2194:, "Many New Life rules were eminently sensible, such as those advocating healthy living, cleanliness, vaccination, and the killing of flies and mosquitoes. Compared to attempts to re-educate and dragoon the Chinese people by Chiang's Communist successor, the movement was positively benign. But, in a country with problems on the scale of those faced by China, the initiative was like the admonitions of a frustrated father wagging his finger at his unruly children. The message never reached the bulk of illiterate peasants, who were, in any case, more concerned with survival than with wearing their hats straight. Being told to eat in silence and go to bed early could only make the modern-minded urban elite regard the regime as a bunch of petty busybodies." Fenby also notes that modern-day China itself has also tried similar government-sponsored efforts to encourage the Chinese people to "behave better", citing the Public Morality Day of autumn 2003 as "a loud echo of the New Life movement."
2208:. Yet it never had much success. While China suffered from a massive agricultural and fiscal crisis, prescriptions about clothes and orderly behaviour did not have much popular traction." He also asserted that contemporary China has consciously or not imitated many aspects of the New Life Movement in recent years, pointing to Chinese society, where points are given by local committees to residents who throw away their garbage and put out plants to decorate their houses. In the run-up to the Olympics, Beijing residents were told of a new 'morality evaluation index' which would give credit for 'displays of patriotism, large book collections, and balconies full of potted plants' and lower grades for 'alcohol abuse, noise complaints, pollution, or a violation of licences covering internet cafes and karaoke parlours'. Public toilets in tourist areas are also being upgraded and star-rated."
2034:, who served as Meiling's New Life Movement adviser and had a close relationship with her, protested to Meiling about what he saw as the KMT's drift towards non-liberal ideologies, feeling that she was perhaps among the more reasonable members of the Nationalist government. Although Endicott supported some aspects of the Movement, he disagreed that it should be involved in the government. After she urged him to share his growing concerns with Chiang personally, Endicott brusquely told Chiang that if he failed to base the government's domestic policies on the needs of the people, including instituting agrarian reform, then revolutionary forces would eventually rise against him. Chiang replied that while he had plans for land reform, he could not carry them out "while there are so many Communists around to take advantage of it", ending their discussion after a heated exchange.
2021:, Meiling's elder sister who long espoused socialist ideals in contrast with Meiling's more traditional Christian ones, dismissed the New Life Movement as a "pedantic" exercise that "gives nothing to the people" and that such profound emphasis on ancient Confucian ideals of proper behavior were largely impractical and ill-advised in a time when millions of Chinese families were still starving daily. She further argued that, "The aim of revolution is the material welfare of human beings...if that is not reached then there has been no revolution." Their essential differences, with Chingling focusing mostly on the Chinese people's considerable material necessities, and Meiling on what she saw as their people's lofty spiritual needs, contributed to the rift between the two once-close sisters, which eventually led to Chingling leaving the KMT entirely and joining the Communists.
2028:, stated that as "there is neither any panacea to save the country nor will there be any miracle cure to revive the nation", the problems that the Movement sought to address were indeed considerable and prevalent, but Chiang's methods of countering them were much less valid, and that the ROC should focus on renewing the material well-being of the Chinese people before trying to revive their so-called spirituality. According to Hu Shih, "When children were scouring rubbish dumps to find half a burnt-out coal, or a bit of filthy rag, how could you accuse them of dishonesty if they pocketed a lost item they had picked up? The first responsibility of the government is to make sure the average man can live a decent life…To teach them how to lead this so-called new life can only be the last thing."
2275:'s biographer, the New Life Movement was a "curious East-West ideological fusion of neo-Confucian precepts, thinly disguised, New Testament Christianity, YMCA-Style social activism, elements of Bushido—the samurai code—and European fascism, along with a generous dose of New England Puritanism." She concluded that, "In reality, the real and lasting impact of the New Life Movement on Chinese society was limited. Albeit noble, its battle against the immemorial ills of Chinese life—gambling, opium, debauchery, poverty, begging, robbery, filth, corruption, and indifference to the public good amounted to tilting at windmills. A mass movement that rejected popular initiative, New Life tried to imbue the public with a political consciousness while denying it a political voice."
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2134:. According to Elmer Clark, the new doctrine was "an ambitious moral and ethical enterprise which proposed nothing less than a Chinese renaissance, a complete reformation of the habits, customs and manners of one fourth of the human race, to bring them more in line with the accepted morals of Christian civilisation". Overlapping moral guidelines exist between Confucianism and Christianity. The 95 rules placed in the New Life movement often blur the lines between the influence of the two on the Movement, such as "do not gamble" or "be polite and courteous to women and children".
