Nineteenth-century theatre

475: 407: 1100: 22: 352:(1791–1861) became popular with playwrights and audiences. First developed by Scribe in 1825, the form has a strong Neoclassical flavour, involving a tight plot and a climax that takes place close to the end of the play. The story depends upon a key piece of information kept from some characters, but known to others (and to the audience). A recurrent device that the well-made play employs is the use of letters or papers falling into unintended hands, to bring about plot twists and climaxes. The suspense and pace builds towards a climactic scene, in which the hero triumphs in an unforeseen reversal of fortune. 1637:

changed when three-dimensional sets were introduced in the first half of the century. This, coupled with change in audience and stage dynamic as well as advancement in theatre architecture that allowed for hidden scene changes, the theatre became more representational instead of presentational, and invited audience to be transported to a conceived 'other' world. The early 19th century also saw the innovation of the moving panorama: a setting painted on a long cloth, which could be unrolled across the stage by turning spools, created an illusion of movement and changing locales.

1628:, who built the Savoy, explained why he had introduced electric light: "The greatest drawbacks to the enjoyment of the theatrical performances are, undoubtedly, the foul air and heat which pervade all theatres. As everyone knows, each gas-burner consumes as much oxygen as many people, and causes great heat beside. The incandescent lamps consume no oxygen, and cause no perceptible heat." Notably, the introduction of electric light coincided with the rise of realism: the new forms of lighting encouraged more realistic scenic detail and a subtler, more realistic acting style. 811: 132: 2572: 537: 1228:. The Ensemble's productions are often considered the most historically accurate of the 19th century, although his primary goal was to serve the interests of the playwright. The Ensemble's productions used detailed, historically accurate costumes and furniture, something that was unprecedented in Europe at the time. The Meiningen Ensemble stands at the beginning of the new movement toward unified production (or what 179:, an intensely emotional but codified acting style, and a developing stage technology that advanced the arts of theatre towards grandly spectacular staging. It was also a highly reactive form of theatre which was constantly changing and adapting to new social contexts, new audiences and new cultural influences. This, in part, helps to explains its popularity throughout the 19th century. David Grimsted, in his book 1418: 1136:, Ohio offered popular melodramas for up to thirty cents a seat and saw an average audience of 45,000 people per month at 488 performances of 64 different plays. On average 250–300 shows, many originating in New York, crisscrossed the country each year between 1880 and 1910. Meanwhile, owners of successful theatres began to expand their reach, like the theatrical empire of 434:, the theatre's manager, decided to raise prices in the pit, the boxes and the third tier. Audience members hated the new pricing which they thought denied them access to a national meeting place and led to three months of rioting until finally Kemble was forced to publicly apologize and lower prices again. To escape the restrictions, non-patent theatres along the 1037:, the American stage was dominated by melodramas, minstrel shows, comedies, farces, circuses, vaudevilles, burlesques, operas, operettas, musicals, musical revues, medicine shows, amusement arcades, and Wild West shows. Many American playwrights and theatre workers lamented the "failure of the American playwright", including 649:(1885), that they had a huge influence over the development of musical theatre in the 20th century. This, together with much improved street lighting and transportation in London and New York led to a late Victorian and Edwardian theatre building boom in the West End and on Broadway. At the end of the century, 1607:

which was slowly adopted by the major theatres throughout the 1810s and 1820s to provide illumination for the house and the stage. The introduction of gas lighting revolutionized stage lighting. It provided a somewhat more natural and adequate light for the playing and the scenic space upstage of the

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in New York City. A showman himself, Edison realized the potential of this venture to create demand for his invention, and together they designed a finale to the production that would be illuminated by more than five hundred light bulbs attached to the costumes of the dancers and to the scenery. When

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Its conventions were false, its language stilted and commonplace, its characters stereotypes, and its morality and theology gross simplifications. Yet its appeal was great and understandable. It took the lives of common people seriously and paid much respect to their superior purity and wisdom. And

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The Gilded Age was also the golden age of touring in American theatre: while New York City was the mecca of the ambitious, the talented and the lucky, throughout the rest of the country, a network of theatres large and small supported a huge industry of famous stars, small troupes, minstrel shows,

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laid the foundations for an American drama separate from Britain. Part of the reason for the dearth of original plays in this period may be that playwrights were rarely paid for their work and it was much cheaper for managers to adapt or translate foreign work. Tradition held that remuneration was

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were the most important literary dramatists of their time (although Shelley's plays were not performed until later in the century). Shakespeare was enormously popular, and began to be performed with texts closer to the original, as the drastic rewriting of 17th and 18th century performing versions

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One of the most important scenic transition into the century was from the often-used two-dimensional scenic backdrop to three-dimensional sets. Previously, as a two-dimensional environment, scenery did not provide an embracing, physical environment for the dramatic action happening on stage. This

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largely came to replace other plantation narratives, particularly in the third act. These sketches sometimes supported Stowe's novel, but just as often they turned it on its head or attacked the author. Whatever the intended message, it was usually lost in the joyous, slapstick atmosphere of the

