1305:, p. 20. Quote: « southern China refers to Fujian and Guangdong province and in some cases is expanded to include Guangxi, Zhejiang and Jiangxi provinces. Historically speaking, these areas had the strong lineage organizations and the territorial cult, compared to the rest of China in the late imperial period. These areas not only were the first to revive lineage and the territorial cult in the reform era, but also have the intensity and scale of revivals that cannot be matched by the other part of China. This phenomenon is referred to as the south model, the north model refers to the absence of landholding cooperative lineages that exist in the south.» Note 16: The south-vs.-north model comparison has been the subject of historical and anthropological research. Cohen's article on “Lineage organization in North China (1990)” contrasts the north model and the south model. He calls the north China model “the fixed genealogical mode of agnatic kinship.” By which, he means “patrilineal ties are figured on the basis of the relative seniority of descent lines so that the unity of the lineage as a whole is based upon a ritual focus on the senior descent line trace back to the founding ancestor, his eldest son, and the succession of eldest sons.” (ibid: 510) In contrast, the south China model is called “the associational mode of patrilineal kinship.” In this mode, all lines of descent are equal. “Access to corporate resources held by a lineage or lineage segment is based upon the equality of kinship ties asserted in the associational mode.” However, the distinction between the north and the south model is somewhat arbitrary. Some practices of the south model are found in north China. Meanwhile, the so-call north model is not exclusive to north China. The set of characteristics of the north model (a distinctive arrangement of cemeteries, graves, ancestral scrolls, ancestral tablets, and corporate groups linked to a characteristic annual ritual cycle) is not a system. In reality, lineage organizations display a mixture between the south and the north model.»
84:
22:
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83:
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1862:
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943:« The traditional religion that had been in place since the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It evolved from the worship of Heaven and ancestors. It had the basic components of a religion, including religious concepts, emotions, and rituals. It had no independent organisation. Instead, it was the kinship structure that fulfilled the functions of religious organisation. The emperor, who was the son of God, was the representative of the people who worshiped Heaven. Elders of the clans and parents represented the family in the worship of ancestors. Respecting Heaven and honoring ancestors (
965:
1322:
government encouraged villages to manage themselves and collect and hand over their own taxes. leaders were responsible for settling disputes, dealing with local government, organizing crop protection and planning for collective ceremonies. All these factors tended to strengthen the local protective deities and their temples as focal points of village identity and activity. This social context defines North China local religion, and keeps us from wandering off into vague discussions of 'popular' and 'elite' and relationships with Daoism and
Buddhism."
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43:
808:. Ancestors, their ghosts, or spirits, and gods are considered part of "this world". They are neither supernatural (in the sense of being outside nature) nor transcendent in the sense of being beyond nature. The ancestors are humans who have become godly beings, beings who keep their individual identities. For this reason, Chinese religion is founded on veneration of ancestors. Ancestors are believed to be a means of connection to the supreme power of
734:
845:; Zhuo Xinping (2011) views traditional patriarchal religion as the religious organisation complementing the ideology of Confucianism. As the "bedrock faith of the Chinese", traditional patriarchal religion influences the religious psychology of all Chinese and has influenced the other religions of China, as it is evident in the worship of founders of temples and schools of thought in
1317:, pp. 12–13. "As for the physical and social structure of villages on this vast flat expanse; they consist of close groups of houses built on a raised area, surrounded by their fields, with a multi-surnamed population of families who own and cultivate their own land, though usually not much more than twenty
1599:
1035:
The mourning of a loved one usually involves elaborate rituals, which vary according to region and sect. The intensity of the mourning is thought to reflect the quality of relationship one had with the deceased. From the time of
Confucius until the 20th century, a three-year mourning period was often
1057:
Funerals are considered to be a part of the normal process of family life, serving as a cornerstone in inter-generational traditions. The primary goals, regardless of religious beliefs, are to demonstrate obeisance and provide comfort for the deceased. Other goals include: to protect the descendants
938:
Mou
Zhongjian defines "clan-based traditional patriarchal religion" as "an orthodox religion that was widely accepted by all classes, and had been practiced for thousands of years in ancient China". Mou also says that this religion was subordinate to the state, it was "diverse and inclusive" and had
1121:
After the funeral, families often install an ancestral tablet at a household altar alongside other deceased ancestors. This act symbolically unifies the ancestors and honors the family lineage. Incense is lit before the altar daily, significant announcements are made before them, and offerings such
1112:
The deceased would often be buried with sacrifices, typically things one was thought to be in need of in the afterlife. This was done as a symbolic demonstration of filial piety or grandeur. For the wealthy and powerful, bronze vessels, oracle bones, and human or animal sacrifices often accompanied
1061:
Some common elements of
Chinese funerals include the expression of grief through prolonged, often exaggerated, wailing; the wearing of white mortuary clothes by the family of the deceased; a ritual washing of the corpse, followed by its attiring in grave clothes; the transfer of symbolic goods such
1321:
or about three acres. Families of different surnames living in one small community meant that lineages were not strong enough to maintain lineage shrines and cross-village organizations, so, at best, they owned small burial plots and took part only in intra-village activities. The old imperial
1040:
two times a day, living in a mourning shack placed beside the house, and moaning in pain at certain intervals of the day. It is said, that after the death of
Confucius his followers engaged in this three-year mourning period to symbolize their commitment to his teachings.