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to conquer other people but to cultivate "courage and swiftness, the endurance of suffering, a tolerance of hard work, especially the habit and ability of unified action." The aim was to say "farewell to yesterday's barbarian way of life, its disorderliness, lethargy, and depression." These were hardly objectionable goals, especially when framed in the innocent bromides of
Confucius and Christ." He also notes that Chiang developed deep personal reservations regarding the Blue Shirts, having mused in a letter to the newspaper '
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the seeming banality of its concerns caused both
Chinese and foreign commentators to ignore the significance of New Life ideology and intentions and instead to stress the more superficial aspects of the movement. Consequently, the movement was approached variously as a joke, or to those taking it more seriously, a shallow and antiquated regression to Chinese tradition when tradition had already proved incapable of solving China's problems. Historian Suzy Kim summarizes its failure as due to a "lack of cohesion."
1994:, a famous American journalist who interviewed her in Shanghai regarding the Movement in August 1937, she stated that: "No. China would never take Fascism or any form of the totalitarian state. We can't ever be really regimented. Every Chinese is a personality. He will always think for himself. He has an ancient and magnificent culture, a sense of justice, a love of freedom. The New Life Movement has definitely rejected all forms of regimentation as being opposed to the principles of Dr.
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2223:, "How would I differ from the Communists...if I were to imitate the so-called fascists...of Italy?" and by mid-1934, had become "thoroughly disillusioned with the organization". Unlike the Brown Shirts, who numbered two million and functioned as Hitler's private paramilitary around the same time period, the exclusive Blue Shirts had only about three hundred official members when it finally disbanded in 1938.
1919:). He contended that "lackadaisicalness" led to lives without a sense of right or wrong, and hence with no distinctions or purpose. "Self-seekingness," he argued, led to the rejection of all outside interference with this kind of behaviour as encroachment on "freedom". There was no consideration for others and their rights, only of one's own comfort, inevitably obstructing social life and group solidarity.
2286:. While both movements had superficial similarities in terms of changing everyday behavior, "The New Life Movement sought to expand the power of the state and was instituted from the top down for the purposes of mobilizing people around its own agenda as a form of 'controlled popular mobilization,' whereas the Cultural Revolution was a bottom-up movement that periodically escaped control of the state"
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society and administrative institutions under the impact of the war in the first phase of the conflict" and that in conclusion, "the complex network of New Life
Movement organisations in the administrative structure helped stabilise the Nationalist state during the first years of the war, and the involvement of civil servants tempered the centrifugal drifting of the administrative institutions."
1978:, an American magazine, in 1935, that "the mere accumulation of great wealth is not sufficient to enable China to resume her position as a great nation." There must be, she continued, "also revival of the spirit, since spiritual values transcend mere material riches. She played a major role both in launching the Movement and in representing its public face.
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citizens, the policies of
Marxists were far more practical and coherent, leading to the lack of significance attributed to the New Life Movement. On a Western perspective, Chiang's complex code of ethics was far too abstract and lacking in action to be useful or pragmatic, perceived as being superficial and inordinately idealistic.
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the 'Three Rules of
Discipline' (obedience to orders, no confiscations of peasant property and the prompt surrender to higher authority of all things taken from landlords) and 'Eight Points of Attention' (politeness, honesty, courtesy to women and so on) in an effort to make Chinese soldiers aspire to higher standards of behavior.
2045:. "The poor were told it was right to rob the rich; employees were encouraged to betray or even kill their employers; children were urged to denounce their parents. To Chiang, these 'struck at all the fundamental principles' of traditional Chinese ethics. He took it upon himself to resurrect the ethics of
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Jay Taylor argues that Chiang's motives for launching the New Life
Movement were overall understandable given China's dire situation at the time, even if it did not achieve the results that many had hoped or imagined, nor did Chiang really seek to use the Movement itself to engage in imperialism, but
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suggested that the New Life
Movement was "Confucian fascism". Other historians, however, have provided more positive or mixed reviews of the New Life Movement, noting that it was not without some positive benefits to Chinese society at the time, and have argued that while a flawed, overidealistic and
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Shirt' terrorists, who once useful, now unmanageable, have become something of a
Frankenstein monster." The association of the violent and repressive behaviour of the Blue Shirts compounded the less than enthusiastic reception of the Movement, further attributing to it a negative reputation as well.