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Star actors amassed an immensely loyal following, comparable to modern celebrities or sports stars. At the same time, audiences had always treated theaters as places to make their feelings known, not just towards the actors, but towards their fellow theatergoers of different classes or political

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traveled throughout Europe from 1874 to 1890 and met with unparalleled success wherever they went. Audiences had grown tired with regular, shallow entertainment theatre and were beginning to demand a more creatively and intellectually stimulating form of expression that the Ensemble was able to

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send their condolences. Among these actor-managers, Shakespeare was often the most popular writer as his plays afforded them great dramatic opportunity and name recognition. The stage spectacle of these productions was often more important than the play and texts were often cut to give maximum

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in the early 1830s. They were developed into full-fledged form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national art form, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music

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By the end of the 19th century, the term melodrama had nearly exclusively narrowed down to a specific genre of salon entertainment: more or less rhythmically spoken words (often poetry)—not sung, sometimes more or less enacted, at least with some dramatic structure or plot—synchronized to an

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in New York City, he brought back to his country the plays and theatrical values that he had seen. Like many playwright-managers of his day, Dunlap adapted or translated melodramatic works by French of German playwrights, but he also wrote some 29 original works including

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Scribe himself wrote over 400 plays of this type, using what essentially amounted to a literary factory with writers who supplied the story, another the dialogue, a third the jokes and so on. Although he was highly prolific and popular, he was not without detractors:

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were also able to operate outside of the rules. The exploding popularity of these forms began to make the patent system unworkable and the boundaries between the two began to blur through the 1830s until finally the Licensing Act was dropped in 1843 with the

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of music allowed him to have greater personal control over performance than he would with spoken drama. As with the Meininger Ensemble, Wagner believed that the author-composer should supervise every aspect of production to unify all the elements into a

1602:

The eighteenth century theatre had been lit by candles and oil-lamps which were mainly provided for illumination so that the audience could see the performance, with no further purpose. This changed in the early 19th century with the introduction of

426:. These two huge theatres contained two royal boxes, huge galleries, and a pit with benches where people could come and go during performances. Perhaps the most telling episode of the popularity of theatre in the early 19th century is the theatrical 1472:

that was only open to members and therefore was exempt from censorship. He quickly won the approval of Zola and began to stage Naturalistic works and other foreign realistic pieces. Antoine was unique in his set design as he built sets with the

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into neoclassical rebels". Forrest would continue to play the role for over one thousand performances around the world until 1872. Following the success of their early collaboration, Bird and Forrest would work together on further premieres of

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first came into use in the 1840s. Both of these types of lighting were able to be hand-operated and could be focused by means of an attached lens, thus giving the theatre an ability to focus light on particular performers for the first time.

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in 1830. The large crowd that attended the premiere was full of conservatives and censors who booed the show for disobeying the classical norms and who wanted to stop the performance from going forward. But Hugo organized a Romantic Army of

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were considered deeply offensive to standards of public decency. Ibsen refined Scribe's well-made play formula to make it more fitting to the realistic style. He provided a model for writers of the realistic school. In addition, his works

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to formulate the theoretical basis of "Romantic" art. According to Romantics, art is of enormous significance because it gives eternal truths a concrete, material form that the limited human sensory apparatus may apprehend. Among

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established melodrama as the dominant dramatic form of the early 19th century. Kotzebue in particular was the most popular playwright of his time, writing more than 215 plays that were produced all around the world. His play

1053:. However, as cities and urban areas boomed from immigration in the late nineteenth century, the social upheaval and innovation in technology, communication and transportation had a profound effect on the American theatre. 188:

its moral parable struggled to reconcile social fears and life's awesomeness with the period's confidence in absolute moral standards, man's upward progress, and a benevolent providence that insured the triumph of the pure.

730:

Known as the "Father of the American Drama", Dunlap grew up watching plays given by British officers and was heavily immersed in theatrical culture while living in London just after the Revolution. As the manager of the

376:. Sardou in particular was one of the world's most popular playwrights between 1860 and 1900. He adapted the well-made play to every dramatic type, from comedies to historical spectacles. In Britain, playwrights like 360:

questioned how it could be that, "an author without poetry, lyricism, style, philosophy, truth or naturalism could be the most successful writer of his epoch, despite the opposition of literature and the critics?"

762:

From 1820 to 1830, improvements in the material conditions of American life and the growing demand of a rising middle class for entertainment led to the construction of new theatres in New York, Philadelphia,

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accompaniment of music (usually piano). It was looked down on as a genre for authors and composers of lesser stature (probably also the reason why virtually no realisations of the genre are still remembered).

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that abolished the side boxes, pits, and galleries that were a prominent feature of most European theatres and replaced them with a 1,745 seat fan-shaped auditorium that was 50 feet (15 m) wide at the

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opened state theatres and training schools, attempted to raise the level of Russian production after a trip to Paris, and put in place regulations for governing troupes that remained in effect until 1917.

