Neurotoxin - Knowledge

204: 1412: 931: 1560: 259: 1153: 696: 1609: 778: 9899: 9699: 8316: 34: 8328: 917:) is highly specific for Ca channels and has shown usefulness in isolating them from a system. As calcium flux is necessary for proper excitability of a cell, any significant inhibition could prevent a large amount of functionality. Significantly, ω-CgTx is capable of long term binding to and inhibition of voltage-dependent calcium channels located in the membranes of neurons but not those of muscle cells. 1325: 1167: 306: 1665:(IP3) dependent manner. This reorganization may lead to neuronal cytotoxicity both through hyperactivation of postsynaptic neurons and through induced addiction to continuous ethanol consumption. It has, additionally, been shown that ethanol directly reduces intracellular calcium ion accumulation through inhibited NMDA receptor activity, and thus reduces the capacity for the occurrence of LTP. 7874: 235:, and periphery comprises an extraordinarily complex biological system that largely defines many of the unique traits of individuals. As with any highly complex system, however, even small perturbations to its environment can lead to significant functional disruptions. Properties leading to the susceptibility of nervous tissue include a high surface area of neurons, a high 251:(BBB) is one critical example of protection which prevents toxins and other adverse compounds from reaching the brain. As the brain requires nutrient entry and waste removal, it is perfused by blood flow. Blood can carry a number of ingested toxins, however, which would induce significant neuron death if they reach nervous tissue. Thus, protective cells termed 1781:. Additionally, though most venoms and exogenous neurotoxins will rarely possess useful in-vivo capabilities, endogenous neurotoxins are commonly used by the body in useful and healthy ways, such as nitric oxide which is used in cell communication. It is often only when these endogenous compounds become highly concentrated that they lead to dangerous effects. 1697:. The severity of these effects is directly dependent upon the amount and frequency of ethanol consumption by the mother, and the stage in development of the fetus. It is known that ethanol exposure results in reduced antioxidant levels, mitochondrial dysfunction (Chu 2007), and subsequent neuronal death, seemingly as a result of increased generation of 766:. The primary mechanism by which TTX is toxic is through the inhibition of sodium channel function, which reduces the functional capacity of neuron communication. This inhibition largely affects a susceptible subset of sodium channels known as TTX-sensitive (TTX-s), which also happens to be largely responsible for the sodium current that drives the 1303:. Though extremely toxic if ingested, α-bungarotoxin has shown extensive usefulness in neuroscience as it is particularly adept at isolating nAChRs due to its high affinity to the receptors. As there are multiple forms of bungarotoxin, there are different forms of nAChRs to which they will bind, and α-bungarotoxin is particularly specific for 1349:. Individuals with some types of kidney disease are susceptible to adverse neurological effects including intoxication, seizures and even death after eating star fruit or drinking juice made of this fruit. Caramboxin is a new nonpeptide amino acid toxin that stimulate the glutamate receptors in neurons. Caramboxin is an agonist of both 1071:, where it can migrate to the brain and inhibit some of the crucial functions of the blood brain barrier (BBB). A loss of function in the BBB can produce significant damage to the neurons in the CNS, as the barrier protecting the brain from other toxins found in the blood will no longer be capable of such action. Though the 6168:

Olivera, Baldomero M.; Cruz, Lourdes J.; De Santos, Victoria; LeCheminant, Garth; Griffin, David; Zeikus, Regina; McIntosh, J. Michael; Galyean, Robert; Varga, Janos (1987). "Neuronal Calcium Channel Antagonists. Discrimination between Calcium Channel Subtypes Using .omega.-conotoxin from Conus Magus

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systems of the past. Examples of improvements include tractable, uniform environments, and the elimination of contaminating effects of systemic metabolism. In vitro systems, however, have presented problems as it has been difficult to properly replicate the complexities of the nervous system, such as

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have been presented with the challenge of identifying and treating neurotoxins, which has resulted in a growing interest in both neurotoxicology research and clinical studies. Though clinical neurotoxicology is largely a burgeoning field, extensive inroads have been made in the identification of many

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flow to the brain inducing increased effective toxin exposure, and the persistence of neurons through an individual's lifetime, leading to compounding of damages. As a result, the nervous system has a number of mechanisms designed to protect it from internal and external assaults, including the blood

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of the CNS. One of the most notable uses of endogenous glutamate is its functionality as an excitatory neurotransmitter. When concentrated, however, glutamate becomes toxic to surrounding neurons. This toxicity can be both a result of direct lethality of glutamate on neurons and a result of induced

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is its specific ability to eliminate potassium channel activity, thereby allowing the study of neuron response contributions of other ion channels such as voltage gated sodium channels. In addition to its many uses in neuroscience research, TEA has been shown to perform as an effective treatment of

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in an in-vitro testing environment. Due to the significant inaccuracies associated with this process, however, it has been slow in gaining widespread support. Additionally, biochemical mechanisms have become more widely used in neurotoxin testing, such that compounds can be screened for sufficiency

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Garcia-Cairasco, N.; Moyses-Neto, M.; Del Vecchio, F.; Oliveira, J. A. C.; Dos Santos, F. L.; Castro, O. W.; Arisi, G. M.; Dantas, M. R.; Carolino, R. O. G.; Coutinho-Netto, J.; Dagostin, A. L. A.; Rodrigues, M. C. A.; Leão, R. M.; Quintiliano, S. A. P.; Silva, L. F.; Gobbo-Neto, L.; Lopes, N. P.

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to inhibit signaling and thus induce muscle relaxation. The neurotoxin category contains a number of distinct poisons, though all were originally purified from plants originating in South America. The effect with which injected curare poison is usually associated is muscle paralysis and resultant

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Yamada, Kiyofumi; Tanaka, Tomoko; Han, Daiken; Senzaki, Kouji; Kameyama, Tsutomu; Nabeshima, Toshitaka (1999). "Protective Effects of Idebenone and α-tocopherol on β-amyloid-(1–42)-induced Learning and Memory Deficits in Rats: Implication of Oxidative Stress in β-amyloid-induced Neurotoxicity In

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in the cerebrum (Iadecola 1998). The neurotoxicity of NO is based on its importance in glutamate excitotoxicity, as NO is generated in a calcium-dependent manner in response to glutamate mediated NMDA activation, which occurs at an elevated rate in glutamate excitotoxicity. Though NO facilitates

1394:. Normally, these receptor channels allow sodium ions into muscle cells to initiate an action potential that leads to muscle contraction. By blocking the receptors, the neurotoxin is capable of significantly reducing neuromuscular junction signaling, an effect which has resulted in its use by 853:

and some population of calcium-dependent potassium channels. It is this capability to inhibit potassium flux in neurons that has made TEA one of the most important tools in neuroscience. It has been hypothesized that the ability for TEA to inhibit potassium channels is derived from its similar

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Pirazzini, Marco, Ornella Rossetto, Paolo Bolognese, Clifford C. Shone, and Cesare Montecucco (2011) "Double Anchorage to the Membrane and Intact Inter-chain Disulfide Bond Are Required for the Low PH Induced Entry of Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxins into Neurons." Cellular Microbiology: No.

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Garcia-Rodriguez, C.; Geren, I. N.; Lou, J.; Conrad, F.; Forsyth, C.; Wen, W.; Chakraborti, S.; Zao, H.; Manzanarez, G.; Smith, T. J.; Brown, J.; Tepp, W. H.; Liu, N.; Wijesuriya, S.; Tomic, M. T.; Johnson, E. A.; Smith, L. A.; Marks, J. D. (2011). "Response Re: 'Neutralizing Human Monoclonal

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Arnon, Stephen S.; Schechter, Robert; Inglesby, Thomas V.; Henderson, Donald A.; Bartlett, John G.; Ascher, Michael S.; Eitzen, Edward; Fine, Anne D.; Hauer, Jerome; Layton, Marcelle; Lillibridge, Scott; Osterholm, Michael T.; O'Toole, Tara; Parker, Gerald; Perl, Trish M.; Russell, Philip K.;

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In addition to the neurotoxic effects of ethanol in mature organisms, chronic ingestion is capable of inducing severe developmental defects. Evidence was first shown in 1973 of a connection between chronic ethanol intake by mothers and defects in their offspring. This work was responsible for

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influx into cells, and thus when blocked by ingested bungarotoxin will produce damaging effects, as ACh signaling will be inhibited. Likewise, the use of α-bungarotoxin can be very useful in neuroscience if it is desirable to block calcium flux in order to isolate effects of other channels.

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Yan; Du, Shi; Chen, Xi; Fu, Jin; Chen, Ming; Zhu, Huaijie; Roher, Alex; Slattery, Timothy; Zhao, Lei; Nagashima, Mariko; Morser, John; Migheli, Antonio; Nawroth, Peter; Stern, David; Marie Schmidt, Ann (1996). "RAGE and Amyloid-β Peptide Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's Disease".

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because of the dangers it presents to recreational and drinking waters, and because it is a particularly useful molecule for investigating acetylcholine receptors in the nervous system. The deadliness of the toxin means that it has a high military potential as a toxin weapon.

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compounds, which, when abnormally contacted, can prove neurologically toxic. Though neurotoxins are often neurologically destructive, their ability to specifically target neural components is important in the study of nervous systems. Common examples of neurotoxins include

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across the BBB, allowing for direct contact with the fragile cells within the central nervous system. Neurotoxicity results from lead's ability to act in a similar manner to calcium ions, as concentrated lead will lead to cellular uptake of calcium which disrupts cellular

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administration has shown promise, however, in restoring some of the lost neurofilament motility. Additionally, similar to other neurotoxin treatments, the administration of certain antioxidants has shown some promise in reducing neurotoxicity of ingested arsenic.