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prescribed, mirroring the first three years in a child's life when they are utterly dependent upon and loved unconditionally by their parents. These mourning practices would often include wearing sackcloth or simple garb, leaving hair unkempt, eating a restricted diet of
955:
According to Zhuo
Xinping (2011), Chinese patriarchal religion and Confucianism complemented each other in ancient China, as the Confucian religion traditionally lacked a social religious organisation while traditional patriarchal religion lacked an ideological doctrine.
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In some instances, a "lucky burial" can take place several years after the burial. The bones are dug up, washed, dried, and stored in an earthenware jar. After a period of storage, the contents are then interred in their final resting place in a location selected by an
1618:
1086:
Burial is often delayed according to wealth; the coffin would remain in the main room of the family home until it has been properly prepared for burial. More traditionally, this delay is pre-determined according to social status: the corpse of a king or
1070:, often symbolic. Sometimes, ritual specialists such as Taoist priests or Buddhist monks would be hired to perform specific rites, often accompanied by the playing of music or chanting of scripture to drive away evil spirits.
1144:
of their ancestors. The eldest male would speak to the altar on a regular basis. In some belief systems where special powers are ascribed to the deceased, he may supplicate the spirit to bless the family.
2056:
1027:; however, beliefs concerning the number and nature of souls vary. In accordance with these traditional beliefs, various practices have arisen to address the perceived needs of the deceased.
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When a family member dies in modern China and Taiwan, they are given various kinds of rewards such as "a toothbrush, money, food, water", "a credit card and a computer."
1161:
Some
Taoists practiced ancestor veneration and beseeched ancestors, multiple ancestors, and pantheons of ancestors to aid them in life and/or abolish their sins.
622:
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1371:
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Ancestor veneration practices prevail in South China, where lineage bonds are stronger and the patrilineal hierarchy is not based upon
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of the deceased from malevolent spirits and to ensure the proper separation and direction of the deceased's soul into the afterlife.
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and access to corporate resources held by a lineage is based upon the equality of all the lines of descent; whereas in North China
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939:"a humanistic spirit that emphasises the social, moral function of religion", and is closely related to politics. It refers to:
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the deceased into the grave. More common sacrifices included candles and incense, as well as offerings of wine and food.
757:
2631:
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Local
Religion in North China in the Twentieth Century: The Structure and Organization of Community Rituals and Beliefs
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2003:
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to be where their patriline ancestor was born (usually about five generations back) or the origin of their surname.
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separate. Generally, the former ascends into heaven and the latter descends into the earth and/or resides within a
208:
823:. It was believed that women did not pass down surnames because they were incapable of carrying down a bloodline.