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noted that "they were eradicating the old China's vices of gambling, opium-smoking, vulgar opera performances, superstition, excessive feasting and banditry", through which Mao defended the use of extreme force to end what he saw as corrupt and harmful practices. Mao himself eventually implemented
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were also instrumental in the implementation of the New Life movement. The neo-right wing group at first sought to correct the behaviour of those not following the four virtues and the further 95 rules placed. However, they soon turned to force to reinforce Chiang's ideals, giving bad publicity and
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Chinese women, who in one instance helped raise an "extraordinary amount of money during the New Life
Movement Fifth Anniversary fund-raising campaign of 1939." She further states that "the involvement of civil servants through the New Life Movement wartime campaigns prevented the disintegration of
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habits—frugality and conscience, simplicity, honesty, and even promptness, hygiene, and neatness. For critics, the disturbing aspect of the movement was its intention to "thoroughly militarize the lives of the citizens of the entire nation." Yet the purpose of this "complete militarization" was not
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According to
American professor and political scientist A. James Gregor, who disputes other historians' critical assessment of the Movement, "In effect, there was nothing in the New Life Movement that was specifically fascist. Certainly the Chinese Marxists did not so characterize it when it first
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Despite the grandiose goal of revitalising and revolutionising China, the New Life Movement ultimately ended in failure as both domestic and foreign reception remained paltry throughout the duration of the movement. The combination of the movement's inability to formulate a systematic ideology and
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Although Meiling acknowledged that the Blue Shirts were "stupid, overzealous, dizzy with success", she also stated that the government did not officially support most of their activities or condone their behavior. Several prominent figures within the KMT itself, however, also openly criticized the
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Chiang relied on government law enforcement to reinforce moral behaviour. Task forces were created in different regions to implement the movement, yet, in reports from some districts on the implementation, the movement was seen to be severely underfunded, understaffed and poorly understood by law
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The Movement's inability to formulate a systematic ideology and abstract code of ethics contrasted sharply with the promises of the Communists, who spoke sharply and to the point on taxation, distribution of land and the disposition of overlords. From the perspective of some impoverished Chinese
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Chiang later extended the four virtues to eight by the addition of "Promptness", "Precision," "Harmoniousness," and "Dignity". These elements were summarized in two basic forms: "cleanliness" and "discipline" and were viewed as the first step in achieving a "new life". People were encouraged to
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writes "by 1936, the Blue Shirts were running amok, driven by excesses of zeal and brutality, giving the New Life Movement a bad name". The Literary Digest observed that year, 'Most likely to upset the teacups were Chiang's own civilian, anti-foreign, bombing, stabbing, shooting 'Blue
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must be applied to ordinary life in the matter of food, clothing, shelter, and action. The four virtues are the essential principles for the promotion of morality. They form the major rules for dealing with men and human affairs, for cultivating oneself and for adjustment to one's surroundings.
2304:, "Although it is easy to lampoon the New Life Movement – as indeed it was at the time – it has had a long influence. Even today many schools and offices in China display 'civility certificates' in the same way that those in the West display hygiene and health and safety certifications. Today,
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has again imposed limits on entertainment allowances and continues to campaign against extravagance. New Life ideals have sufficiently broad appeal that their promotion bolsters the standing of those in power. He also points to the Hunan peasant revolution in 1927, in which former CCP leader
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writes that "Corruption was an abiding feature of Chiang Kai-shek's rule" and that nepotism and bribery were rife among the bureaucracy. Chiang charged that "If we do not weed the present body of corruption, bribery, perfunctoriness, and ignorance, and establish instead a clean, effective
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of previous centuries. The New life Movement "four virtues" were taken from Confucian school of thought. Paul Linebarger had stated that the New Life Movement's "principles consist of a simple restatement of the cardinal Confucian personal virtues, interpreted to suit modern conditions."
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manifested itself in early 1934. In fact, for a very long time Chinese Marxists did not identify 'fascism' in the political activities of the Kuomintang, even though as early as 1928 they conceived its suppression of Communist activities in China as part of a program of "White Terror."
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one at that, with the resulting New Life Movement being a popularized or a "sloganized Confucianism". According to Keith Schoppa, the new set of beliefs was seen to be easy to execute, with four main virtues backed by 95 further sub-rules that regulated the everyday life of the regular
2251:; rejection of immoral entertainment in favour of artistic and athletic pursuits; courteous behaviour; saluting the flag. Chiang urged citizens to bathe with cold water, since the (supposed) Japanese habit of washing their faces with cold water was a sign of their military strength.
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notion of self-cultivation and correct living for the Movement; to this end it prescribed proper etiquette on every aspect of daily life. He considered the New Life Movement a key part of the program to carry out the "principle of the people's livelihood" in
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Other historians assert that the New Life Movement was not without its merits and positive values either, although they also concede it was not able to offset the KMT's painstaking struggle to resolve China's deep-rooted and complex socioeconomic problems.
2296:
briefly mentions the New Life Movement, describing it as neither a specifically reactionary nor a particularly successful sociopolitical movement, simply as "a program that sought to halt the spread of communism by teaching traditional Chinese values".
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respectively. The Movement attempted to counter such threats through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to more suitable to Chinese society to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon
1910:
described Chinese life as a life of "smoking," "sickness," "gambling," "filth," "ghosts" (i.e., superstition), and "indolence". Wang argued the fundamental psychological basis of such behaviour was "lackadaisicalness" (隨便主義,
2102:
engage in modern polite behaviour, such as not to spit, urinate or sneeze in public. They were encouraged to adopt good table manners such as not making noises when eating. Nearly 100 such rules governed everyday life.