799:. However, rivalries and larger economic forces led to a string of bankruptcies for five major theatre companies in just eight months between 1 October 1828 and 27 May 1829. Due to this and the import of 727:

mainly in the form of a benefit performance for the writer on the third night of a run, but many managers would skirt this custom by simply closing the show before the third performance.

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and radical writers to ensure that the opening would have to go ahead. The resulting riot represented the rejection in France of the classical traditions and the triumph of Romanticism.

829:

rising to the forefront. Since Romanticism emphasized eternal truths and nationalistic themes, it fit perfectly with the emerging national identity of the United States. Bird's

1710: 604:, whose penchant for making the latest scientific inventions important elements in his plots exerted considerable influence on theatrical production. His first big success, 1016:

piece. Characters such as Simon Legree sometimes disappeared, and the title was frequently changed to something more cheerful like "Happy Uncle Tom" or "Uncle Dad's Cabin".

1477:" intact, only deciding which wall to remove later. The most important French playwrights of this period were given first hearing by Antoine including Georges Porto-Riche, 2376: 2274: 1455:. His essay "Naturalism in the Theatre" (1881) argued that poetry is everywhere instead of in the past or abstraction: "There is more poetry in the little apartment of a 235: 392:

thought that Sardou's plays epitomized the decadence and mindlessness into which the late 19th-century theatre had descended, a state that he labeled "Sardoodledom".

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led to contract disagreements, with Bird arguing that Forrest, who had made tens of thousands from Bird's plays, owed him more than the $ 2,000 he had been paid.

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initiated a new direction on the English stage. While their work paved the way, the development of more significant drama owes itself most to the playwright

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and 115 feet (35 m) at the rear. This allowed every seat in the auditorium to enjoy a full view of the stage and meant that there were no "good" seats.

922:, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated. 2557: 197: 1246:

provide. Therefore, the Meiningen Ensemble can be seen as the forerunners of the art-theatre movement which appeared in Europe at the end of the 1880s.

2207:

Cardwell, Douglas (May 1983). "The Well-Made Play of Eugène Scribe". American Association of Teachers of French 56 (6): 878–879. Retrieved 12 May 2012.

1364:(1886) is "one of the most effective of naturalistic plays"), a tradition of psychological realism in Russia culminated with the establishment of the 1918: 843:

proclaiming that "America has at length vindicated her capability of producing a dramatist of the highest order." Dealing with slave insurgency in

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in September or October before transferring to larger theatres in Philadelphia until April or May, followed by a summer season in Washington or

1216:, Lessing, Goethe, and Schiller were prominent in the repertory. The most important theatrical force in later 19th-century Germany was that of 1608:

proscenium arch. While there was no way to control the gas lights, this was soon to change as well. In Britain, theatres in London developed

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the show opened on 21 August, it was an immediate hit, and would subsequently be staged in Buffalo, Chicago, Denver and San Francisco. Thus,

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hold over the repertory and encouraged traditional modes of tragic writing in new playwrights. This clash culminated in the premiere of

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in New York, it was a huge success and ran for over two hundred performances up to twelve times per week until 1854. The adaptation by

467:. Parliament hoped that this would civilize the audiences and lead to more literate playwrighting—instead, it created an explosion of 2532: 1391:(1859) draw on the life that he knew best, that of the middle class. Other important Russian playwrights of the 19th century include 1204:

In Germany, drama entered a state of decline from which it did not recover until the 1890s. The major playwrights of the period were

614:

wrote popular domestic comedies and introduced a more naturalistic style of acting and stagecraft to the British stage in the 1860s.

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through the expression of inner impulses and aspirations of a people. Wagner used music to defeat performers' personal whims. The

970:. Reacting off of current events, many playwrights wrote short comedies that dealt with the major issues of the day. For example, 900: 629:

to create a Christmas entertainment, unwittingly spawning one of the great duos of theatrical history. So successful were the 14

1252:(1813–1883) rejected the contemporary trend toward realism and argued that the dramatist should be a myth maker who portrays an 941:

In the pre-Civil War era, there were also many types of more political drama staged across the United States. As America pushed

2383: 2281: 521:

initiated a trend towards more contemporary and rural stories in preference to the usual historical or fantastical melodramas.

172:, theatrical melodrama continued to be more popular and brought in larger audiences than the state-sponsored drama and operas. 151:

became the most popular theatrical form of the century. Melodrama itself can be traced back to classical Greece, but the term

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for the theatre were gradually removed over the first half of the century. Kotzebue's plays were translated into English and

406: 791:. During the early part of this period, Philadelphia continued to be the major theatrical centre: plays would often open in 560:

are all examples of managers who created productions in which they were the star performer. Irving especially dominated the

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exposure to the leading roles. However, they also introduced significant reforms into the theatrical process. For example,

330:

By the 1840s, however, enthusiasm for Romantic drama had faded in France and a new "Theatre of Common Sense" replaced it.