2621:
2049:
1861:
1731:
861:
408:
1422:. Retrieved October 21, 2008, from Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China:
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62:
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as they are considered embodiments or reproducers of the creative order of Heaven. It is a major aspect of
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443:
313:
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21:
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1972:
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Zhuo
Xinping, "Spiritual Accomplishment in Confucianism and Spiritual Transcendence in Christianity," in
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1977:
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1724:
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Some contemporary scholars in China have adopted the names "Chinese traditional patriarchal religion" (
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187:
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2018:
2013:
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would be held in abeyance for seven months; magnates, five; other officers, three; commoners, one.
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2108:
2024:
1931:
1839:
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947:), taking good care in seeing off the deceased, and maintaining sacrifices to distant ancestors (
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1962:
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935:) to define the traditional religious system organised around the worship of ancestor-gods.
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2008:
1936:
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Local
Traditions, Community Building, and Cultural Adaptation in Reform Era Rural China
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flow could result in a disgruntled spirit who could possibly haunt their descendants.
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as money and food from the living to the dead; the preparation and installation of a
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Ancestor veneration is largely focused on male ancestors. Hence, it is also called
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951:) were the basic religious concepts and emotional expressions in this religion. »
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was usually performed at the household altar in a separate room containing the
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http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese_religion/practices/ancestor_worship.htm
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Settling the Dead: Funerals, Memorials and Beliefs Concerning the Afterlife
1339:("Chinese traditional primordial religion": generation and characteristics)
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He, Qimin (2012). "Religious Traditions in Local Communities of China".
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A typical traditional hill slope cemetery of China's southeastern coast
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philosophy calls for paying respect to one's ancestors, an aspect of
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religion, but the custom has also spread to ethnic minority groups.
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1001:, a person is often thought to have multiple souls, categorized as
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are given bi-monthly and on special occasions, such as during the
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Confucianism and Spiritual Traditions in Modern China and Beyond
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Remaking China's Public Philosophy for the Twenty-first Century
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traces ancestry through the male lineage that is recorded in
1387:
1385:
1383:
2474:
2086:
809:
98:
1457:. Retrieved October 21, 2008, from www.religionfacts.com:
1891:
1380:
1260:
678:
1504:
World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts
1308:
1272:
1101:
972:
with the "Stele of Divine Merits and Saintly Virtues" (
109:
49:
kin's temple and cultural centre of Jinxiang village,
16:
Traditional veneration of ancestors in Chinese culture
1424:
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/prb/journey.htm
1248:
788:
which revolves around the ritual celebration of the
1578:The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions
1236:
2598:
1449:
1447:
926:) or "Chinese traditional primordial religion" (
1506:(1st paperback ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota:
1439:Chinese Religion: An Introduction Third Edition
1296:
2057:
1732:
1695:Yang, Fenggang; Tamney, Joseph, eds. (2011).
1657:Chinese Religion : A Contextual Approach
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758:
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933:Zhōngguó chuántǒng yuánshēng xìng zōngjiào
765:
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630:Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue
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1325:
1053:A funeral procession in Zhejiang province
1594:
1428:
1414:
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871:
41:
20:
2180:Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind
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924:Zhōngguó chuántǒng zōngfǎ xìng zōngjiào
2599:
1571:
1501:
1441:. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, Inc.
1341:. China Ethnic and Religious Network (
1254:
1116:
2045:
1720:
1477:(First American ed.). New York:
1475:A History of the World in 100 Objects
1409:
876:An ancestral worship ceremony led by
1674:
1242:
980:in 1413 in honor of his father, the
988:("Ming Mausoleum of Filial Piety").
897:dedicated to the progenitor of the
884:-shaped Great Temple of Zhang Hui (
13:
2607:Practices in Chinese folk religion
1636:
1534:
1463:
1302:
1290:
1122:as favorite foods, beverages, and
529:
14:
2648:
2004:Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)
333:Chinese Folk Temples' Association
2335:Confucian royal ancestral shrine
2031:Huichang Persecution of Buddhism
1860:
1748:
1171:Chinese spiritual world concepts
1044:
732:
314:Lineage associations or churches
209:Chinese spiritual world concepts
82:
1660:. London: New York: Continuum.
1576:. In Nadeau, Randall L. (ed.).
1495:
1453:ReligionFacts. (2005, June 2).
1148:
409:Chinese communal deity religion
1786:Chinese salvationist religions
1679:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
1357:
450:Main philosophical traditions:
430:Chinese mother goddess worship
1:
1646:(Thesis). Harvard University.