1989:
Soong Meiling insisted that while some puritanical Chinese politicians tried to co-opt the New Life Movement for their own ends, her husband made efforts to put an end to their activities. In her interview with
1819:
to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo.
1894:. The launch of the New Life Movement was set in the context of the Chiangs' growing concern with corruption, and moral decadence that they blamed on foreign influences. Historian
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The New Life Movement at War: Wartime Mobilisation and State Control in Chongqing and Chengdu, 1938—1942 European Journal of East Asian Studies, Vol. 11, No. 2 (2012), pp. 187-212
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views on the movement. The excessive violence used by the Blue Shirts encompassed the movement, leading to a reluctant public in following the new dogma in place by the KMT.
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to address legitimately overwhelming issues in Chinese society: "The values that the movement sought to inculcate were mostly simple neo-Confucian merits and traditional
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belief: "The virtue of the gentleman is like wind; the virtue of the commoner is like grass. Let the wind blow over the grass and it is sure to bend." This concept of "
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Federica Ferlanti notes that for all its shortcomings, the New Life Movement was nevertheless able to help rally considerable number of ordinary Chinese people to the
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The New Life Movement aimed to control Chinese lifestyles. Some measures and moral codes included: opposition to littering and spitting at random; opposition to
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The New Life targeted the official, educated, and affluent classes in the belief that China's ills could be cured "by example and exhortation from above." This
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Chiang Kai-shek's September 1934 speech stated that the New Life Movement aimed at the "promotion of a regular life guided by the four virtues," – '
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1906:", "lazy", and physically and spiritually "decrepit", and thus leading lives that were "barbaric and devoid of reason." Chiang's political rival,
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2145:" due to the fact that it instrumentalised traditional moral codes and societal constructs. Some historians regard this movement as imitating
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launched the initiative on 19 February 1934 as part of an anti-Communist campaign, and soon enlarged the campaign to target the whole nation.
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explains the Movement as motivated by the need to counter Communist success in both ideological appeal and political organization.
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Chiang's original inception of the New Life Movement purportedly stemmed from his personal negative experiences in both the
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which fostered Western concepts such as liberalism, pragmatism and nationalism as well as more radical ideas including
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commented that, "Despite its anti-communism, it shared many values and assumptions with the CCP, with its stress on
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administration, the day will soon come when the revolution will be started against us as we did the Manchus".
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This Movement has also been accused of having a totalitarian element. Dirlik sees the movement as a "modern
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Dirlik, Arif (1975), "The Ideological Foundations of the New Life Movement: A Study in Counterrevolution",
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Arif Dirlik. "The Ideological Foundations of the New Life Movement: A Study in Counterrevolution."
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Whoever violates these rules is bound to fail, and a nation that neglects them will not survive."
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Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. (1997). "A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism."
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In Chiang's mind, these concerns were compounded by the influx of foreign ideas following the
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The historian Lloyd Eastman saw Chiang's goal as unifying China under a singular ideology, a
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Big Sister, Little Sister, Red Sister Three Women at the Heart of Twentieth-Century China
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Big Sister, Little Sister, Red Sister Three Women at the Heart of Twentieth-Century China
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and in Communist parts of China, where he became repulsed by their harsh reality of
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The New Life Movement was founded at a time when China, already weakened by Western
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1862:(恥/耻, shame; sense of right and wrong). The campaign proceeded with help of the
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The ideological strictness of the New Life Movement had many similarities with
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The lack of popular domestic reception is exacerbated by the behaviour of the
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China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China 1937-1952
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Soong Mei-ling called for a program of spiritual enlightenment. She wrote in
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While China Faced West: American Reformers in Nationalist China, 1928-1937
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Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History
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puritanical movement, it was not necessarily a fascist one at its core.
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Yip, Ka-che (1992). "New Life Movement". In Edwin Pak-wah Leung (ed.).
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Sources of Chinese Tradition: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century
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The Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China
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The Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China
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within the Nationalist Party, and Christian missionaries in China.
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A Place In The Sun: Marxism And Fascism In China's Long Revolution
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A Place In The Sun: Marxism And Fascism In China's Long Revolution
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Historian Suzy Kim contrasts the New Life Movement with the later
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The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927-1937
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3290:"Americans and Ideological Reform: The New Life Movement," in
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Chiang Kai Shek - China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost
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Chiang Kai Shek - China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost
2699:, vol. 34, no. 4, 1975, p. 946, www.jstor.org/stable/2054509.
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movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives.
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2454:(New York: Pearson Prentic Hall, 2nd ed. 2006, pp. 208–209 .