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was a six-act production that stood on its own, without any other entertainments or afterpiece. Minstrelsy's reaction to

2252: 1579:. Unlike most of the gloomy and intensely serious work of their contemporaries, Shaw and Wilde wrote primarily in the 1381: 264:

playwrights, inspired a growing faith in feeling and instinct as guides to moral behavior. Romantics borrowed from the

201: 887:

performances that mocked people specifically of African descent. The shows were performed by Caucasians in make-up or

2219: 2201: 2186: 2171: 2156: 2134: 1989: 1902: 1008: 996: 1099: 945:

in the 1830s and 40s, theatres began to stage plays that romanticized and masked treatment of Native Americans like

926:

persuasions, and theatre Riots were a regular occurrence in New York. An example of the power of these stars is the

702:, and Thomas Abthorpe Cooper, who later was considered the leading actor in North America. In its infancy after the 2537: 2481: 1217: 1308:

were the most accomplished playwrights. As elsewhere, Russia was dominated by melodrama and musical theatre. More

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took up the genre, with Collins describing the well-made play as: “Make ’em laugh; make ’em weep; make ’em wait.”

168:(1789) is often considered the classic melodramatic play. Although monopolies and subsidies were reinstated under 2491: 732: 21: 1832: 192:

In Paris, the 19th century saw a flourishing of melodrama in the many theatres that were located on the popular

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were the most deeply concerned with theatre. After a time, Romanticism was adopted in France with the plays of

592:, translations of French farces and, from the 1860s, French operettas, continued to be popular, together with 2596: 1749:

Encyclopædia Britannica Editors. "well-made play". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 1 November 2015.

1624:

becoming the first theatre in the world to introduce a fully electrified theatrical lighting system in 1881.

1539:

was viewed as an attack on family and home, while the allusions to venereal disease and sexual misconduct in

1373: 401: 2501: 2404: 1784: 852: 695: 679: 673: 564:

for almost 30 years from 1871 to 1899 and was hero-worshipped by his audiences. When he died in 1905, King

443: 1160: 529:

established a "gentlemanly" drama that began to re-establish the former prestige of the theatre with the

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and, without any strong copyright laws, was immediately dramatized on stages across the country. At the

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The realisation of Zola's ideas was hindered by a lack of capable dramatists writing naturalist drama.

1406: 1238:) and the rise of the director (at the expense of the actor) as the dominant artist in theatre-making. 1183: 1170:

innovated with comic musical plays from the 1870s, but London imports came to dominate, beginning with

1163:

slowly moved north from lower Manhattan until it finally arrived in midtown at the end of the century.

251: 2240:"well-made play". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 1 November 2015. 930:

in 1849, which was caused by a conflict between the American star Edwin Forrest and the English actor

2345: 2290: 1656: 1556:(1899) evoke a sense of mysterious forces at work in human destiny, which was to be a major theme of 1392: 1000: 831: 581:

to the process. Before this lead actors would rarely rehearse their parts with the rest of the cast:

419: 1141: 1115:

at Menlo Park to see if the electric light bulb could be incorporated into a musical ballet called

856: 835:

was well-received when it premiered in 1831 and was performed at Drury Lane in London in 1836 with

800: 742: 736: 650: 610:(1841) was a comedy in the style of Sheridan, but he wrote in various styles, including melodrama. 574: 455: 247: 200:. All this was to come to an end, however, when most of these theatres were demolished during the 1128:

was born and would radically change not just stage lighting, but the principles of scenic design.

2511: 2506: 2486: 2122:

Baily, Leslie (1956). The Gilbert and Sullivan Book (fourth ed.). London: Cassell. OCLC 21934871.

1625: 1369: 1156: 1137: 1081: 691: 506: 278: 2547: 2164:

The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day.

826: 776: 772: 561: 522: 518: 305: 585:'s most famous direction to his fellow actors being, "stand upstage of me and do your worst." 2575: 2369: 2267: 1561: 1447: 1402: 1387: 1360: 1321: 986: 912: 557: 514: 365: 1020:

himself was frequently portrayed as a harmless bootlicker to be ridiculed. Troupes known as

2304: 1557: 1438: 1429: 1397: 1351: 1297: 1205: 1175: 1149: 1108: 991: 796: 634: 526: 485: 478: 309: 243: 155:

did not appear until 1766 and only entered popular usage sometime after 1800. The plays of

94: 76: 1478: 1332:

than elsewhere in Europe and took a more uncompromising form. Beginning with the plays of

357: 8: 1758:

Gautier, Histoire de l'art dramatique en France (1859), cited in Cardwell (1983), p. 876.

1568: 1552: 1337: 1213: 1171: 1073: 935: 715: 703: 661: 593: 389: 156: 1320:. Under close government supervision, the Russian theatre expanded considerably. Prince 2335: 2319: 2309: 1912: 1646: 1493: 1489: 1468: 1451:(1859) and contemporary political and economic conditions, found its main proponent in 1365: 1242: 1221: 1195: 1034: 879: 755: 706:, many Americans lamented the lack of a 'native drama', even while playwrights such as 569: 431: 415: 381: 255: 231: 230:, a revolution in theatre architecture, and the introduction of the theatrical form of 193: 176: 2248: 2230: 2215: 2197: 2182: 2167: 2152: 2130: 1985: 1898: 1827: 1505: 1433: 1317: 1309: 1301: 1287: 1120: 942: 784: 719: 618: 464: 423: 274: 265: 144: 110: 80: 2177:

Booth, Michael R. 1995. 'Nineteenth-Century Theatre'. In John Russell Brown. 1995.