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in a manner similar to that of curare. Additionally, through chronic TEA administration, muscular atrophy would be induced. It was later determined that TEA functions in-vivo primarily through its ability to inhibit both the potassium channels responsible for the

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As neurotoxins are compounds which adversely affect the nervous system, a number of mechanisms through which they function are through the inhibition of neuron cellular processes. These inhibited processes can range from membrane depolarization mechanisms to

1649:. This is important as neurotransmitter transport can be impaired through vesicular transport inhibition, resulting in diminished neural network function. One significant example of reduced inter-neuron communication is the ability for ethanol to inhibit 4941:

Haghdoost-Yazdi, Hashem; Faraji, Ayda; Fraidouni, Negin; Movahedi, Mohadeseh; Hadibeygi, Elham; Vaezi, Fatemeh (2011). "Significant Effects of 4-aminopyridine and Tetraethylammonium in the Treatment of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced Parkinson's Disease".

1442:(Haussinger 2006). This cerebral edema can be the result of nervous cell remodeling. As a consequence of increased concentrations, ammonia activity in-vivo has been shown to induce swelling of astrocytes in the brain through increased production of 907:

represent a category of poisons produced by the marine cone snail, and are capable of inhibiting the activity of a number of ion channels such as calcium, sodium, or potassium channels. In many cases, the toxins released by the different types of

1014:(TeNT) is a compound that functionally reduces inhibitory transmissions in the nervous system resulting in muscular tetany. TeNT is similar to BTX, and is in fact highly similar in structure and origin; both belonging to the same category of 887:. Ingestion of lethal volumes of Cltx results in paralysis through this ion channel disruption. Similar to botulinum toxin, Cltx has been shown to possess significant therapeutic value. Evidence has shown that Cltx can inhibit the ability for 1312:

Additionally, different forms of bungarotoxin may be useful for studying inhibited nAChRs and their resultant calcium ion flow in different systems of the body. For example, α-bungarotoxin is specific for nAChRs found in the musculature and

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Liu, Kuang-Kai; Chen, Mei-Fang; Chen, Po-Yi; Lee, Tony J F.; Cheng, Chia-Liang; Chang, Chia-Ching; Ho, Yen-Peng; Jui-I, Chao (2008). "Alpha-bungarotoxin Binding to Target Cell in a Developing Visual System by Carboxylated Nanodiamond".

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environmental neurotoxins leading to the classification of 750 to 1000 known potentially neurotoxic compounds. Due to the critical importance of finding neurotoxins in common environments, specific protocols have been developed by the

840:(TEA) is a compound that, like a number of neurotoxins, was first identified through its damaging effects to the nervous system and shown to have the capacity of inhibiting the function of motor nerves and thus the contraction of the 1624:

has been shown to induce nervous system damage and affect the body in a variety of ways. Among the known effects of ethanol exposure are both transient and lasting consequences. Some of the lasting effects include long-term reduced

1595:(PKC), which manifests as learning deficits in children as a result of early lead exposure. In addition to inducing apoptosis, lead inhibits interneuron signaling through the disruption of calcium-mediated neurotransmitter release. 1022:, TeNT induces them. Though both toxins inhibit vesicle release at neuron synapses, the reason for this different manifestation is that BTX functions mainly in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) while TeNT is largely active in the 1657:(LTP) and memory acquisition. NMDA has been shown to play an important role in LTP and consequently memory formation. With chronic ethanol intake, however, the susceptibility of these NMDA receptors to induce LTP increases in the 912:

include a range of different types of conotoxins, which may be specific for different ion channels, thus creating a venom capable of widespread nerve function interruption. One of the unique forms of conotoxins, ω-conotoxin

1369:" is ambiguous because it has been used to describe a number of poisons which at the time of naming were understood differently from present day understandings. In the past the characterization has meant poisons used by 6078:

Morris, Stephanie A., David W. Eaves, Aleksander R. Smith, and Kimberly Nixon (2009) "Alcohol Inhibition of Neurogenesis: A Mechanism of Hippocampal Neurodegeneration in an Adolescent Alcohol Abuse Model." Hippocampus:

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Exposure to neurotoxins in society is not new, as civilizations have been exposed to neurologically destructive compounds for thousands of years. One notable example is the possible significant lead exposure during the

1095:, implicating it as a neurotoxic causative compound of the disease. Despite its known toxicity in its ionic form, studies are divided on the potential toxicity of using aluminium in packaging and cooking appliances. 2764:

Chowdhury, F. R.; Ahasan, H A M. Nazmul; Rashid, A K M. Mamunur; Mamun, A. Al; Khaliduzzaman, S. M. (2007). "Tetrodotoxin Poisoning: a Clinical Analysis, Role of Neostigmine and Short-term Outcome of 53 Cases".

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Brender, J.; Suarez, L.; Felkner, M.; Gilani, Z.; Stinchcomb, D.; Moody, K.; Henry, J.; Hendricks, K. (2006). "Maternal Exposure to Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury and Neural Tube Defects in Offspring".

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Though diverse in chemical properties and functions, neurotoxins share the common property that they act by some mechanism leading to either the disruption or destruction of necessary components within the

452:, or even nervous tissue death. The time required for the onset of symptoms upon neurotoxin exposure can vary between different toxins, being on the order of hours for botulinum toxin and years for lead. 448:. By inhibiting the ability for neurons to perform their expected intracellular functions, or pass a signal to a neighboring cell, neurotoxins can induce systemic nervous system arrest as in the case of 402:

often use their neurotoxins to subdue a predator or prey very rapidly, toxins have evolved to become highly specific to their target channels such that the toxin does not readily bind other targets (see

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is formed after ingestion of arsenic and has shown significant toxicity to neurons within about 24 hours of exposure. The mechanism of this cytotoxicity functions through arsenite-induced increases in

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Garthwaite, John; Charles, Sarah L.; Chess-Williams, Russel (1988). "Endothelim-derived Relaxing Factor Release on Activation of NMDA Receptors Suggests Role as Intercellular Messenger in the Brain".

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gas). Though methods of determining neurotoxicity still require significant development, the identification of deleterious compounds and toxin exposure symptoms has undergone significant improvement.

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surround the capillaries in the brain and absorb nutrients from the blood and subsequently transport them to the neurons, effectively isolating the brain from a number of potential chemical insults.

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Gartlon, J.; Kinsner, A.; Balprice, A.; Coecke, S.; Clothier, R. (2006). "Evaluation of a Proposed in Vitro Test Strategy Using Neuronal and Non-neuronal Cell Systems for Detecting Neurotoxicity".

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are the only significantly neurotoxic forms. Diethylmercury and dimethylmercury are considered some of the most potent neurotoxins ever discovered. MeHg is usually acquired through consumption of

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By being hydrophobic and small, or inhibiting astrocyte function, some compounds including certain neurotoxins are able to penetrate into the brain and induce significant damage. In modern times,

5690:"The Relationship between Mental Retardation and Developmental Delays in Children and the Levels of Arsenic, Mercury and Lead in Soil Samples Taken near Their Mother's Residence during Pregnancy" 407:). As such, neurotoxins provide an effective means by which certain elements of the nervous system may be accurately and efficiently targeted. An early example of neurotoxin based targeting used 6000:

Mitchell, J.Jean; Paiva, Michael; Barrow Heaton, Marieta (1999). "The Antioxidants Vitamin E and β-Carotene Protect Against Ethanol-Induced Neurotoxicity in Embryonic Rat Hippocampal Cultures".

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Siebler, M.; Koller, H.; Schmalenbach, C.; Muller, H. (1988). "GABA Activated Chloride Currents in Cultured Rat Hippocampal and Septal Region Neurons Can Be Inhibited by Curare and Atropine".

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Takadera, Tsuneo; Suzuki, Risa; Mohri, Tetsuro (1990). "Protection by Ethanol of Cortical Neurons from N-methyl-d-aspartate-induced Neurotoxicity Is Associated with Blocking Calcium Influx".

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Gil-Mohapel, Joana; Boehme, Fanny; Kainer, Leah; Christie, Brian R. (2010). "Hippocampal Cell Loss and Neurogenesis after Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Insights from Different Rodent Models".

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Defuria, Jason (2006) "The Environmental Neurotoxin Arsenic Impairs Neurofilament Dynamics by Overactivation of C-JUN Terminal Kinase: Potential Role for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis."

4464:"The NMDA Receptor Antagonist D-2-amino-5phosphonopentanoate (D-AP5) Impairs Spatial Learning and LTP in Vivo at Intracerebral Concentrations Comparable to Those That Block LTP in Vitro" 1693:. As the fetal brain is relatively fragile and susceptible to induced stresses, severe deleterious effects of alcohol exposure can be seen in important areas such as the hippocampus and 797:

to sodium. This results in an increased effective threshold of required excitatory signals in order to induce an action potential in a postsynaptic neuron. The effect of this increased

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Heaton; Barrow, Marieta; Mitchell, J. Jean; Paiva, Michael (2000). "Amelioration of Ethanol-Induced Neurotoxicity in the Neonatal Rat Central Nervous System by Antioxidant Therapy".

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whose activity is triggered by neurotransmitter binding. Bungarotoxin is produced in a number of different forms, though one of the commonly used forms is the long chain alpha form,

1018:. Like BTX, TeNT inhibits inter-neuron communication by means of vesicular neurotransmitter (NT) release. One notable difference between the two compounds is that while BTX inhibits 4567:

DeFuria, Jason; Shea, Thomas B. (2007). "Arsenic Inhibits Neurofilament Transport and Induces Perikaryal Accumulation of Phosphorylated Neurofilaments: Roles of JNK and GSK-3β".