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Heinrichs, Maurus (1936), "Vita nova et vita christiana",
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philosophy of societal transformation neatly paralleled a
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Historical Dictionary of Revolutionary China, 1839-1976
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Everyday life in the North Korean revolution, 1945-1950
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Chiang claimed that Chinese were "unbearably filthy", "
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Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review
3144:. Vol. II. New York: Columbia University Press.
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2718:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 30–31.
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3127:"On The Need For a New Life Movement" (Speech 1934)
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Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress
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3235:Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady
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3015:Madame Chiang Kai-Shek China's Eternal First Lady
2910:(New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1985), 294.
2654:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 173.
2624:Madame Chiang Kai-Shek China's Eternal First Lady
2600:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 174.
2570:Madame Chiang Kai-Shek China's Eternal First Lady
2543:Madame Chiang Kai-Shek China's Eternal First Lady
2429:
2417:
3326:
2777:3rd Edition, (Boston: Prentice Hall, 2011), 208.
2024:The leading prominent liberal voice in the KMT,
1963:, while also opposing radical movements such as
2790:(New York: Abington-Cokesbury Press, 1943), 79.
2049:, in which loyalty and honour were essential."
3203:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
2627:. Harvard University Press. pp. 164–165.
2573:. Harvard University Press. pp. 102–107.
1985:Soong Meiling stitching a uniform for soldiers
2105:
1766:
1192:Hong Kong Alliance of Chinese and Expatriates
3239:. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. p.
3093:
2149:and regarded this movement as being a neo-
1773:
1759:
1235:Yuen Long Tin Shui Wai Democratic Alliance
1044:Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council
3281:
3217:
3172:
3018:. Harvard University Press. p. 108.
2980:. Harvard University Press. p. 108.
2846:. Harvard University Press. p. 108.
2546:. Harvard University Press. p. 104.
2266:
2130:The Movement was also shaped by Chiang's
968:Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers
3011:
2620:
2566:
2539:
1980:
1003:New Territories Association of Societies
3300:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
3291:
3196:
2950:Modern China: A Very Short Introduction
2761:
2446:
2444:
2052:Chiang Kai-shek used the Confucian and
1102:Republic of China (Taiwan, pro-Beijing)
3327:
3158:
3123:
3050:
3038:
2973:
2946:
2866:
2839:
2752:, (New York: McGraw Hill, 1938) p. 61.
2674:
2488:
2476:
2435:
2324:
1691:World League for Freedom and Democracy
1415:People's Republic of China (Mainland)
2919:
2812:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2647:
2593:
2519:. Open Road Media. pp. 102–107.
2467:. N.p.: Pearson Longman, 2018, p. 91.
1873:
1735:People's Republic of China portal
924:People's Republic of China (Mainland)
677:People's Republic of China (Mainland)
3320:. Greenwood Press. pp. 289–290.
3057:. Taylor & Francis. p. 76.
2873:. Taylor & Francis. p. 76.
2512:
2441:
2141:" opposed to an "anti-revolutionary
1242:Republic of China (Taiwan, pan-Blue)
1079:Republic of China (Taiwan, pan-Blue)
973:Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions
963:Federation of Public Housing Estates
826:Republic of China (Taiwan, pan-Blue)
3315:
3260:
2713:
2423:
1388:Institute of Revolutionary Practice
1113:Chinese Unification Promotion Party
948:Business and Professionals Alliance
13:
3292:Thomson, James Claude Jr. (1969).
3230:
3220:Collectanea Commissionis Synodalis
3138:DeBary, Wm. Theodore, ed. (2000).
2702:
2684:
2500:
2238:
1569:Conservative localism in Hong Kong
14:
3376:
2465:China in transformation 1900–1949
2457:
2090:(shame; sense of right and wrong)
1854:(義/义, righteousness or justice),
1255:Republic of China (Taiwan, other)
1130:Republic of China (Taiwan, other)
2381:History of the Republic of China
2360:
2346:
1951:which have some similarities to
1915:) and "self seekingness" (自理主義,
1740:
1728:
1716:
1704:
3360:Contemporary Chinese philosophy
3087:
3071:
3044:
3005:
2994:
2967:
2940:
2913:
2900:
2887:
2860:
2833:
2806:
2793:
2780:
2767:
2740:
2641:
2614:
2587:
2560:
2069:Doctrines and principal beliefs
1955:, which some saw as rejecting
1858:(廉, honesty and cleanness) and
619:Republic of China (before 1949)
3118:References and further reading
2906: Sterling Seagrave,
2749:Government in Republican China
2533:
2506:
2114:, which had been the dominant
2082:' (righteousness or justice),
2063:Three Principles of the People
1998:and so betraying the people."
1882:, faced the threats of rising
1811:
1802:
1794:
1622:Three Principles of the People
1197:Hong Kong Progressive Alliance
1:
2406:Rural Reconstruction Movement
2336:is named after the movement.