1341: 1061: 931: 927: 768: 723: 606: 451: 373: 294: 227: 102: 60: 1503:

Ibsen was born in Norway in 1828. He wrote 25 plays, the most famous of which are

1482: 1463: 1092:, and Irish playwrights came to dominate the stage, including Daly, Harrigan, and 597: 56: 1576: 1305: 1266: 1234: 1225: 1179: 1167: 1089: 1085: 1046: 1042: 982:

was a play that dealt with the struggle between America's two political parties.

908: 896: 639: 626: 611: 601: 510: 494: 442:, interspersed dramatic scenes with musical interludes and comic skits after the 439: 427: 314: 290: 260: 89: 68: 40: 2058:

Brockett and Hildy (2003, 370, 372) and Benedetti (2005, 100) and (1999, 14–17).

1379:

Ostrovsky is often credited with creating a peculiarly Russian drama. His plays

749: 2420: 1580: 1442: 1329: 1293: 1249: 1229: 1209: 1199: 1125: 1093: 1050: 975: 788: 711: 699: 687: 435: 377: 345: 339: 84: 52: 25: 2361: 1880:

Rogue Performances: Staging the Underclasses in Early American Theatre Culture

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From the 1880s onwards, theatres began to be gradually electrified with the

1452: 418:

allowed plays to be shown at only two theatres in London during the winter:

238:

and the visual arts, German writers were increasingly fascinated with their

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New York City's importance as a theatrical center grew in the 1870s around

1133: 892: 883: 844: 804: 707: 683: 588:

Melodramas, light comedies, operas, Shakespeare and classic English drama,

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Beginning in France after the theatre monopolies were abolished during the

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integrated elements of the minstrel show and competed with it for a time.

131: 1572: 1567:

After Ibsen, British theatre experienced revitalization with the work of

1546: 1474: 1456: 1355: 962:

Some fifty of these plays were produced between 1825 and 1860, including

822: 657: 630: 582: 530: 502: 459: 324: 319: 298: 286: 217: 98: 44: 2151:. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. 1980:

Postlewait, Thomas (1999). Wilmeth, Don B.; Bigsby, Christopher (eds.).

1962:

Postlewait, Thomas (1999). Wilmeth, Don B.; Bigsby, Christopher (eds.).

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against each other, leaving at least 25 dead and more than 120 injured.

536: 1275: 1270: 1132:

vaudevillians, and circuses. For example, in 1895, the Burt Theatre in

1069: 1057: 947: 645: 589: 565: 489: 468: 1878:

Reed, Peter. "Slave Revolt and Classical Blackness in The Gladiator".

1745: 1743: 1212:. The lack of new dramatists was not keenly felt because the plays of 2314: 1609: 1017: 963: 888: 792: 578: 148: 126: 48: 1060:

society, Irish American performers began to find success, including

39:

culture of Europe and the United States in the 19th century. In the

1740: 1613: 447: 169: 1865:

History of the American Drama: from the Beginning to the Civil War

1850:

History of the American Drama: From the Beginning to the Civil War

1417: 548:

who managed the establishments and often acted in the lead roles.

2196:. Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1825:

The first "Edwardian musical comedy" is usually considered to be

916: 239: 36: 2259: 1982:

The Cambridge History of American Theatre, Volume II, 1870–1945

1964:

The Cambridge History of American Theatre, Volume II, 1870–1945

1257: 1253: 807:, New York took over as the dominant city in American theatre. 764: 304:

Through the 1830s in France, the theatre struggled against the

1984:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 128–137. 1949:

Staging the Nation: Plays from the American Theater, 1787–1909

2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 1261: 919: 907:. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the 904: 694:

and gathered a group of actors and playwrights that included

64: 664:

offered sophisticated social comment and were very popular.

454:. Outside of the metropolitan area of London, theatres like 222:

In Germany, there was a trend toward historical accuracy in

686:

was the dominant theatrical centre until the 1820s. There,

2227:

Melodrama Unveiled: American Theatre and Culture, 1800–50.

974:

was a farce produced in 1835 at the Bowery in reaction to

1024:

companies specialized in such burlesques, and theatrical

1966:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 147. 1189: 2119:

Victoria and Albert Museum, 2015. Web. 1 November 2015.

1821: 1819: 1773:

Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 1 November 2015.

1459:

than in all the empty worm-eaten palaces of history."