1225:
867:
437:Northeast China folk religion
2454:Four Books and Five Classics
2190:Ancestor veneration in China
2175:Unity of Heaven and humanity
1999:Freedom of religion in China
1502:Wilson, Andrew, ed. (1995).
1230:
1211:Unity of Heaven and humanity
1015:, respectively. Upon death,
959:
901:lineage, located at Zhangs'
821:Chinese patriarchal religion
798:people with the same surname
786:Chinese traditional religion
540:Salvation churches and sects
444:Traditional Chinese Medicine
7:
1164:
1030:
1011:, commonly associated with
862:worship of communal deities
778:Chinese ancestor veneration
623:Indonesian Confucian Church
485:Folk ritual masters' orders
31:'s ancestral sacrifice, in
10:
2653:
1527:
1331:Zhang Jin, Yang Chunpeng.
534:Zhenkong, "Void of Truth".
402:Chinese ancestral religion
307:Associations of good-doing
188:Chinese gods and immortals
2632:Religious policy in China
2563:
2467:
2446:
2410:
2322:
2286:
2218:
2165:Confucian ritual religion
2142:
2079:
2019:Ghosts in Chinese culture
2014:Regional Religious System
1991:
1955:
1869:
1858:
1761:
1607:. Leiden; Boston: Brill.
1549:10.1007/s11089-012-0438-z
1418:Richard J. Smith (2007).
1366:
1363:China Confucius Network:
1343:
1335:
1176:Ghosts in Chinese culture
1156:
1073:
928:
919:
886:
1763:Major religions in China
1572:Nadeau, Randall (2010).
1508:Paragon House Publishers
1437:Thompson, L. G. (1979).
1404:Yang & Tamney (2011)
1392:Yang & Tamney (2011)
1279:Yang & Tamney (2011)
1099:to optimize the flow of
782:Chinese ancestor worship
698:Vietnamese folk religion
301:Institutions and temples
2109:Ritual and music system
2025:Three Persian religions
1932:Mongolian folk religion
1654:; Zhao, Yanxia (2010).
986:Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum
2622:Veneration of the dead
2073:Religious Confucianism
1781:Folk ritual ministries
1675:Zhou, Jinghao (2003).
1637:Wu, Hsin-Chao (2014).
1191:Religious Confucianism
1083:
1054:
989:
914:
831:. They consider their
784:, is an aspect of the
535:
512:Devotional traditions:
54:
39:
2400:Temple of Agriculture
2345:Religious goods store
2231:Holy Confucian Church
2185:Chinese folk religion
2134:Worship of the living
1771:Chinese folk religion
1267:Yao & Zhao (2010)
1220:Religious goods store
1206:Chinese folk religion
1081:
1052:
999:Chinese folk religion
993:Chinese folk religion
967:
891:Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn
875:
616:Holy Confucian Church
533:
202:Chinese creation myth
75:Chinese folk religion
45:
24:
2433:Confucian coin charm
719:Zhuang folk religion
416:Chinese food therapy
397:Major cultural forms
2330:Temple of Confucius
2092:Sacrifice to Heaven
2009:Irreligion in China
1937:Qiang folk religion
1776:Ancestor veneration
1596:Overmyer, Daniel L.
1537:Pastoral Psychology
1455:Ancestor Veneration
1406:, pp. 280–281.
1269:, pp. 113–116.