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Chu, Jennifer; Tong, Ming; Monte, Suzanne M. (2007). "Chronic Ethanol Exposure Causes Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Immature Central Nervous System Neurons".

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Harry, G. J.; Billingsley, Melvin; Bruinink, Arendd; Campbell, Iain L.; Classen, Werner; Dorman, David C.; Galli, Corrado; Ray, David; Smith, Robert A.; Tilson, Hugh A. (1998).

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which normally performs this function. As a result, the muscle cells contract permanently, the communication between the brain and the muscles is disrupted and breathing stops.

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Widmaier, Eric P., Hershel Raff, Kevin T. Strang, and Arthur J. Vander (2008) Vander's Human Physiology: the Mechanisms of Body Function.' Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

3846:"Apoptosis and Necrosis: Two Distinct Events Induced, Respectively, by Mild and Intense Insults with N-Methyl-D-Aspartate or Nitric Oxide/Superoxide in Cortical Cell Cultures" 6861:

Wood S. A.; Rasmussen J. P.; Holland P. T.; Campbell R.; Crowe A. L. M. (2007). "First Report of the Cyanotoxin Anatoxin-A from Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi (cyanobacteria)".

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Kiernan, Matthew C.; Isbister, Geoffrey K.; Cindy; Lin, S.-Y.; Burke, David; Bostock, Hugh (2005). "Acute Tetrodotoxin-induced Neurotoxicity after Ingestion of Puffer Fish".

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Rosales, Raymond L.; Arimura, Kimiyoshi; Takenaga, Satoshi; Osame, Mitsuhiro (1996). "Extrafusal and Intrafusal Muscle Effects in Experimental Botulinum Toxin-A Injection".

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Jevtovic-Todorovic, Vesna; Hartman, Richard E.; Izumi, Yukitoshi; Benshoff, Nicholas D.; Dikranian, Krikor; Zorumski, Charles F.; Olney, John W.; Wozniak, David F. (2003).

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Debin, John A., John E. Maggio, and Gary R. Strichartz (1993) "Purification and Characterization of Chlorotoxin, a Chloride Channel Ligand from the Venom of the Scorpion."

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Rocha, R. A.; Gimeno-Alcaniz, J. V.; Martín-Ibanez, Raymond; Canals, J. M.; Vélez, D.; Devesa, V. (2011). "Arsenic and Fluoride Induce Neural Progenitor Cell Apoptosis".

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and the habit of boiling vinegared wine in lead pans to sweeten it, the process generating lead acetate, known as "sugar of lead". In part, neurotoxins have been part of

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and cytotoxicity may be difficult to distinguish as exposing neurons directly to compounds may not be possible in-vivo, as it is in-vitro. Additionally, the response of

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the interactions between supporting astrocytes and neurons in creating the BBB. To even further complicate the process of determining neurotoxins when testing in-vitro,

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calcium flux into neurons leading to swelling and necrosis. Support has been shown for these mechanisms playing significant roles in diseases and complications such as

398:. As the nervous system in most organisms is both highly complex and necessary for survival, it has naturally become a target for attack by both predators and prey. As 282:

provides a layer of protection against toxin absorption in the brain. The choroid plexuses are vascularized layers of tissue found in the third, fourth, and lateral

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USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1998) Health Effects Test Guidelines. OPPTS 870.6200. Neurotoxicity screening battery. Washington DC, USEPA.

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Lasley, SM; Green, MC; Gilbert, ME (1999). "Influence of exposure period on in vivo hippocampal glutamate and GABA release in rats chronically exposed to lead".

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outgrowths (either axonal or dendritic) in response to applied compounds have recently been proposed as a more accurate distinction between true neurotoxins and

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Unlike most common sources of neurotoxins which are acquired by the body through ingestion, endogenous neurotoxins both originate from and exert their effects

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Hue, Bernard; Buckingham, Steven D.; Buckingham, David; Sattelle, David B. (2007). "Actions of Snake Neurotoxins on an Insect Nicotinic Cholinergic Synapse".

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Metcalf, James S.; Codd, Geoffrey A. (2009). "Cyanobacteria, neurotoxins and water resources: Are there implications for human neurodegenerative disease?".

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Rabe, Ausma; He Lee, Moon; Shek, Judy; Wisniewski, Henryk M. (1982). "Learning Deficit in Immature Rabbits with Aluminum-induced Neurofibrillary Changes".

979:. As the toxin is highly biologically active, an estimated dose of 1μg/kg body weight is sufficient to induce an insufficient tidal volume and resultant 3774:"Involvement of TLR4/Type I IL-1 Receptor Signaling in the Induction of Inflammatory Mediators and Cell Death Induced by Ethanol in Cultured Astrocytes" 1637:

in the brain. Of note, chronic ethanol ingestion has additionally been shown to induce reorganization of cellular membrane constituents, leading to a

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Tsetlin, V.I; Hucho, F. (2004). "Snake and Snail Toxins Acting on Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors: Fundamental Aspects and Medical Applications".

1813:, like nitric oxide, is an endogenously produced compound used by neurons to perform normally, being present in small concentrations throughout the 3735: 6974: 6299:

Roed, A (1989). "The Effects of Tetraethylammonium during Twitch and Tetanic Stimulation of the Phrenic Nerve Diaphragm Preparation in the Rat".

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Nadler; Victor, J.; Perry, Bruce W.; Cotman, Carl W. (1978). "Intraventricular Kainic Acid Preferentially Destroys Hippocampal Pyramidal Cells".

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Buzanska, L.; Zablocka, B.; Dybel, A.; Domanska-Janik, K.; Albrecht, J. (2000). "Delayed Induction of Apoptosis by Ammonia in C6 Glioma Cells".

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is a potent neurotoxin whose toxicity has been recognized for at least thousands of years. Though neurotoxic effects for lead are found in both

941:(BTX) is a group of neurotoxins consisting of eight distinct compounds, referred to as BTX-A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H, which are produced by the bacterium 7035: 6468:

Soroceanu, Liliana; Gillespie, Yancey; Khazaeli, M. B.; Sontheimer, Harold (1998). "Use of Chlorotoxin for Targeting of Primary Brain Tumors".

1802:, inducing DNA damage and apoptosis. Thus an increased presence of NO in an ischemic area of the CNS can produce significantly toxic effects. 7624: 6488:

Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH, Ludolph AC (Eds) (2000) Experimental and Clinical Neurotoxicology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 1310.

5280:"Early Exposure to Common Anesthetic Agents Causes Widespread Neurodegeneration in the Developing Rat Brain and Persistent Learning Deficits" 1260:

of mice it induced tremors, paralysis and death within a few minutes. In 1977, the structure of VFDF was determined as a secondary, bicyclic

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is capable of inducing CNS damage by migrating into the brain by crossing the BBB. Mercury exists in a number of different compounds, though

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Konopacka, Agnieszka; Konopacki, Filip A.; Albrecht, Jan (2009). "Protein Kinase G Is Involved in Ammonia-induced Swelling of Astrocytes".

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Brocardo, Patricia S.; Gil-Mohapel, Joana; Christie, Brian R. (2011). "The Role of Oxidative Stress in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders".

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Banks, William A.; Kastin, Abba J. (1989). "Aluminum-Induced Neurotoxicity: Alterations in Membrane Function at the Blood–brain barrier".

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Lafon-Cazal, Mireille; Pietri, Sylvia; Culcasi, Marcel; Bockaert, Joel (1993). "NMDA-dependent Superoxide Production and Neurotoxicity".

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sites (Martinez-Finley 2011). One of the effects of arsenic ingestion during the development of the nervous system is the inhibition of

742:. TTX can be fatal if consumed, and has become a common form of poisoning in many countries. Common symptoms of TTX consumption include 3657:

Bergamini, Carlo M.; Gambetti, Stefani; Dondi, Alessia; Cervellati, Carlo (2004). "Oxygen, Reactive Oxygen Species and Tissue Damage".

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may increase the chance of survival after TTX exposure, there is currently no antitoxin. The use of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor

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Matsuoka, Masato; Igisu, Hideki; Kohriyama, Kazuaki; Inoue, Naohide (1991). "Suppression of Neurotoxicity of Ammonia by L-carnitine".

9291: 5067:"A Model for β-Amyloid Aggregation and Neurotoxicity Based on Free Radical Generation by the Peptide: Relevance to Alzheimer Disease" 3374: 2072: 6131:

Norenberg, M. D.; Rao, K. V. Rama; Jayakumar, A. R. (2004). "Ammonia Neurotoxicity and the Mitochondrial Permeability Transition".

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Coyle, Joseph T.; Schwarcz, Robert (1976). "Lesion of Striatal Neurons with Kainic Acid Provides a Model for Huntington's Chorea".

1793:(NO) is commonly used by the nervous system in inter-neuron communication and signaling, it can be active in mechanisms leading to 1725:

is a neurotoxin which has been responsible for the poisoning of several workers in Chinese electronics factories in recent years.

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Zhang, J.; Dawson, V.; Dawson, T.; Snyder, S. (1994). "Nitric Oxide Activation of Poly(ADP-ribose) Synthetase in Neurotoxicity".