2092:. These virtues, he went on,
1217:Progressive Hong Kong Society
1202:Liberal Democratic Federation
1182:Co-operative Resources Centre
399:Republic of China (1912-1949)
3340:1934 establishments in China
2697:The Journal of Asian Studies
2648:Chang, Jung (October 2019).
2594:Chang, Jung (October 2019).
2396:Chinese Cultural Renaissance
2161:
1723:Republic of China portal
1187:Federation for the Stability
1123:Patriot Alliance Association
16:1930s Chinese civic campaign
7:
2788:The Chiangs of China,
2452:The Revolution and Its Past
2339:
2332:, a major arterial road in
1266:The Motorists' Party of ROC
1072:United Citizens Association
1067:New Macau Development Union
414:Self-Strengthening Movement
338:Empire of China (1915–1916)
10:
3381:
3335:Chinese literary movements
2953:. OUP Oxford. p. 95.
2926:. OUP Oxford. p. 14.
2819:. OUP Oxford. p. 14.
2106:Influences on the Movement
1546:Taiwan (Republic of China)
1443:Republic of China (Taiwan)
3124:Chiang, Kai-shek (1934),
3094:van de Ven, Hans (2017).
3051:Gregor, A. James (2019).
2867:Gregor, A. James (2019).
1829:Chinese Nationalist Party
1674:History of the Kuomintang
1085:Chinese Nationalist Party
1008:Politihk Social Strategic
3255:China New Life Movement.
3231:Li, Laura Tyson (2006).
3161:Journal of Asian Studies
3012:Tyson Li, Laura (2007).
2920:Fenby, Jonathan (2008).
2908:The Soong Dynasty,
2895:The Soong Sisters,
2813:Fenby, Jonathan (2008).
2621:Tyson Li, Laura (2007).
2567:Tyson Li, Laura (2007).
2540:Tyson Li, Laura (2007).
2411:
2228:anti-Japanese war effort
2086:(honesty and cleanness)
1587:Authoritarian capitalism
978:Kowloon West New Dynamic
3197:Eastman, Lloyd (1974).
3082:Encyclopedia Britannica
2746:Paul M. A. Linebarger,
2463:Mackerras, Colin.
2376:Anti-communism in China
2293:Encyclopedia Britannica
2255:enforcement officials.
2249:conspicuous consumption
1711:Conservatism portal
1340:Classic of Filial Piety
1261:Congress Party Alliance
1230:123 Democratic Alliance
1176:Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)
942:Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)
930:Chinese Communist Party
705:Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)
314:Chinese economic reform
2267:Historical evaluations
2127:Chinese citizen.
1986:
1607:Party-state capitalism
1558:Variants and movements
1450:Chung T'ien Television
1354:The Revolutionary Army
1347:Farewell to Revolution
1207:New Hong Kong Alliance
421:White Terror in Taiwan
394:Project National Glory
3365:Conservatism in China
3283:10.1353/ach.2013.0022
2947:Mitter, Rana (2008).
2786:Elmer T. Clark,
2306:CCP general secretary
2032:James Gareth Endicott
2011:salvation from within
1984:
1888:domestic factionalism
1834:Chiang and his wife,
1685:Taiwanese nationalism
1118:For Public Good Party
1062:Macau-Guangdong Union
377:Martial law in Taiwan
33:Conservatism in China
3312:, pp. 151– 174.
3261:Liu, Wennan (2013).
2974:Taylor, Jay (2009).
2840:Taylor, Jay (2009).
2513:Hahn, Emily (2014).
1924:New Culture Movement
1848:(禮/礼, proper rite),
1812:Xīn Shēnghuó Yùndòng
1747:Hong Kong portal
1612:Carl Schmitt Thought
1283:Pro-Kuomintang camp
1025:Hong Kong (centrist)
167:Imperial examination
3345:Chinese nationalism
2801:The China Quarterly
2503:, pp. 101–102.
2450:Schoppa, R. Keith.
2401:Cultural Revolution
2391:May Fourth Movement
2325:Cultural references
2284:Cultural Revolution
2247:use; opposition to
2017:New Life Movement.
1928:May Fourth Movement
1884:Japanese militarism
1864:Blue Shirts Society
1791:traditional Chinese
1679:Liberalism in China
1602:Hui pan-nationalism
1398:Western Hills Group
1378:Confucius Institute
1373:Blue Shirts Society
1224:Hong Kong (pro-ROC)
1057:Alliance for Change
1051:Macau (pro-Beijing)
1038:Hong Kong (pro-ROC)
803:Macau (pro-Beijing)
409:Tongzhi Restoration
95:Neoauthoritarianism
2773:R. Keith Schoppa,
2714:Kim, Suzy (2016).