1336:(who used "domestic detail to reveal inner turmoil"), 1766: 1764: 1159:

until it became the primary theatre center, and the

1148:

in New York. This culminated in the founding of the

1144:

that spanned over seven hundred theatres, including

211: 1816: 825:flourished in Europe and America with writers like 1897:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 761. 1761: 1340:(who was Russia's first professional playwright), 544:Theatres throughout the century were dominated by 364:Its structure was employed by realist playwrights 2588: 2192:Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. 2391: 2245:Forgotten Comedies of the 19th Century Theater. 1736:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 308. 1612:for the stage in the late 1830s. In Paris, the 1186:at the turn of the century and into the 1920s. 895:. Minstrel songs and sketches featured several 667: 1893:Burrows, Edwin G. & Wallace, Mike (1999). 2377: 2275: 1328:Realism began earlier in the 19th century in 1917:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1281: 1178:from 1880, and finally (in competition with 414:In the early years of the 19th century, the 16:19th-century European and US theatre culture 1535:shocked conservatives: Nora's departure in 980:Whigs and Democrats, or Love of No Politics 35:describes a wide range of movements in the 2384: 2370: 2282: 2268: 1979: 1961: 1895:Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 501:was the first of many English melodramas. 430:of 1809. After Covent Garden burned down, 2179:The Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre 1412: 471:, comedies and sensationalist melodramas. 1711:The golden age of the Boulevard du Crime 1586: 1416: 1269:." Wagner also introduced a new type of 1098: 809: 535: 473: 450:—leading to the formation of the modern 405: 130: 20: 1946: 1892: 1782: 891:for the purpose of playing the role of 2589: 966:performances of the "noble savage" by 958:Metamora or the Last of the Wampanoags 851:implicitly attacks the institution of 596:. The most successful dramatists were 202:rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann 2365: 2263: 2212:History of European Drama and Theatre 2043: 1975: 1973: 1951:. Boston: Bedford Books. p. 181. 1936:. Harper & Brothers. p. 275. 1931: 1867:. Harper & Brothers. p. 161. 1862: 1852:. Harper & Brothers. p. 203. 1847: 1843: 1841: 1831:(1892). See, e.g., Charlton, Fraser. 1731: 1652:Nineteenth-century theatrical scenery 1593:Nineteenth-century theatrical scenery 1190:Meiningen Ensemble and Richard Wagner 395: 275:those who called themselves Romantics 2142:Theatre, Performance and Technology. 1441:, a theatrical movement born out of 1056:In Boston, although ostracized from 653:came to dominate the musical stage. 161:René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt 2247:Clarion Publishing, Staunton, Va.. 2181:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2067:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 362–363). 2013:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 357–359). 1835:FrasrWeb 2007, accessed 12 May 2011 1813:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 326–327). 1804:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 297–298). 1722:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 278–280). 1674:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 293–426). 13: 2243:Stephenson, Laura, et al. (2013). 2214:. New York: Taylor & Francis. 1970: 1838: 1382:Enough Stupidity in Every Wise Man 1312:began to emerge with the plays of 577:was the first to introduce proper 14: 2608: 1597: 1103:Excelsior by the Kiralfy Brothers 989:published the anti-slavery novel 934:. The riot pitted immigrants and 333: 212:Romanticism in Germany and France 175:Melodrama involved a plethora of 2571: 2570: 2289: 1877: 1783:Bratton, Jacky (15 March 2014). 1631: 1218:Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen 1126:electric lighting in the theatre 621:brought together the librettist 242:past and had a growing sense of 2127:The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. 2097: 2088: 2079: 2070: 2061: 2052: 2049:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 370). 2040:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 293). 2034: 2031:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 378). 2025: 2016: 2007: 1998: 1955: 1940: 1925: 1886: 1871: 1856: 1807: 1798: 1776: 1683:Brockett and Hildy (2003, 277). 1424:, the "father" of modern drama. 1182:and musicals by the Gershwins) 2210:Fischer-Lichte, Erika. 2001. 2149:Stanislavski: His Life and Art 1752: 1725: 1716: 1713:Theatre online.com (in French) 1704: 1695: 1686: 1677: 1668: 1466:emerged in the 1880s with his 814:Edwin Forrest as Spartacus in 656:In the 1890s, the comedies of 410:Covent Garden Theatre in 1809. 1: 2351:20th-century theatre timeline 1934:History of the American Drama 1932:Quinn, Arthur Hobson (1923). 1863:Quinn, Arthur Hobson (1923). 1848:Quinn, Arthur Hobson (1923). 