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could account for most nervous tissue function. From this basic understanding, the use of common compounds such as tetrodotoxin,

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toxicity is often seen through two routes of administration, either through consumption or through endogenous ailments such as

9735: 7124: 6984: 6555: 6513: 3606:"Apparent Hydroxyl Radical Production by Peroxynitrite: Implications for Endothelial Injury from Nitric Oxide and Superoxide" 3390: 6127:

National Center for Environmental Assessment (2006) "Toxicological Reviews of Cyanobacterial Toxins: Anatoxin-a" NCEA-C-1743

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Cruz, Lourdes J.; Olivera, Baldomero M. (1987). "Calcium Channel Antagonists ω-Conotoxin Defines a New High Affinity Site".

6575:"From the Cover: Long-lasting Reduction in Hippocampal Neurogenesis by Alcohol Consumption in Adolescent Nonhuman Primates" 4030:

Brookes, N (1988). "Specificity and Reversibility of the Inhibition by HgCl of Glutamate Transport in Astrocyte Cultures".

1186:, also known as "Very Fast Death Factor", began in 1961 following the deaths of cows that drank from a lake containing an 419:. Likewise through isolation of certain channel activities, neurotoxins have provided the ability to improve the original 8501: 5796:"Reduced Expression of MAPK/ERK Genes in Perinatal Arsenic-exposed Offspring Induced by Glucocorticoid Receptor Deficits" 1454:

and function. Importantly, the toxic effects of ammonia on astrocyte remodeling can be reduced through administration of

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to infiltrate healthy nervous tissue in the brain, significantly reducing the potential invasive harm caused by tumors.

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Carmichael WW, Gorham PR (1978). "Anatoxins from clones of Anabaena flos-aquae isolated from lakes of western Canada".

1701:(ROS). This is a plausible mechanism, as there is a reduced presence in the fetal brain of antioxidant enzymes such as 1529:

calcium ion levels within neurons, which may subsequently reduce mitochondrial transmembrane potential which activates

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such as lead, the choroid plexuses maintain a strictly regulated environment which contains the brain and spinal cord.

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that can adversely affect function in both developing and mature nervous tissue. The term can also be used to classify

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Choi, D (1988). "Calcium-mediated Neurotoxicity: Relationship to Specific Channel Types and Role in Ischemic Damage".

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TTX-resistant (TTX-r) is another form of sodium channel which has limited sensitivity to TTX, and is largely found in

187:

is common. Support has been shown for a number of treatments aimed at attenuating neurotoxin-mediated injury, such as

8630: 8622: 8216: 1387: 120:

are in fact essential for proper function of the body and only exert neurotoxic effects at excessive concentrations.

1582:

and excitotoxicity. An underlying mechanism by which lead is able to cause harm is its ability to be transported by

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history because of the fragile and susceptible nature of the nervous system, making it highly prone to disruption.

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Bleich, S (2003). "Hyperhomocysteinemia as a New Risk Factor for Brain Shrinkage in Patients with Alcoholism".

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1447: 1122:, as it tends to concentrate in organisms high on the food chain. It is known that the mercuric ion inhibits 1689:

leading to fetal alcohol syndrome has been shown to be dependent on antioxidant levels in the brain such as

1541:

transport. This is particularly destructive as neurofilaments are used in basic cell structure and support.

1501:

growth which can occur both in PNS and the CNS. This neurite growth inhibition can often lead to defects in

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Rothman, S.; Thurston, J.; Hauhart, R. (1987). "Delayed Neurotoxicity of Excitatory Amino Acids In Vitro".

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to chemicals may not accurately convey a distinction between neurotoxins and cytotoxins, as symptoms like

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1357:

glutamatergic ionotropic receptors with potent excitatory, convulsant, and neurodegenerative properties.

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When it was first discovered, the toxin was called the Very Fast Death Factor (VFDF) because when it was

1031: 404: 7917: 6492:

Stanfield, Peter R (1983). "Tetraethylammonium Ions and the Potassium Permeability of Excitable Cells".

987:. Due to its high toxicity, BTX antitoxins have been an active area of research. It has been shown that 793:. When a significant level of TTX is ingested, it will bind sodium channels on neurons and reduce their 9775: 8640: 7778: 7701: 7273: 3501:

Aschner, M.; Aschner, J. (1990). "Mercury Neurotoxicity: Mechanisms of Blood–brain barrier Transport".

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have led to a much deeper understanding of the distinct ways in which individual neurons may behave.

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increased blood flow to potentially ischemic regions of the brain, it is also capable of increasing

1450:(PKG) cytoskeletal modifications. The resultant effect of this toxicity can be reduced brain energy 805:, and subsequent loss of motor and sensory function which can result in paralysis and death. Though 8930: 8185: 8160: 8085: 7992: 7897: 7793: 1913:

Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) in Inland Waters: Assessment and Control of Risks to Public Health

1578:, the developing brain is particularly susceptible to lead-induced harm, effects which can include 814: 420: 6826:

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inhibitor can reduce this mitochondrial transition, and potentially also astrocyte remodeling.

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systems have increased in use as they provide significant improvements over the more common

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vitamin E results in reduced or eliminated ethanol-induced neurotoxic effects in fetuses.

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and subsequent cell death. This occurs almost exclusively in dopaminergic neurons of the

1486: 1381:, though it has matured to specify a specific categorization of poisons which act on the 1064: 526: 291: 7004: 6942: 6707:"Source Specificity of Early Calcium Neurotoxicity in Cultured Embryonic Spinal Neurons" 6590: 6096: 6058:

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despite being the most poisonous substance known. BTX functions peripherally to inhibit

9803: 9640: 8810: 8768: 8645: 8476: 8271: 8165: 8105: 7828: 7808: 7585: 6962: 6916: 6878: 6731: 6722: 6706: 6688: 6664: 6651: 6609: 6574: 6427: 6361: 6324: 6270: 6256: 6156: 6116: 6046: 5988: 5869: 5820: 5795: 5714: 5689: 5676: 5590: 5565: 5547: 5522: 5488: 5443: 5377: 5306: 5296: 5279: 5261: 5236: 5223: 5186: 5013: 5000: 4980: 4967: 4929: 4861: 4756: 4727: 4611:

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4592: 4490: 4480: 4463: 4437: 4380: 4355: 4342: 4300: 4290: 4273: 4255: 4245: 4228: 4186: 4092: 4055: 4043: 4018: 3981: 3832: 3712: 3687: 3563: 3526: 3459: 3130: 2741: 2084: 2009: 1658: 1502: 1088: 1068: 1039: 1015: 951:. A notably unique feature of BTX is its relatively common therapeutic use in treating 837: 806: 479: 428: 283: 6761: 6452: 6439:

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note: some toxins are produced by lower species and pass through intermediate species

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molecule is shaped so it fits this receptor, and in this way it mimics the natural

960: 884: 883:

venom, and is primarily toxic because of its ability to inhibit the conductance of

850: 802: 798: 771: 346: 76: 6542:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 619. pp. 613–637. 1271:. Structurally, it is similar to cocaine. There is continued interest in anatoxin- 203: 9884: 9667: 9572: 9167: 8822: 8719: 8564: 8539: 8424: 8352: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8170: 8110: 8047: 7962: 7922: 7907: 7858: 7848: 7803: 7670: 7660: 7655: 7437: 7240: 7232: 6976:

Occurrence of the cyanobacterial neurotoxin, anatoxin-a, in New York State waters

6860: 6547: 6283: 5733:"β-Amyloid Neurotoxicity Requires Fibril Formation and Is Inhibited by Congo Red" 3940: 3790: 3773: 3378: 2677: 1198:, and has been reported in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and New Zealand. 1111: 938: 841: 510: 449: 370: 155:

damage. Macroscopic manifestations of neurotoxin exposure can include widespread

101: 7047: 6803: 5705: 4371: 2285: 1591:

and induces apoptosis. It is this intracellular calcium increase that activates

394:. Neurotoxins, however, by their very design can be very useful in the field of 9874: 9812: 9609: 9157: 9097: 8920: 8912: 8659: 8613: 8382: 8256: 8226: 8155: 8130: 8120: 7967: 7947: 7937: 7823: 7743: 7675: 7665: 7490: 7217: 7059: 1439: 1378: 1250: 1115: 972: 855: 767: 751: 723: 412: 391: 350: 342: 279: 262:

Astrocytes surrounding capillaries in the brain to form the blood brain barrier

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Widmaier, Eric P., Hershel Raff, Kevin T. Strang, and Arthur J. Vander (2008)

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permeability transition. This mitochondrial transition is a direct result of

1423: 1354: 1350: 1242: 1214: 1195: 1107: 1080: 1079:

incapable of removing excess ions from the blood, such as those experiencing

964: 416: 338: 105: 65: 38: 37:

Neurotoxins can be found in a number of organisms, including some strains of

7012: 6844: 6827: 6679: 6599: 6540:

Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: State of the Science and Research Needs

5907: 5145: 4533: 4509:"Nitric Oxide Mediates Glutamate Neurotoxicity in Primary Cortical Cultures" 3870: 3772:

Blanco, Ana M.; Valles, Soraya L.; Pascual, Maria; Guerri, Consuelo (2005).

3485: 2606: 930: 781:

Inhibited signaling response resulting from neuron exposure to tetrodotoxin.

9879: 9834: 9770: 9662: 9652: 9635: 9604: 9552: 9516: 9475: 9429: 9366: 9269: 9192: 9127: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8940: 8754: 8590: 8387: 8266: 8261: 8145: 7977: 7902: 7853: 7843: 7818: 7813: 7783: 7717: 7202: 7197: 7162: 6811: 6769: 6697: 6618: 6565: 6394: 6291: 6219: 6152: 6021: 5984: 5829: 5723: 5688:

Liu, Yuan; McDermott, Suzanne; Lawson, Andrew; Aelion, C. Marjorie (2010).