1987:
1874:Historical context
1799:simplified Chinese
1632:Xi Jinping Thought
1581:Related ideologies
1515:Central Daily News
1212:Professional Forum
1148:Historical parties
1095:People First Party
1031:Professional Power
993:New People's Party
832:Chiang (Ching-kuo)
625:Chiang (Ching-kuo)
367:Manchu Restoration
355:Hua–Yi distinction
326:Dynasties of China
3078:New Life Movement
2893:Emily Hahn,
2725:978-1-5017-0568-7
2516:The Soong Sisters
2206:collective values
2180:Sterling Seagrave
2139:counterrevolution
2077:' (proper rite),
1817:Republic of China
1787:New Life Movement
1783:
1782:
1617:State nationalism
1485:United Daily News
1303:Pro-Beijing camp
1287:Republic of China
1154:Progressive Party
1136:Young China Party
1108:Chinese New Party
1090:Chinese New Party
988:New Century Forum
837:Chiang (Kai-shek)
630:Chiang (Kai-shek)
404:Shanghai massacre
389:New Life Movement
309:Chinese Civil War
229:Mandate of Heaven
147:Ancestral worship
68:Dai Jitao Thought
3372:
3355:New Confucianism
3321:
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3299:
3287:
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3267:
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2427:
2421:
2370:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2356:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2271:In the words of
2155:Frederic Wakeman
2116:moral philosophy
2112:Neo-Confucianism
1949:authoritarianism
1813:
1804:
1796:
1775:
1768:
1761:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1733:
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1731:
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1709:
1708:
1707:
1627:Three Represents
1471:Commercial Times
1457:China Television
1248:Republican Party
1159:Republican Party
897:Soong (Mei-ling)
786:Tsang (Yok-sing)
348:Tributary system
58:Communitarianism
34:
19:
18:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3369:
3350:Chiang Kai-shek
3325:
3324:
3308:
3265:
3251:
3211:
3174:10.2307/2054509
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2442:
2434:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2386:Chiang Kai-shek
2366:
2361:
2359:
2352:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2327:
2302:Hans van de Ven
2269:
2241:
2239:Implementations
2230:, particularly
2164:
2108:
2071:
2019:Soong Chingling
1896:Colin Mackerras
1876:
1823:as head of the
1821:Chiang Kai-shek
1779:
1741:
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1727:
1717:
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1505:
1500:The Epoch Times
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1403:
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1360:
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1221:
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1127:
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1022:
1018:Silent Majority
939:
920:
912:
911:
842:Chiang (Wan-an)
823:
800:
702:
674:
616:
577:
569:
568:
489:Jiang (Shigong)
439:
431:
430:
382:Language policy
360:Four Barbarians
304:Boxer Rebellion
299:Boluan Fanzheng
289:
281:
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174:Chinese culture
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32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3378:
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3357:
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3306:
3288:
3276:(2): 335–365.
3258:
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3209:
3194:
3167:(4): 945–980,
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2879:
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2779:
2766:
2762:Eastman (1974)
2754:
2739:
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2701:
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2667:
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2640:
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2613:
2606:
2586:
2579:
2559:
2552:
2532:
2525:
2505:
2493:
2491:, p. 955.
2481:
2479:, p. 954.
2469:
2456:
2440:
2428:
2426:, p. 287.
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2326:
2323:
2313:administration
2273:Soong Mei-ling
2268:
2265:
2240:
2237:
2192:Jonathan Fenby
2163:
2160:
2107:
2104:
2099:
2098:
2070:
2067:
2043:class struggle
1992:Fulton Oursler
1875:
1872:
1836:Soong Mei-ling
1781:
1780:
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1777:
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1713:
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1676:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1667:Hanfu Movement
1659:
1654:
1646:
1644:Related topics
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1639:
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1634:
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1624:
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1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1597:Han chauvinism
1594:
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1564:Anti-communism
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937:
921:
919:Extant parties
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917:
914:
913:
910:
909:
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862:Hau (Pei-tsun)
859:
857:Hau (Lung-pin)
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822:
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781:Tsang (Donald)
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3307:9780674951358
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2354:China portal
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2143:conservatism
2136:
2132:Christianity
2129:
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2100:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2072:
2051:
2039:Soviet Union
2036:
2030:
2023:
2015:
2003:trickle-down
2000:
1988:
1975:
1973:
1941:Christianity
1937:Confucianism
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:Wang Jingwei
1901:
1877:
1859:
1855:
1849:
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1840:four virtues
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998:New Prospect
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761:Lee (Starry)
704:
703:
676:
675:
618:
617:
580:
579:
484:Jiang (Qing)
388:
318:
273:
254:Social order
249:Sinocentrism
244:Sinicization
204:Filial piety
152:Asian values
110:Confucianism
3100:. Profile.