1196:Sacrifice to Heaven
1132:Zhong Yuan Festival
1117:Continued obeisance
739:Religion portal
705:Qiang folk religion
393:Internal traditions
2617:Shamanism in China
1922:Miao folk religion
1818:Theravada Buddhism
1374:2016-03-04 at the
1351:2016-03-04 at the
1201:Patriarchal System
1084:
1055:
990:
976:), erected by the
949:shenzhong zhuiyuan
915:
691:Miao folk religion
608:Confucian churches
565:Maitreya teachings
536:
479:Ritual traditions:
55:
40:
2612:Buddhism in China
2594:
2593:
2524:Bluegreen Emperor
2459:Thirteen Classics
2251:Confucian Academy
2236:Xuanyuan teaching
2160:Mandate of Heaven
2039:
2038:
1947:Yao folk religion
1755:Religion in China
1517:978-1-55778-723-1
1488:978-0-670-02270-0
1128:Qingming Festival
806:ancestral shrines
802:lineage societies
775:
774:
712:Yao folk religion
661:Related religions
506:Chinese shamanism
499:Nuo folk religion
492:Jitong mediumship
282:Jitong mediumship
195:Chinese mythology
2644:
2564:Tutelary deities
2395:Beijing Shejitan
2390:Temple of Heaven
2386:Beijing Temples
2340:Ancestral shrine
2256:Confucian Shinto
2226:Confucian church
2155:Chinese theology
2066:
2059:
2052:
2043:
2042:
1912:Manchu shamanism
1864:
1813:Tibetan Buddhism
1808:Chinese Buddhism
1753:
1752:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1690:
1671:
1647:
1645:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1624:on June 16, 2015
1623:
1617:. Archived from
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1337:
1336:中国传统原生性宗教”的产生和特点
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1300:
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1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1252:
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1240:
1186:Jongmyo (shrine)
1066:or the use of a
931:
930:
922:
921:
895:ancestral shrine
889:
888:
851:Chinese Buddhism
794:tutelary deities
767:
760:
753:
737:
736:
637:Phoenix churches
577:Tianxian miaodao
572:Tiandi teachings
423:Chinese geomancy
326:Ancestral shrine
289:Precious scrolls
181:Chinese theology
86:
76:
68:
65:
57:
56:
2652:
2651:
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2643:
2642:
2641:
2637:Confucian rites
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2463:
2442:
2423:Tiangong censer
2406:
2318:
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2214:
2205:Yan Huang Zisun
2150:Shendao shejiao
2138:
2075:
2070:
2040:
2035:
1987:
1951:
1870:Other religions
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1496:
1489:
1481:. p. 147.
1471:MacGregor, Neil
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1417:
1410:
1402:
1398:
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1381:
1376:Wayback Machine
1362:
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1353:Wayback Machine
1330:
1326:
1315:Overmyer (2009)
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995:
974:Shengong Shende
962:
893:), the central
870:
829:genealogy books
825:Chinese kinship
800:organised into
771:
731:
724:
723:
662:
654:
653:
525:Wang Ye worship
394:
386:
385:
346:
338:
337:
302:
294:
293:
246:
238:
237:
215:Model humanity:
176:
168:
167:
94:
74:
63:
60:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2650:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2571:Landlord deity
2567:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2492:
2490:Yellow Emperor
2485:Wufang Shangdi
2482:
2477:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2443:
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2430:
2425:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2314:Yamazaki Ansai
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2294:Yellow Emperor
2290:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2210:Soil and grain
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2129:Ghost marriage
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2089:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2076:
2069:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2046:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1978:Inner Mongolia
1975:
1970:
1965:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1835:Roman Catholic
1832:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1767:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1714:
1713:
1708:978-9004212398
1707:
1691:
1686:978-0275978822
1685:
1672:
1667:978-1847064752
1666:
1648:
1634:
1614:978-9047429364
1613:
1592:
1587:978-1444361971
1586:
1569:
1543:(5): 823–839.
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1516:
1510:. p. 20.
1494:
1487:
1462:
1443:
1427:
1408:
1396:
1394:, p. 280.
1379:
1356:
1324:
1307:
1295:
1283:
1281:, p. 281.
1271:
1259:
1257:, p. 369.
1247:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1166:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1118:
1115:
1075:
1072:
1046:
1043:
1032:
1029:
994:
991:
982:Hongwu Emperor
978:Yongle Emperor
970:stone tortoise
961:
958:
953:
952:
903:ancestral home
878:Taoist priests
869:
866:
864:is prevalent.