5672: 5634: 5625: 5608: 5599: 5513: 5439: 5373: 5315: 5270: 5182: 5153: 5091: 5057: 4963: 4925: 4896: 4798: 4723: 4715: 4667: 4658: 4641: 4632: 4588: 4389: 4338: 4125: 4088: 4014: 3977: 3948: 3828: 3799: 3721: 3678: 3630: 3493: 2778: 2506: 2498: 2293: 2017: 1790: 1766: 1750: 1678: 1634: 1626: 1534: 1459: 1458:. This astrocyte remodeling appears to be mediated through ammonia-induced 1300: 1284: 1027: 992: 984: 743: 707: 660: 542: 469: 432: 395: 299: 213: 113: 109: 97: 73: 7020: 6958: 6912: 6853: 6740: 6647: 6523: 6481: 6460: 6423: 6357: 6320: 6252: 6190: 5955: 5926: 5865: 5776: 5609:"Lead Neurotoxicity in Children: Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Correlates" 5556: 5484: 5410: 5344: 5219: 5110: 5022: 4857: 4752: 4642:"Chlorotoxin Inhibits Glioma Cell Invasion via Matrix Metalloproteinase-2" 4552: 4499: 4309: 4264: 4219: 4182: 4051: 3910: 3889: 3764: 3649: 3596: 3559: 3522: 3455: 2737: 2654: 2614: 2080: 1559: 854:

space-filling structure to potassium ions. What makes TEA very useful for

9849: 9844: 9839: 9808: 9795: 9625: 9579: 9567: 9424: 9371: 9321: 9227: 9222: 9212: 9177: 9162: 9028: 8739: 8696: 8667: 8487: 8465: 8402: 8392: 8135: 7982: 7565: 7472: 7412: 7356: 7331: 7301: 7288: 7222: 7212: 7187: 6112: 5581: 5538: 4272:

Choi, Dennis W.; Maulucci-Gedde, Margaret; Kriegstein, Arnold R. (1987).

4133: 1814: 1642: 1630: 1608: 1588: 1510: 1471: 1467: 1426:. One notable case in which ammonia toxicity is common is in response to 1308: 1292: 1187: 1047: 1035: 1000: 876: 810: 715: 700: 618: 489: 275: 267: 232: 188: 42: 27: 6182: 4675:

Devlin JP, Edwards OE, Gorham PR, Hunter NR, Pike RK, Stavric B (1977).

2073:

10.1002/(sici)1097-4598(199604)19:4<488::aid-mus9>3.0.co;2-8

1466:

activity a compound which forms from ammonia in-vivo. Administration of

9780: 9765: 9760: 9744: 9657: 9594: 9511: 9489: 9434: 9397: 9341: 9311: 9301: 9242: 9232: 9217: 9202: 9197: 9182: 9102: 9087: 9003: 8993: 8988: 8978: 8945: 8635: 8595: 8412: 7997: 7570: 7480: 7427: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7268: 7263: 7255: 7182: 7177: 6505: 6050: 5004: 4433: 1864: 1854: 1844: 1706: 1694: 1518: 1451: 1342: 1334: 1328: 1191: 1180: 1170: 1123: 956: 790: 735: 695: 581: 563: 558: 423:

of the neuron in which it was theorized that single generic sodium and

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Martini, Frederic, Michael J. Timmons, and Robert B. Tallitsch (2009)

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and obtain precise measurements about their concentration along nerve

33: 9864: 9818: 9785: 9562: 9557: 9547: 9527: 9470: 9460: 9455: 9414: 9326: 9142: 9122: 9112: 9072: 9067: 9047: 9018: 8968: 8950: 8903: 8895: 8802: 8786: 8397: 8241: 7932: 7417: 7394: 7379: 7366: 7351: 7336: 7296: 7278: 7192: 7172: 6950: 6828:"Clostridial Neurotoxins and Substrate Proteolysis in Intact Neurons" 6104: 5476: 4849: 4702:

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An Astrocyte, a cell notable for maintaining the blood brain barrier

9465: 9445: 9356: 9351: 9316: 9306: 9281: 9237: 9187: 9132: 9107: 9092: 9057: 9052: 8983: 8935: 8908: 8854: 8782: 8435: 8150: 7457: 7432: 7384: 7326: 7157: 7152: 5793: 4066: 1823: 1794: 1702: 1522: 1494: 1264: 1205:

progress very rapidly because it acts directly on the nerve cells (

952: 880: 817: 759: 671: 639: 633: 329: 217: 184: 172: 168: 777: 19:"Neurotoxicology" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see 9620: 9082: 9077: 9062: 9023: 8998: 8835: 8815: 8455: 7575: 7550: 7545: 7485: 7462: 7452: 7346: 1869: 1778: 1709:. In support of this mechanism, administration of high levels of 1621: 1542: 1530: 1498: 1482: 1419: 1119: 1084: 1076: 1011: 909: 719: 628: 597: 592: 575: 515: 445: 357: 333: 136: 89: 6825: 5454: 4978: 3656: 1485:

is a neurotoxin commonly found concentrated in areas exposed to

1046:

of a lethal dose of BTX, TeNT leads to paralysis and subsequent

9387: 9361: 9331: 9147: 8849: 8830: 8578: 7686: 7555: 6401: 6167: 5160: 4903: 4827: 4677:"Anatoxin-a, a toxic alkaloid from Anabaena flos-aquae NRC-44h" 4396:

Costa, Lucio G., Gennaro Giordano, and Marina Guizzetti (2011)

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Bernier Brian E., Whitaker Leslie R., Morikawa Hitoshi (2011).

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to induce cell mechanism interference, like the inhibition of

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Deshane, Jessy; Garner, Craig C.; Sontheimer, Harald (2003).

1738: 1686: 1575: 1571: 1431: 1374: 1338: 1324: 1261: 1221:. The nerve tissues which communicate with muscles contain a 1166: 1130:(Glu) transport, potentially leading to excitotoxic effects. 1075:

is known to be neurotoxic, effects are usually restricted to

1072: 996: 980: 863:

through its ability to limit the progression of the disease.

824:

enough to improve the chance of survival after TTX exposure.

747: 727: 650: 399: 378: 240: 236: 228: 221: 57: 46: 7561:

Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium bromide)

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Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

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formation. The magnitude of ethanol neurotoxicity in

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is known for carrying lethal amounts of tetrodotoxin.

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Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology

5197: 4738: 2715: 2377: 1598: 1133: 135:

membrane, or communication between neurons across a

6625: 2580: 2474: 2344: 1769:in exposed subjects 2–3 days after administration. 274:in the brain, inhibiting the transport of large or 5499: 4461: 4274:"Glutamate Neurotoxicity in Cortical Cell Culture" 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 1026:(CNS). This is a result of TeNT migration through 6029:Moore RE (1977). "Toxins from blue-green algae". 5933: 5606: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2688: 2686: 2467: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2394: 2392: 1924:Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers 1728: 294:(CSF). Importantly, through selective passage of 9915: 7075:at United States Environmental Protection Agency 5391:Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences 4398:In Vitro Neurotoxicology: Methods and Protocols. 4140: 3167: 3165: 2925: 2923: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2536: 2534: 1772: 1745:is a selective neurotoxin which interferes with 1549: 1245:. Once it has triggered a contraction, anatoxin- 6579:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5887:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5737:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5071:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4513:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3850:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3610:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3474:The Journal of the American Medical Association 3146: 3144: 3106: 3091: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2328: 2326: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2180:Neurotoxins: Definition, Epidemiology, Etiology 2157: 1641:marked by increased membrane concentrations of 384: 353:modifications may occur in response to either. 5641: 4462:Davis, S.; Butcher, S. P.; Morris, R. (1992). 3500: 3229: 3227: 3107:Griffith, Harold R.; Johnson, G. Enid (1942). 2803: 2709: 2683: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2548: 2546: 2462: 2450: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2389: 2268:Radio, Nicholas M.; Mundy, William R. (2008). 2224: 2222: 2100: 2098: 2054: 2052: 1998:Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 1194:produced by at least four different genera of 726:. Within the puffer fish, TTX is found in the 239:content which retains lipophilic toxins, high 9729: 8360: 7702: 7118: 5234: 4774: 4403: 4229:"Ionic Dependence of Glutamate Neurotoxicity" 3896: 3308: 3162: 3084: 3082: 2920: 2752: 2666: 2664: 2531: 2121: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1932: 1930: 1765:, resulting in the presentation of permanent 326:United States Environmental Protection Agency 143:of neurotoxin exposure often includes neuron 8443: 8237:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring 6747: 6441:Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 6057: 5521:Lau, F. L.; Wong, C. K.; Yip, S. H. (1995). 4316: 3734:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3574: 3433: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3141: 3001:National Center for Environmental Assessment 2858: 2856: 2581:Lovinger, D.; White, G.; Weight, F. (1989). 2569: 2555: 2513: 2427: 2406: 2404: 2368: 2361: 2359: 2323: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2236: 2234: 2205: 2198: 2196: 2114: 2112: 2110: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1401: 290:cells, are responsible for the synthesis of 216:resulting from the development of extensive 6927: 6372: 5962: 5237:"The M-superfamily of Conotoxins: a Review" 4566: 4448: 4197: 3537: 3224: 3049: 3031: 2897: 2895: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2621: 2543: 2413: 2219: 2095: 2049: 1944: 1942: 1386:death. Curare notably functions to inhibit 920: 356:In an effort to address this complication, 9736: 9722: 8367: 8353: 7709: 7695: 7125: 7111: 5520: 5235:Jacob, Reed B.; McDougal, Owen M. (2010). 5134:The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 5029: 3079: 3063: 3061: 2661: 2522: 2441: 2267: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 1951: 1927: 1287:is a compound with known interaction with 1229:. Stimulation of these receptors causes a 1034:of the spinal cord after entering through 934:Mechanism of Botulinum Toxin neurotoxicity 9292:Androctonus australis hector insect toxin 7048:In Vitro Neurotoxicology: An Introduction 6843: 6730: 6687: 6608: 6598: 6531:Stewart I, Seawright AA, Shaw GR (2008). 6491: 6133:Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes 5916: 5906: 5880: 5840:San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. 5819: 5766: 5756: 5713: 5624: 5589: 5546: 5305: 5295: 5260: 5132:How, C (2003). "Tetrodotoxin Poisoning". 5100: 5090: 5047: 5012: 4701: 4692: 4657: 4542: 4532: 4489: 4479: 4379: 4299: 4289: 4254: 4244: 3879: 3869: 3843: 3789: 3711: 3639: 3629: 3192: 3124: 3109:"The Use Of Curare In General Anesthesia" 3040: 2853: 2401: 2356: 2309: 2231: 2193: 2107: 1984: 1653:in the hippocampus, resulting in reduced 1316:is specific for nAChRs found in neurons. 991:(active compound responsible for heat in 438: 207:Illustration of typical multipolar neuron 68:). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of 6028: 4809:Protein Engineering Design and Selection 3540:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 3503:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2892: 2695: 2130: 1939: 1633:, widespread brain atrophy, and induced 1607: 1558: 1410: 1323: 1209:). The progressive symptoms of anatoxin- 1165: 929: 776: 762:and often manifest within 30 minutes of 694: 304: 257: 202: 32: 6438: 5730: 5064: 4029: 3603: 3058: 3022: 2632: 2487:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2024: 1892: 1291:(nAChRs), which constitute a family of 879:(Cltx) is the active compound found in 507:Inhibitors of synaptic vesicle release 278:compounds. In addition to the BBB, the 9916: 6789: 4506: 3806: 3742: 3381:ABC Foreign Correspondent, 2010-Oct-26 1850:Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy 1087:such as impaired learning and reduced 1067:is known to occur upon entry into the 1053: 1003:and inhibit the toxic effects of BTX. 286:, which through the function of their 9717: 8348: 7690: 7106: 7044:at University of Texas Medical School 6822:Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 6197: 5322: 3393:, This American Life, January 6, 2012 3360:Workers poisoned while making iPhones 2647:10.1093/oxfordjournals.alcalc.a044638 1444:cGMP (Cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate) 832: 8327: 6781:Human & Experimental Toxicology, 6298: 5241:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 4226: 4160: 4155:Encyclopedia of Environmental Health 1673:, a disease characterized by common 827: 175:. Additionally, neurotoxin-mediated 6832:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 5131: 4646:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 4451:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2730:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1995.64020718.x 1307:. This α7-nAChR functions to allow 1213:exposure are loss of coordination, 866: 13: 8646:Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) 7029: 6723:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-05-02085.1993 6145:10.1023/b:jobb.0000041758.20071.19 5936:Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 5297:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-03-00876.2003 4561:The American Physiological Society 4481:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.12-01-00021.1992 4291:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.07-02-00357.1987 4246:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.07-02-00369.1987 4044:10.1111/j.1471-4159.1988.tb10581.x 2010:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02019.x 959:disorders, as well as in inducing 925: 894: 14: 9935: 8217:Development of the nervous system 7066: 6453:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.26.1.427 4985:Environmental Health Perspectives 4918:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.04.011 4007:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2011.02.001 1681:formation, limb development, and 1599:Neurotoxins with multiple effects 1388:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 1289:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 1217:, convulsions and rapid death by 1190:in Saskatchewan, Canada. It is a 1134:Receptor agonists and antagonists 685: 9898: 9897: 9698: 9697: 8326: 8315: 8314: 7872: 7716: 6905:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00408.x 6893:European Journal of Neuroscience 6875:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00318.x 6375:The American Journal of Medicine 5570:Archives of Disease in Childhood 5432:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05802.x 5126:Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply 4771:Philadelphia: Saunders-Elsevier. 3414: 3405: 3396: 3384: 3365: 3353: 3344: 3335: 3326: 3317: 3299: 3290: 3281: 3272: 3263: 3254: 3126:10.1097/00000542-194207000-00006 1446:within the cells which leads to 1398:to produce muscular relaxation. 