1785:"Theatre in the 19th century" 1662: 1374:Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko 1119:that they were to present at 978:'s battle with the banks and 402:Theatre of the United Kingdom 28:'s Bayreuth Festival Theatre. 853:Slavery in the United States 674:Theater of the United States 668:Theatre in the United States 308:, which maintained a strong 120: 7: 2144:London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2140:Baugh, Christopher (2005). 1640: 862:Oralloosa, Son of the Incas 10: 2613: 2125:Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. 2109: 2022:Fischer-Lichte (2001, 245) 2004:Postlewait (1999, 154–157) 1734:Nineteenth-century Theatre 1590: 1575:, and (in fact from 1900) 1427: 1407:Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin 1285: 1193: 1184:Edwardian musical comedies 911:, her counterpart the old 671: 399: 337: 252:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 234:. Influenced by trends in 215: 124: 33:Nineteenth-century theatre 2566: 2525: 2474: 2413: 2400: 2328: 2297: 2229:Chicago: U of Chicago P. 2129:Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 1732:Booth, Michael R (1995). 1657:Twentieth-century theatre 1393:Alexander Sukhovo-Kobylin 1282:Rise of realism in Russia 1224:, under the direction of 953:The Pawnee Chief, De Soto 444:Lord Chamberlain's Office 1947:Wilmeth, Don B. (1998). 1614:electric carbon arc lamp 932:William Charles Macready 651:Edwardian musical comedy 575:William Charles Macready 248:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 236:20th -century philosophy 2225:Grimsted, David. 1968. 2147:Benedetti, Jean. 1999. 1401:(1869) anticipated the 1370:Konstantin Stanislavski 692:Chestnut Street Theatre 507:Douglas William Jerrold 279:August Wilhelm Schlegel 101:drawing-room comedies, 2194:History of the Theatre 1425: 1413:Naturalism and Realism 1166:On the musical stage, 1104: 827:Robert Montgomery Bird 818: 617:In 1871, the producer 541: 523:James Sheridan Knowles 519:John Baldwin Buckstone 482: 446:allowed them to stage 411: 190: 140: 29: 2117:19th-century theatre. 1833:"What are EdMusComs?" 1771:19th century theatre. 1701:Grimsted (1968, 248). 1587:Technological Changes 1562:Theatre of the Absurd 1448:The Origin of Species 1420: 1403:Theatre of the Absurd 1361:The Power of Darkness 1322:Alexander Shakhovskoy 1102: 1011:content at the time. 987:Harriet Beecher Stowe 972:Removing the Deposits 899:, most popularly the 868:. But the success of 855:by "transforming the 813: 558:Herbert Beerbohm Tree 540:Henry Irving portrait 539: 515:James Roland MacLaren 477: 456:Astley's Amphitheatre 409: 366:Alexandre Dumas, fils 185: 134: 109:in the late works of 97:'s plays and operas, 24: 2597:19th-century theatre 1626:Richard D'Oyly Carte 1430:Naturalism (theatre) 1298:Aleksandr Griboyedov 1176:Gilbert and Sullivan 866:The Broker of Bogota 635:Gilbert and Sullivan 527:Edward Bulwer-Lytton 486:Percy Bysshe Shelley 479:Edward Bulwer-Lytton 277:during this period, 244:romantic nationalism 196:, especially in the 183:(1968), argues that: 95:Gilbert and Sullivan 2103:Baugh (2005, 11–33) 1569:George Bernard Shaw 1560:and the so-called " 1553:When We Dead Awaken 1350:(1859) anticipated 1338:Aleksandr Ostrovsky 1172:Victorian burlesque 839:as Spartacus, with 733:John Street Theatre 716:James Nelson Barker 704:American Revolution 662:George Bernard Shaw 594:Victorian burlesque 390:George Bernard Shaw 157:August von Kotzebue 2558:Volcanic eruptions 2336:History of theatre 1692:Booth (1995, 300). 1647:History of theatre 1494:Arthur Wing Pinero 1490:Henry Arthur Jones 1426: 1366:Moscow Art Theatre 1316:and the acting of 1243:Meiningen Ensemble 1222:Meiningen Ensemble 1196:Meiningen Ensemble 1105: 915:, the provocative 819: 756:The Italian Father 570:Theodore Roosevelt 542: 483: 432:John Philip Kemble 412: 396:Theatre in Britain 382:Henry Arthur Jones 256:Friedrich Schiller 232:German Romanticism 194:Boulevard du Crime 181:Melodrama Unveiled 141: 30: 2584: 2583: 2359: 2358: 2235:978-0-226-30901-9 2166:London: Methuen. 2094:Booth (1995, 303) 2076:Booth (1995, 302) 1479:François de Curel 1434:Realism (theatre) 1318:Mikhail Shchepkin 1302:Alexander Pushkin 1288:Realism (theatre) 1168:Harrigan and Hart 1150:Theatre Syndicate 1007:is indicative of 1005:Uncle Tom's Cabin 992:Uncle Tom's Cabin 878:emerged as brief 720:John Howard Payne 625:and the composer 619:John Hollingshead 499:A Tale of Mystery 358:Théophile Gautier 306:Comédie Française 145:French Revolution 111:August Strindberg 2604: 2574: 2573: 2386: 2379: 2372: 2363: 2362: 2284: 2277: 2270: 2261: 2260: 2104: 2101: 2095: 2092: 2086: 2083: 2077: 2074: 2068: 2065: 2059: 2056: 2050: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2032: 2029: 2023: 2020: 2014: 2011: 2005: 2002: 1996: 1995: 1977: 1968: 1967: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1929: 1923: 1922: 1916: 1908: 1890: 1884: 1883: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1860: 1854: 1853: 1845: 1836: 1823: 1814: 1811: 1805: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1780: 1774: 1768: 1759: 1756: 1750: 1747: 1738: 1737: 1729: 1723: 1720: 1714: 