
513:
505:
504:
497:
494:
492:
491:Civil society
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
475:
470:
469:Public policy
467:
466:
462:
456:
455:
445:
441:
437:
436:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
420:
415:
412:
411:
407:
401:
400:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
355:
350:
346:
341:
336:
332:
331:
323:
322:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
289:Parliamentary
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
274:Hybrid regime
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
226:
222:
216:
215:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
169:
161:
160:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
140:
138:
137:
134:
131:
130:
127:
123:
122:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: â
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2550:(1): 53â71.
2547:
2543:
2501:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2445:. Retrieved
2431:
2381:
2377:
2325:
2319:
2307:. Retrieved
2303:
2294:
2263:
2232:(3): 51â63.
2229:
2223:
2192:(3): 40â42.
2189:
2185:
2179:
2166:
2160:
2151:
2145:
2104:
2071:. Retrieved
2061:
2052:
2046:
2023:
2011:
1969:
1967:
1958:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1932:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1907:
1896:
1890:
1880:
1862:
1854:meritocratic
1847:
1838:
1834:
1825:
1814:
1812:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1783:
1770:
1769:
1761:
1760:
1753:
1747:Adhering to
1746:
1732:
1722:
1702:
1693:
1687:
1682:
1678:mathematikoi
1671:
1656:
1650:January 2022
1647:
1636:Please help
1631:verification
1628:
1591:
1587:
1545:
1544:
1423:Middle power
1350:Vassal state
1344:Buffer state
1342:
1318:Puppet state
1313:Protectorate
1289:Client state
1279:Principality
1105:Distributism
1047:Presidential
925:Dictatorship
868:
849:Gerontocracy
771:rule by many
744:
728:Part of the
419:street-level
294:Presidential
254:Dictatorship
124:Part of the
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2544:Res Publica
1997:Technocracy
1954:methodology
1893:Robert Dahl
1869:meritocracy
1865:technocracy
1754:epistocracy
1610:Development
1428:Great power
1413:Small power
1355:Viceroyalty
1226:Nationalism
1090:Colonialism
1070:Libertarian
1032:Directorial
909:rule by one
889:Technocracy
884:Stratocracy
864:Meritocracy
854:Kleptocracy
844:Aristocracy
558:Sovereignty
523:Legislature
426:Technocracy
414:Bureaucracy
279:Meritocracy
259:Directorial
2019:"The Laws"
2003:References
1987:Geniocracy
1928:New Yorker
1844:Criticisms
1694:sophocracy
1674:Pythagoras
1433:Superpower
1389:Superstate
1384:Federation
1379:Devolution
1365:Federalism
1206:City-state
879:Plutocracy
874:Particracy
738:government
648:Governance
638:Government
633:Federalism
234:City-state
69:newspapers
58:"Noocracy"
2592:Oligarchy
2572:254984552
2564:1356-4765
2524:647843193
2484:156939151
2442:0028-792X
2406:255065662
2398:0039-7857
2352:cite book
2206:1540-5842
2131:cite book
2123:942707357
1992:Sortition
1897:Polyarchy
1858:epistemic
1729:organisms
1709:noosphere
1604:Confucius
1600:al-Farabi
1260:Unitarism
1236:Globalism
1142:Religious
1130:Tribalism
1120:Socialism
1115:Feudalism
1100:Despotism
1095:Communism
1085:Anarchism
1022:Communist
969:Stateless
959:Anarchism
920:Despotism
904:Autocracy
894:Theocracy
859:Kritarchy
827:Oligarchy
812:Socialist
766:Democracy
628:Unitarism
616:Elections
604:Subseries
533:Judiciary
528:Executive
431:Adhocracy
314:Theocracy
269:Feudalism
249:Democracy
99:July 2013
2586:Category
2447:15 March
2378:Synthese
2344:28420501
2309:14 March
2286:49414698
2246:57570198
2225:Daedalus
2073:15 March
1976:See also
1720:whole".
1546:Noocracy
1308:Dominion
1037:Legalist
1017:Absolute
1002:Republic
997:Monarchy
869:Noocracy
839:Anocracy
792:Economic
782:Demarchy
656:Ideology
474:doctrine
435:Service
299:Republic
284:Monarchy
264:Federacy
153:Category
133:Politics
1686:in his
1450:Related
1145:Secular
1110:Fascism
947:Anarchy
937:Tyranny
797:Liberal
661:Culture
571:Country
229:Anarchy
143:Outline
83:scholar
2570:
2562:
2522:
2512:
2482:
2440:
2404:
2396:
2342:
2332:
2284:
2274:
2244:
2204:
2121:
2111:
2034:
1592:Kratos
1274:Empire
1186:Global
817:Others
807:Social
787:Direct
621:voting
563:Polity
461:Policy
440:Public
354:theory
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2568:S2CID
2480:S2CID
2402:S2CID
2242:S2CID
1684:Plato
1596:Plato
1191:Local
644:forms
567:State
444:Civil
148:Index
90:JSTOR
76:books
2560:ISSN
2520:OCLC
2510:ISBN
2449:2018
2438:ISSN
2394:ISSN
2358:link
2340:OCLC
2330:ISBN
2311:2018
2282:OCLC
2272:ISBN
2202:ISSN
2137:link
2119:OCLC
2109:ISBN
2075:2024
2032:ISBN
1733:GMOs
1689:Laws
1602:and
1588:Nous
62:news
2552:doi
2472:doi
2386:doi
2382:190
2234:doi
2230:146
2194:doi
1895:'s
1771:⢠â
1739:.
1727:or
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