1227:nicotinic acetylcholine receptor 1151: 1006: 539:Receptor inhibitors/antagonists 227:The nervous tissue found in the 9743: 8730:Extracellular adenylate cyclase 7132: 7073:Environmental Protection Agency 7038:at The Society for Neuroscience 3391:Mr Daisey and the Apple Factory 3245: 3236: 3215: 3206: 3183: 3174: 3153: 3100: 3070: 3013: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2977: 2968: 2959: 2950: 2941: 2932: 2911: 2883: 2874: 2865: 2844: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2794: 2785: 2335: 2300: 2261: 2252: 2243: 2184: 2173: 2148: 2139: 2040: 1784: 1677:aberrations such as defects in 1669:creating the classification of 1279: 1241:normally used by the receptor, 690: 647:Receptor-selective neurotoxins 523:Blood brain barrier inhibitors 16:Toxin harmful to nervous tissue 7408:Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine 6060:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 5800:Neurotoxicology and Teratology 5665:10.1088/0957-4484/19/20/205102 4581:10.1016/j.brainres.2007.04.019 4212:10.1146/annurev.neuro.13.1.171 4143:Mitt. Infernal. Verein. Limnol 3704:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5282-10.2011 1975: 1918: 1905: 1886: 1757:, leading to the depletion of 1729:Receptor-selective neurotoxins 1267:, and it was renamed anatoxin- 871: 657:Endogenous neurotoxin sources 1: 8882:Fibronectin binding protein A 8058:Social cognitive neuroscience 6762:10.1016/s0014-5793(03)01454-6 6212:10.1016/s0161-813x(01)00092-4 6014:10.1016/s0741-8329(98)00051-2 5965:Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 5337:10.1016/s0140-6736(73)91291-9 5212:10.1016/s0166-2236(96)10074-6 4625:10.1016/s0161-813x(02)00196-1 4200:Annual Review of Neuroscience 4081:10.1016/s0197-0186(00)00030-9 3821:10.1016/s0304-3940(02)01194-1 3659:Current Pharmaceutical Design 3552:10.1016/s0149-7634(89)80051-x 3515:10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80217-9 3426: 1773:Endogenous neurotoxin sources 1550:Calcium-mediated cytotoxicity 1319: 1299:, which is isolated from the 1258:injected into the body cavity 1138: 801:is a reduced excitability of 680: 266:This barrier creates a tight 198: 8033:Molecular cellular cognition 7054:Biology of the NMDA Receptor 6640:10.1016/0006-8993(90)90346-d 6548:10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_28 6416:10.1016/0304-3940(88)90085-7 6387:10.1016/0002-9343(46)90073-3 6350:10.1016/0306-4522(87)90347-2 6313:10.1016/0028-3908(89)90137-8 6284:10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.03.023 6245:10.1016/0014-4886(82)90220-5 6072:10.1016/0968-0004(86)90282-3 5948:10.1016/0165-6147(90)90184-a 5858:10.1016/0006-8993(91)90814-c 4175:10.1016/0166-2236(88)90200-7 4069:Neurochemistry International 3941:10.1016/j.envres.2005.08.003 3791:10.4049/jimmunol.175.10.6893 3757:10.1016/0378-8741(92)90056-w 3745:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 3589:10.1016/0376-8716(85)90001-8 3448:10.1016/0166-2236(94)90092-2 1805: 1201:Toxic effects from anatoxin- 1058: 899: 385:Applications in neuroscience 7: 8623:Staphylococcus aureus alpha 8601:Panton–Valentine leukocidin 8252:Neurodevelopmental disorder 8227:Neural network (biological) 8222:Neural network (artificial) 6804:10.1016/j.neuro.2005.11.007 6711:The Journal of Neuroscience 5706:10.1016/j.ijheh.2009.12.004 5284:The Journal of Neuroscience 5030:Häussinger, Dieter (2006). 4468:The Journal of Neuroscience 4372:10.1016/j.neuro.2007.01.014 4278:The Journal of Neuroscience 4233:The Journal of Neuroscience 3692:The Journal of Neuroscience 3577:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2286:10.1016/j.neuro.2008.02.011 1915:Retrieved 15 December 2011. 1833: 1716: 1663:inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate 1659:mesolimbic dopamine neurons 971:through degradation of the 298:and nutrients and trapping 10: 9940: 8641:Toxic shock syndrome toxin 7779:Computational neuroscience 7081:at Oxford Medical Journals 5607:Lidsky Theodore I (2003). 5527:Emergency Medicine Journal 4944:Behavioural Brain Research 3362:ABC News, October 25, 2010 1741:, the toxic metabolite of 1699:reactive oxidative species 1603: 1477: 1406: 1098: 822:sympathetic nerve activity 589:Cytoskeleton interference 458:Neurotoxin classification 446:inter-neuron communication 131:concentrations across the 112:. Some substances such as 25: 18: 9893: 9827: 9794: 9751: 9693: 9680: 9618: 9538:(+)-Allopumiliotoxin 267A 9525: 9499: 9488: 9443: 9385: 9279: 9268: 9037: 8894: 8865: 8801: 8738: 8685: 8658: 8611: 8586: 8577: 8550: 8463: 8454: 8434: 8423: 8310: 8247:Neurodegenerative disease 8204: 8091:Evolutionary neuroscience 8066: 8006: 7881: 7870: 7742: 7724: 7648: 7612: 7584: 7471: 7393: 7365: 7287: 7254: 7231: 7140: 5977:10.3109/17482960903272942 5881:McCleskey, E. W. 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Trevor (2002) 4778:Biochemical Pharmacology 4767:Dobbs, Michael R (2009) 3671:10.2174/1381612043384664 1880: 1160:University of Nottingham 921:Synaptic vesicle release 815:acetylcholine antagonist 60:that are destructive to 26:Not to be confused with 8715:Heat-labile enterotoxin 8706:heat-stable enterotoxin 8023:Behavioral neuroscience 7613:Cholinergic neurotoxins 7093:at Neurotoxin Institute 7013:10.1126/science.8080500 6845:10.1074/jbc.271.13.7694 6680:10.1124/jpet.109.156901 6600:10.1073/pnas.0912810107 5908:10.1073/pnas.84.12.4327 5523:"Puffer Fish Poisoning" 5200:Trends in Neurosciences 5146:10.1053/ajem.2003.50008 5121:, pp. 671–84. Web. 4704:Neurobiology of Disease 4534:10.1073/pnas.88.14.6368 4227:Choi, Dennis W (1987). 4163:Trends in Neurosciences 3970:10.1023/A:1022596115897 3871:10.1073/pnas.92.16.7162 3604:Beckman, J. S. (1990). 3486:10.1001/jama.285.8.1059 3436:Trends in Neurosciences 2607:10.1126/science.2467382 2145:Jevtovic-Todorovic 2003 1733: 1554: 1063:Neurotoxic behavior of 1016:clostridial neurotoxins 977:vesicle-membrane fusion 789:such as those found in 712:Tetraodontiformes order 284:ventricles of the brain 161:intellectual disability 41:, that can be found in 8824:Bacillus thuringiensis 8018:Affective neuroscience 7799:Molecular neuroscience 7754:Behavioral epigenetics 7079:Alcohol and Alcoholism 6233:Experimental Neurology 5785:Toxicological Reviews, 5092:10.1073/pnas.91.8.3270 4906:Brain Research Reviews 4821:10.1093/protein/gzr012 4716:10.1006/nbdi.2001.0411 4659:10.1074/jbc.m205662200 4507:Dawson, V. L. (1991). 4126:10.1126/science.803708 3995:Brain Research Reviews 3921:Environmental Research 3631:10.1073/pnas.87.4.1620 2635:Alcohol and Alcoholism 2499:10.1002/anie.201305382 1671:fetal alcohol syndrome 1655:long-term potentiation 1617: 1614:Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 1564: 1537:through inhibition of 1436:hepatic encephalopathy 1416: 1392:neuromuscular junction 1383:neuromuscular junction 1331: 1176: 1157:Very Fast Death Factor 1024:central nervous system 969:neuromuscular junction 935: 782: 704: 497:Ca channel inhibitors 486:Cl channel inhibitors 466:Na channel inhibitors 439:Mechanisms of activity 411:tetrodotoxin to assay 312: 263: 208: 157:central nervous system 50: 8081:Cultural neuroscience 8076:Consumer neuroscience 7918:Neurogastroenterology 7774:Cellular neuroscience 7640:Hemicholinium mustard 7620:Acetylcholine mustard 7443:Chlorophenylsilatrane 4753:10.1081/TXR-200057850 4319:Acta Neuropathologica 2386:Garcia-Rodriguez 2011 1612:Male baby exhibiting 1611: 1562: 1414: 1371:South American tribes 1327: 1219:respiratory paralysis 1169: 1040:muscular contractions 1020:muscular contractions 967:(ACh) release at the 947:and lead to muscular 944:Clostridium botulinum 933: 795:membrane permeability 780: 714:, which includes the 698: 476:K channel inhibitors 308: 261: 206: 151:but can also include 36: 8725:Pseudomonas exotoxin 8053:Sensory neuroscience 7893:Behavioral neurology 7864:Systems neuroscience 7635:Ethylcholine mustard 7091:Neurotoxin Institute 7087:at Elsevier Journals 6863:Journal of Phycology 6404:Neuroscience Letters 5626:10.1093/brain/awg014 5582:10.1136/adc.85.4.286 5539:10.1136/emj.12.3.214 5128:. London: Duckworth. 3809:Neuroscience Letters 2832:Haghdoost-Yasdi 2011 2353:Haghdoost-Yazdi 2011 1911:Scottish Government 1875:Toxic encephalopathy 1820:Huntington's disease 1584:calcium ATPase pumps 1509:,) often leading to 1438:, and can result in 1231:muscular contraction 1179:Investigations into 807:assisted ventilation 803:postsynaptic neurons 787:small diameter axons 768:depolarization phase 754:), muscle weakness, 421:Hodgkin-Huxley model 367:acetylcholinesterase 123:Neurotoxins inhibit 92:(drinking alcohol), 9870:Debromoaplysiatoxin 8196:Social neuroscience 8096:Global neurosurgery 7973:Neurorehabilitation 7943:Neuro-ophthalmology 7928:Neurointensive care 7759:Behavioral genetics 7586:Bicyclic phosphates 7208:Spooky toxin (SsTx) 7005:1994Sci...263..687Z 6943:1996Natur.382..685Y 6786:(10) : 823–32. 6591:2010PNAS..10711104T 6183:10.1021/bi00382a004 6097:1978Natur.271..676N 5899:1987PNAS...84.4327M 5749:1994PNAS...9112243L 5731:Lorenzo, A (1994). 5657:2008Nanot..19t5102L 5469:1993Natur.364..535L 5354:Annals of Neurology 5083:1994PNAS...91.3270H 5065:Hensley, K (1994). 4991:(Suppl 1): 131–58. 4876:Toxicology in Vitro 4842:1988Natur.336..385G 4525:1991PNAS...88.6368D 4418:1976Natur.263..244C 4118:1975Sci...187..542C 3933:2006ER....101..132B 3862:1995PNAS...92.7162B 3622:1990PNAS...87.1620B 2903:Muscle & Nerve, 2599:1989Sci...243.1721L 2493:(49): 13067–13070. 1487:agricultural runoff 1347:Averrhoa carambola) 1093:Alzheimer's disease 1054:Blood brain barrier 1001:cholinergic neurons 861:Parkinson's disease 799:signaling threshold 791:nociception neurons 615:Protein misfolding 292:cerebrospinal fluid 249:blood–brain barrier 9804:Cylindrospermopsin 9641:Alpha-Bungarotoxin 8811:Lipopolysaccharide 8769:Pore-forming toxin 8272:Neuroimmune system 8166:Neurophenomenology 8106:Neural engineering 7829:Neuroendocrinology 7809:Neural engineering 7042:Neuroscience Texts 6585:(24): 11104–1109. 6506:10.1007/bfb0035345 6271:Toxicology Letters 5790:(1) (2005): 37–49. 5743:(25): 12243–2247. 5331:(7815): 1267–271. 4563:, pp. 361–69. 3844:Bonfoco E (1995). 3377:2017-05-25 at the 2676:2011-12-18 at the 2593:(4899): 1721–724. 