833:ancestral home
792:ancestors and
780:, also called
773:
772:
770:
769:
762:
755:
747:
744:
743:
742:
741:
726:
725:
722:
721:
715:
714:
708:
707:
701:
700:
694:
693:
687:
686:
681:
675:
674:
669:
663:
660:
659:
656:
655:
652:
651:
645:
644:
639:
633:
632:
626:
625:
619:
618:
604:
603:
598:
596:Zaili teaching
592:
591:
586:
580:
579:
574:
568:
567:
562:
556:
555:
550:
528:
527:
521:
520:
509:
508:
502:
501:
495:
494:
488:
487:
476:
475:
469:
468:
463:
447:
446:
440:
439:
433:
432:
426:
425:
419:
418:
412:
411:
405:
404:
395:
392:
391:
388:
387:
384:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
347:
344:
343:
340:
339:
336:
335:
329:
328:
323:
321:Chinese temple
317:
316:
310:
309:
303:
300:
299:
296:
295:
292:
291:
285:
284:
278:
277:
271:
270:
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259:
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253:
247:
244:
243:
240:
239:
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229:
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212:
211:
205:
204:
198:
197:
191:
190:
184:
183:
177:
174:
173:
170:
169:
166:
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154:
153:
148:
142:
141:
136:
130:
129:
124:
118:
117:
112:
106:
105:
95:
92:
91:
88:
87:
79:
78:
70:
69:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2649:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Flame Emperor
2544:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2534:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2522:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2507:Black Emperor
2505:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2495:White Emperor
2493:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2418:Spirit tablet
2416:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:Organizations
2217:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2195:Son of Heaven
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2062:
2060:
2055:
2053:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1699:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1652:Yao, Xinzhong
1649:
1642:
1641:
1635:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1532:
1519:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1448:
1440:
1434:
1432:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1413:
1405:
1400:
1393:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1367:人文主义宗教与宗教人文主义
1360:
1354:
1350:
1340:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1299:
1292:
1287:
1280:
1275:
1268:
1263:
1256:
1255:Nadeau (2010)
1251:
1245:, p. 42.
1244:
1239:
1235:
1221:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1162:
1154:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1114:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1092:
1090:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1064:spirit tablet
1059:
1051:
1045:Funeral rites
1042:
1039:
1028:
1026:
1025:spirit tablet
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1005:
1000:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
966:
957:
950:
946:
945:jingtian fazu
942:
941:
940:
936:
934:
925:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
883:
879:
874:
865:
863:
859:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
834:
830:
826:
822:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
768:
763:
761:
756:
754:
749:
748:
746:
745:
740:
735:
730:
729:
728:
727:
720:
717:
716:
713:
710:
709:
706:
703:
702:
699:
696:
695:
692:
689:
688:
685:
682:
680:
677:
676:
673:
670:
668:
665:
664:
658:
657:
650:
647:
646:
643:
640:
638:
635:
634:
631:
628:
627:
624:
621:
620:
617:
614:
613:
612:
611:
609:
602:
599:
597:
594:
593:
590:
587:
585:
582:
581:
578:
575:
573:
570:
569:
566:
563:
561:
558:
557:
554:
551:
549:
546:
545:
544:
543:
541:
532:
526:
523:
522:
519:
516:
515:
514:
513:
507:
504:
503:
500:
497:
496:
493:
490:
489:
486:
483:
482:
481:
480:
474:
473:Other schools
471:
470:
467:
464:
461:
457:
454:
453:
452:
451:
445:
442:
441:
438:
435:
434:
431:
428:
427:
424:
421:
420:
417:
414:
413:
410:
407:
406:
403:
400:
399:
398:
390:
389:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
348:
342:
341:
334:
331:
330:
327:
324:
322:
319:
318:
315:
312:
311:
308:
305:
304:
298:
297:
290:
287:
286:
283:
280:
279:
276:
273:
272:
269:
266:
264:
261:
260:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
242:
241:
234:
231:
230:
227:
224:
222:
219:
218:
217:
216:
210:
207:
206:
203:
200:
199:
196:
193:
192:
189:
186:
185:
182:
179:
178:
172:
171:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
152:
149:
147:
144:
143:
140:
137:
135:
132:
131:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
116:
113:
111:
108:
107:
104:
100:
97:
96:
90:
89:
85:
81:
80:
77:
72:
71:
66:
59:
58:
52:
48:
44:
38:
34:
30:
27:
23:
19:
2627:Filial piety
2586:Mountain God
2271:Suika Shinto
2241:Taigu school
2189:
2170:Filial piety
2097:Festival Huế
2023:
1877:Baháʼí Faith
1825:Christianity
1793:Confucianism
1775:
1697:
1676:
1656:
1639:
1626:. Retrieved
1619:the original
1600:
1577:
1540:
1536:
1503:
1497:
1479:Viking Press
1474:
1465:
1454:
1438:
1419:
1399:
1359:
1327:
1318:
1310:
1298:
1286:
1274:
1262:
1250:
1238:
1160:
1152:
1149:Modern times
1141:
1136:
1124:spirit money
1120:
1111:
1106:
1100:
1093:
1085:
1060:
1056:
1034:
1020:
1016:
1013:yang and yin
1007:
1003:
996:
973:
954:
948:
944:
937:
932:
923:
916:
890:
855:
843:filial piety
837:
820:
818:
781:
777:
776:
649:Taigu school
606:
605:
584:Xia teaching
560:Luo teaching
538:
537:
511:
510:
478:
477:
456:Confucianism
449:
448:
396:
275:Wu shamanism
214:
213:
18:
2536:Red Emperor
2377:Miao shrine
2350:Hero shrine
2309:Kang Youwei
1917:Manichaeism
1628:January 17,
1243:Zhou (2003)
814:Han Chinese
642:Xuanyuanism
589:Xiantiandao
548:De teaching
460:state rites
2601:Categories
2438:Joss paper
2428:Hell money
2355:Myo shrine
1852:Falun Gong
1830:Protestant
1574:"Divinity"
1226:References
1181:Joss paper
1068:personator
868:Definition
610:and sects:
553:Jiugongdao
366:Jiuhuangye
233:Wen and wu
53:, Zhejiang
2372:Ci shrine
2323:Buildings
2299:Confucius
2261:Taiseikyo
2104:Feng Shan
1973:Northeast
1963:Hong Kong
1956:By region
1897:Dongbaism
1882:Benzhuism
1701:. Brill.
1565:143501590
1557:0031-2789
1347:), 2013.
1303:Wu (2014)
1291:He (2012)
1231:Citations
960:Practices
929:中國傳統原生性宗教
920:中國傳統宗法性宗教
882:pyramidal
858:seniority
839:Confucian
684:Dongbaism
667:Benzhuism
356:Zhongyuan
345:Festivals
263:Feng shui
256:Jingxiang
245:Practices
127:Xian ling
2581:City God
2576:Tudigong
2541:Shennong
2382:Yin miao
2246:Shengdao
2143:Concepts
2124:Marriage
1902:Hinduism
1840:Orthodox
1803:Buddhism
1598:(2009).
1473:(2011).
1372:Archived
1349:Archived
1165:See also
1105:. A bad
1031:Mourning
361:Zhongqiu
351:Qingming
251:Fenxiang
93:Concepts
64:a series
61:Part of
37:Zhejiang
33:Qiantong
2551:Zhurong
2512:Zhuanxu
2500:Shaohao
2480:Shangdi
2468:Deities
2411:Objects
2360:Jongmyo
2276:Onmyōdō
2200:Tianxia
2114:Guan Li
2080:Rituals
1992:Related
1942:Sikhism
1907:Judaism
1887:Bimoism
1528:Sources
1344:中国民族宗教网
1089:emperor
984:in the
880:at the
790:deified
672:Bimoism
518:Mazuism
268:Miaohui
226:Zhenren
158:Baoying
151:Yuanfen
146:Mingyun
134:Yinyang
103:Shangdi
51:Cangnan
2517:Xuanwu
2365:Munmyo
2287:People
2266:Shusei
1798:Taoism
1705:
1683:
1664:
1611:
1584:
1563:
1555:
1514:
1485:
1216:Zhizha
1157:Taoism
1138:Prayer
1074:Burial
1038:congee
907:Qinghe
847:Taoism
601:Qigong
466:Taoism
376:Duanwu
175:Theory
139:Hundun
2529:Fu Xi
2447:Books
2304:Xunzi
2119:Ji Li
1983:Tibet
1968:Macau
1847:Islam
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