1708: 1702: 1699: 1693: 1690: 1684: 1681: 1675: 1672: 1398:Tarelkin's Death 1342:Aleksey Pisemsky 1161:Theater District 1109:Kiralfy brothers 1062:Lawrence Barrett 997:National Theatre 928:Astor Place riot 897:Stock characters 803:performers like 724:Samuel Woodworth 690:established the 607:London Assurance 374:Victorien Sardou 344:In France, the " 295:Alfred de Musset 135:Honoré Daumier, 2612: 2611: 2607: 2606: 2605: 2603: 2602: 2601: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2562: 2521: 2470: 2409: 2396: 2392:History of the 2390: 2360: 2355: 2324: 2293: 2288: 2258: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1992: 1978: 1971: 1960: 1956: 1945: 1941: 1930: 1926: 1910: 1909: 1905: 1891: 1887: 1876: 1872: 1861: 1857: 1846: 1839: 1824: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1789: 1787: 1781: 1777: 1769: 1762: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1741: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1643: 1634: 1600: 1595: 1589: 1577:John Galsworthy 1436: 1428:Main articles: 1415: 1310:realistic drama 1306:Nikolai Polevoy 1290: 1284: 1267:master art work 1235:Gesamtkunstwerk 1232:would call the 1226:Ludwig Chronegk 1202: 1194:Main articles: 1192: 1180:George M. Cohan 1142:Edward F. Albee 1121:Niblo's Gardens 1090:Laurette Taylor 1086:George M. Cohan 1082:John McCullough 1047:Dion Boucicault 1043:Edward Harrigan 676: 670: 640:H.M.S. Pinafore 627:Arthur Sullivan 612:T. W. Robertson 602:Dion Boucicault 511:Edward Fitzball 495:Thomas Holcroft 428:Old Price riots 404: 398: 342: 336: 291:Alexandre Dumas 261:Sturm und Drang 246:. The plays of 220: 214: 129: 123: 90:Gesamtkunstwerk 53:well-made plays 43:, they include 17: 12: 11: 5: 2610: 2600: 2599: 2582: 2581: 2579: 2578: 2567: 2564: 2563: 2561: 2560: 2555: 2553:Solar eclipses 2550: 2545: 2543:Lunar eclipses 2540: 2535: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2522: 2520: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2478: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2469: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2397: 2389: 2388: 2381: 2374: 2366: 2357: 2356: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2332: 2330: 2326: 2325: 2323: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2294: 2287: 2286: 2279: 2272: 2264: 2257: 2256: 2253:978-1492881025 2241: 2238: 2223: 2208: 2205: 2190: 2175: 2160: 2145: 2138: 2123: 2120: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2096: 2087: 2078: 2069: 2060: 2051: 2042: 2033: 2024: 2015: 2006: 1997: 1990: 1969: 1954: 1939: 1924: 1903: 1885: 1870: 1855: 1837: 1815: 1806: 1797: 1775: 1760: 1751: 1739: 1724: 1715: 1703: 1694: 1685: 1676: 1666: 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2001: 1993: 1991:0-521-65179-4 1987: 1983: 1976: 1974: 1965: 1958: 1950: 1943: 1935: 1928: 1920: 1914: 1906: 1904:0-195-11634-8 1900: 1896: 1889: 1881: 1874: 1866: 1859: 1851: 1844: 1842: 1834: 1830: 1829: 1822: 1820: 1810: 1801: 1786: 1779: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1755: 1746: 1744: 1735: 1728: 1719: 1712: 1707: 1698: 1689: 1680: 1671: 1667: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1644: 1638: 1632:Scenic design 1629: 1627: 1623: 1622:Savoy Theatre 1618: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1594: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1549: 1548: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1519: 1518:The Wild Duck 1514: 1513: 1508: 1507: 1501: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1483:Eugène Brieux 1480: 1476: 1471: 1470: 1469:Théâtre Libre 1465: 1464:André Antoine 1460: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1423: 1419: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1389: 1384: 1383: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1348: 1347:A Bitter Fate 1343: 1339: 1335: 1334:Ivan Turgenev 1331: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1314:Nikolai Gogol 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1289: 1279: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1236: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1201: 1197: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1129: 1127: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1113:Thomas Edison 1110: 1107:In 1883, the 1101: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1078:Annie Yeamans 1075: 1071: 1067: 1066:James O'Neill 1063: 1059: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1039:Augustin Daly 1036: 1031: 1029: 1028: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 993: 988: 983: 981: 977: 973: 969: 968:John Brougham 965: 961: 959: 954: 950: 949: 944: 939: 937: 933: 929: 923: 921: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 885: 881: 877: 873: 871: 870:The Gladiator 867: 863: 858: 854: 850: 849:The Gladiator 846: 842: 838: 837:Edwin Forrest 834: 833: 832:The Gladiator 828: 824: 817: 812: 808: 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 760: 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Nineteenth-century theatre

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