2277:Arif Dirlik
2260:Blue Shirts
2198:Rana Mitter
2176:Blue Shirts
2059:Sun Yat-sen
1996:Sun Yat-sen
1945:nationalism
1880:imperialism
1662:Han Chinese
1464:China Times
1383:Group of 89
1169:Unity Party
953:Civil Force
814:Ho (Edmund)
736:Ip (Regina)
711:Chan (Gary)
645:Hu (Hanmin)
635:Dai (Jitao)
576:Politicians
269:Technocracy
259:Sovereignty
234:Meritocracy
214:Irredentism
199:Familialism
162:Bureaucracy
78:Nationalist
3329:Categories
3250:0871139332
3226:(1): 39–69
3210:0674001753
2677:, p.
2424:Yip (1992)
2318:Mao Zedong
2309:Xi Jinping
1961:liberalism
1917:zili zhuyi
1904:hedonistic
1825:government
1687:(opposing)
1681:(opposing)
1657:Falun Gong
1326:Literature
1013:Roundtable
756:Lee (John)
592:Emperor Wu
239:Patriotism
141:Principles
73:Monarchism
42:Ideologies
3191:144316615
2734:950929415
2501:Li (2006)
2220:Dagongbao
2202:frugality
2162:Reception
2054:Methodist
2047:old China
2007:Confucian
1969:communism
1965:socialism
1892:communism
1868:CC Clique
1541:Hong Kong
1535:By region
1428:Hong Kong
1393:Want Want
1307:Hong Kong
1297:Hong Kong
1278:Alliances
612:Duke Zhou
587:Duke Shao
454:Confucius
264:Tradition
209:Hierarchy
157:Authority
53:Chiangism
2340:See also
2232:urbanite
2214:Japanese
1866:and the
1827:and the
1522:Shen Bao
1493:Overseas
1333:Analects
934:factions
640:Dai (Li)
320:Dang Guo
127:Legalism
63:Cultural
24:a series
22:Part of
3183:2054509
2124:fascist
2088:and chǐ
2026:Hu Shih
1953:fascism
1932:Marxism
1592:Fascism
288:History
224:Loyalty
189:Elitism
3304:
3247:
3207:
3189:
3181:
3148:
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2877:
2850:
2823:
2732:
2722:
2658:
2631:
2604:
2577:
2550:
2523:
2334:Taipei
2147:Nazism
1809::
1807:pinyin
1801::
1793::
1651:Baizuo
1508:Former
100:Social
3266:(PDF)
3187:S2CID
3179:JSTOR
3131:(PDF)
2412:Notes
2245:opium
2084:lián
1976:Forum
1803:新生活运动
1795:新生活運動
1410:Media
1312:Macau
766:Leung
688:Jiang
660:Soong
607:Zhang
554:Zheng
549:Zhang
544:Xiong
514:Shang
509:Liang
444:Chang
88:Ultra
3302:ISBN
3245:ISBN
3205:ISBN
3146:ISBN
3102:ISBN
3059:ISBN
3020:ISBN
2982:ISBN
2955:ISBN
2928:ISBN
2875:ISBN
2848:ISBN
2821:ISBN
2730:OCLC
2720:ISBN
2656:ISBN
2629:ISBN
2602:ISBN
2575:ISBN
2548:ISBN
2521:ISBN
2258:The
2204:and
1967:and
1959:and
1947:and
1926:and
1890:and
1856:lián
1785:The
1478:TVBS
882:Lien
867:Hung
809:Chui
796:Yung
791:Tung
776:Quat
771:Liao
741:Kwok
693:Wang
670:Yuan
602:Yuan
597:Yang
539:Xiao
529:Wang
499:Kang
449:Chen
184:Duty
3278:doi
3241:492
3169:doi
2311:'s
2061:'s
1860:chǐ
902:Sun
877:Lee
872:Jaw
852:Han
847:Chu
746:Lam
721:Fok
665:Sun
655:Lin
564:Zou
559:Zhu
524:Tan
519:Tam
494:Jin
479:Jaw
464:Gan
459:Dai
331:Han
120:New
115:Neo
83:Han
3331::
3272:.
3268:.
3253:.
3243:.
3222:,
3185:,
3177:,
3165:34
3163:,
2728:.
2704:^
2686:^
2443:^
2080:Yì
2075:Lǐ
2065:.
1971:.
1943:,
1886:,
1851:yì
1845:lǐ
1842:,
1805:;
1797:;
907:Yu
887:Ma
726:Ho
698:Xi
683:Hu
650:Li
534:Wu
504:Li
474:Hu
469:Gu
26:on
3310:.
3286:.
3280::
3274:2
3224:9
3213:.
3171::
3154:.
3110:.
3067:.
3041:.
3028:.
2990:.
2963:.
2936:.
2883:.
2856:.
2829:.
2736:.
2681:.
2679:1
2664:.
2637:.
2610:.
2583:.
2556:.
2529:.
2438:.
1789:(
1774:e
1767:t
1760:v
936:)
932:(
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