2061:Muscle & Nerve 1618: 1565: 1417: 1332: 1301:banded krait snake 1177: 1089:motor coordination 1069:circulatory system 1032:inhibitory neurons 1012:Tetanus neurotoxin 936: 838:Tetraethylammonium 833:Tetraethylammonium 813:or the muscarinic 783: 705: 555:Receptor agonists 480:Tetraethylammonium 429:tetraethylammonium 425:potassium channels 405:Ion Channel toxins 400:venomous organisms 313: 264: 209: 51: 9911: 9910: 9711: 9710: 9676: 9675: 9646:Beta-Bungarotoxin 9590:Pumiliotoxin 251D 9484: 9483: 8890: 8889: 8877:Clumping factor A 8797: 8796: 8681: 8680: 8654: 8653: 8573: 8572: 8342: 8341: 8191:Paleoneurobiology 8126:Neuroepistemology 8101:Neuroanthropology 8067:Interdisciplinary 7953:Neuropharmacology 7913:Neuroepidemiology 7684: 7683: 7448:Sulfuryl fluoride 6985:978-0-549-35451-2 6557:978-0-387-75864-0 6515:978-3-540-11701-8 6301:Neuropharmacology 5366:10.1002/ana.20395 5049:10.1002/hep.21235 4400:New York: Humana. 4112:(4176): 542–544. 1840:Babycurus toxin 1 1620:As a neurotoxin, 1434:which results in 1396:anesthesiologists 1164: 1163: 1042:. Similar to the 975:required for ACh 885:chloride channels 847:delayed rectifier 828:Potassium channel 772:action potentials 678: 677: 625:Multiple effects 270:layer around the 218:plumbing networks 9931: 9901: 9900: 9738: 9731: 9724: 9715: 9714: 9701: 9700: 9629: 9585:Histrionicotoxin 9531: 9505: 9497: 9496: 9449: 9403:Alpha-latrotoxin 9391: 9285: 9277: 9276: 9009:Sterigmatocystin 8961:, Fumonisin B3, 8925:epsilon-amanitin 8844:B. thuringiensis 8673:Diphtheria toxin 8616: 8584: 8583: 8553: 8469: 8461: 8460: 8452: 8451: 8441: 8440: 8432: 8431: 8369: 8362: 8355: 8346: 8345: 8330: 8329: 8318: 8317: 8232:Detection theory 8116:Neurocriminology 8043:Neurolinguistics 7958:Neuroprosthetics 7876: 7839:Neuroinformatics 7789:Imaging genetics 7711: 7704: 7697: 7688: 7687: 7127: 7120: 7113: 7104: 7103: 7036:Brain Facts Book 7024: 6999:(5147): 687–89. 6970: 6951:10.1038/382685a0 6937:(6593): 685–91. 6924: 6886: 6857: 6847: 6838:(13): 7694–699. 6815: 6773: 6744: 6734: 6701: 6691: 6659: 6622: 6612: 6602: 6569: 6537: 6527: 6485: 6476:(21): 4871–879. 6464: 6435: 6398: 6369: 6332: 6295: 6264: 6223: 6194: 6164: 6124: 6105:10.1038/271676a0 6091:(5646): 676–77. 6075: 6054: 6025: 5996: 5959: 5930: 5920: 5910: 5893:(12): 4327–331. 5877: 5833: 5823: 5780: 5770: 5760: 5727: 5717: 5684: 5638: 5628: 5603: 5593: 5560: 5550: 5517: 5496: 5477:10.1038/364535a0 5463:(6437): 535–37. 5451: 5414: 5385: 5348: 5319: 5309: 5299: 5274: 5264: 5231: 5194: 5157: 5114: 5104: 5094: 5061: 5051: 5026: 5016: 4975: 4937: 4900: 4869: 4850:10.1038/336385a0 4824: 4802: 4764: 4735: 4698: 4696: 4687:(8): 1367–1371. 4671: 4661: 4636: 4607:, pp. 1–16. 4600: 4556: 4546: 4536: 4519:(14): 6368–371. 4503: 4493: 4483: 4458: 4457:(261): 6230–233. 4445: 4426:10.1038/263244a0 4412:(5574): 244–46. 4393: 4383: 4350: 4313: 4303: 4293: 4268: 4258: 4248: 4223: 4194: 4150: 4137: 4100: 4063: 4026: 3989: 3952: 3914: 3893: 3883: 3873: 3856:(16): 7162–166. 3840: 3803: 3793: 3784:(10): 6893–899. 3768: 3739: 3733: 3725: 3715: 3698:(14): 5305–212. 3682: 3665:(14): 1611–626. 3653: 3643: 3633: 3600: 3571: 3534: 3497: 3467: 3421: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3403: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3348: 3342: 3341:Gil-Mohapel 2010 3339: 3333: 3330: 3324: 3321: 3315: 3312: 3306: 3303: 3297: 3294: 3288: 3285: 3279: 3276: 3270: 3267: 3261: 3258: 3252: 3249: 3243: 3240: 3234: 3231: 3222: 3219: 3213: 3210: 3204: 3201: 3190: 3187: 3181: 3178: 3172: 3169: 3160: 3157: 3151: 3148: 3139: 3138: 3128: 3104: 3098: 3097:Schlesinger 1946 3095: 3089: 3086: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3065: 3056: 3053: 3047: 3044: 3038: 3035: 3029: 3026: 3020: 3017: 3011: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2975: 2972: 2966: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2918: 2915: 2909: 2899: 2890: 2887: 2881: 2878: 2872: 2869: 2863: 2860: 2851: 2848: 2842: 2839: 2833: 2830: 2824: 2821: 2815: 2812: 2801: 2798: 2792: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2761: 2750: 2749: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2693: 2690: 2681: 2668: 2659: 2658: 2630: 2619: 2618: 2578: 2567: 2564: 2553: 2550: 2541: 2538: 2529: 2526: 2520: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2481: 2472: 2469: 2460: 2457: 2448: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2425: 2422: 2411: 2408: 2399: 2396: 2387: 2384: 2375: 2372: 2366: 2363: 2354: 2351: 2342: 2339: 2333: 2330: 2321: 2318: 2307: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2265: 2259: 2256: 2250: 2247: 2241: 2238: 2229: 2226: 2217: 2214: 2203: 2200: 2191: 2188: 2182: 2177: 2171: 2170:Thyagarajan 2009 2168: 2155: 2152: 2146: 2143: 2137: 2134: 2128: 2125: 2119: 2116: 2105: 2102: 2093: 2092: 2056: 2047: 2044: 2038: 2035: 2022: 2021: 1993: 1982: 1979: 1973: 1970: 1949: 1946: 1937: 1934: 1925: 1922: 1916: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1890: 1800:oxidative stress 1763:substantia nigra 1593:protein kinase C 1503:neural migration 1239:neurotransmitter 1155: 1154: 1143: 1142: 961:muscular atrophy 867:Chloride channel 851:action potential 455: 454: 371:organophosphates 347:oxidative stress 195:administration. 49:in a green scum. 45:or washed up on 9939: 9938: 9934: 9933: 9932: 9930: 9929: 9928: 9914: 9913: 9912: 9907: 9889: 9885:Aetokthonotoxin 9823: 9790: 9747: 9742: 9712: 9707: 9689: 9672: 9668:Cardiotoxin III 9624: 9619: 9614: 9526: 9521: 9500: 9492: 9480: 9444: 9439: 9386: 9381: 9280: 9272: 9264: 9168:Resiniferatoxin 9033: 8886: 8868: 8861: 8826:delta endotoxin 8793: 8734: 8720:Pertussis toxin 8688: 8677: 8650: 8612: 8607: 8569: 8565:Listeriolysin O 8551: 8546: 8464: 8446: 8426: 8419: 8373: 8343: 8338: 8306: 8292:Neurotechnology 8287:Neuroplasticity 8282:Neuromodulation 8277:Neuromanagement 8200: 8171:Neurophilosophy 8068: 8062: 8048:Neuropsychology 8009: 8002: 7963:Neuropsychiatry 7923:Neuroimmunology 7908:Neurocardiology 7884: 7877: 7868: 7859:Neurophysiology 7849:Neuromorphology 7804:Neural decoding 7745: 7738: 7720: 7715: 7685: 7680: 7661:Dimethylmercury 7656:Dimethylcadmium 7644: 7630:Choline mustard 7608: 7580: 7467: 7438:Phenylsilatrane 7389: 7361: 7283: 7250: 7241:Botulinum toxin 7227: 7136: 7131: 7085:Neurotoxicology 7069: 7050:at Springerlink 7032: 7030:Further reading 7027: 6973:Yang, X (2007) 6792:NeuroToxicology 6717:(5): 2095–104. 6634:(1–2): 109–14. 6558: 6535: 6516: 6470:Cancer Research 6410:(2–3): 220–24. 6200:NeuroToxicology 6177:(8): 2086–090. 6043:10.2307/1297756 6037:(12): 797–802. 5502:Neurotoxicology 5119:NeuroToxicology 5077:(8): 3270–274. 5042:(6): 1187–190. 4997:10.2307/3433917 4883:(8): 1569–581. 4694:10.1139/v77-189 4652:(6): 4135–144. 4613:NeuroToxicology 4360:NeuroToxicology 4075:(2–3): 287–97. 4038:(4): 1117–122. 4001:(1–2): 209–25. 3899:Neurotoxicology 3727: 3726: 3616:(4): 1620–624. 3480:(8): 1059–069. 3429: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3379:Wayback Machine 3370: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3277: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3232: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3163: 3159:Buzanska (2000) 3158: 3154: 3149: 3142: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3059: 3054: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2921: 2917:Montecucco 1986 2916: 2912: 2900: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2822: 2818: 2814:Standfield 1983 2813: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2762: 2753: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2696: 2692:Garthwaite 1988 2691: 2684: 2678:Wayback Machine 2669: 2662: 2631: 2622: 2579: 2570: 2565: 2556: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2532: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2482: 2475: 2471:Carmichael 1975 2470: 2463: 2459:Carmichael 1978 2458: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2428: 2423: 2414: 2409: 2402: 2398:Williamson 1996 2397: 2390: 2385: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2357: 2352: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2324: 2319: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2274:NeuroToxicology 2266: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2232: 2227: 2220: 2215: 2206: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2108: 2103: 2096: 2057: 2050: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2025: 1994: 1985: 1980: 1976: 1971: 1952: 1947: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1910: 1906: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1836: 1808: 1787: 1775: 1736: 1731: 1719: 1606: 1601: 1557: 1552: 1480: 1409: 1404: 1363: 1322: 1282: 1233:. The anatoxin- 1159: 1152: 1146:External videos 1141: 1136: 1112:dimethylmercury 1101: 1061: 1056: 1009: 995:) can bind the 939:Botulinum toxin 928: 926:Botulinum toxin 923: 902: 897: 895:Calcium channel 874: 869: 856:neuroscientists 835: 830: 693: 688: 683: 511:Botulinum toxin 450:botulinum toxin 441: 413:sodium channels 387: 311: 244:brain barrier. 201: 179:damage such as 159:damage such as 102:botulinum toxin 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9937: 9927: 9926: 9909: 9908: 9906: 9905: 9894: 9891: 9890: 9888: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9875:Lyngbyatoxin-a 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9831: 9829: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9821: 9816: 9813:Microcystin-LR 9806: 9800: 9798: 9792: 9791: 9789: 9788: 9783: 9778: 9773: 9768: 9763: 9757: 9755: 9749: 9748: 9741: 9740: 9733: 9726: 9718: 9709: 9708: 9706: 9705: 9694: 9691: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9681: 9678: 9677: 9674: 9673: 9671: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9650: 9649: 9648: 9643: 9632: 9630: 9616: 9615: 9613: 9612: 9610:Zetekitoxin AB 9607: 9602: 9597: 9592: 9587: 9582: 9577: 9576: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9545: 9540: 9534: 9532: 9523: 9522: 9520: 9519: 9514: 9508: 9506: 9494: 9486: 9485: 9482: 9481: 9479: 9478: 9473: 9468: 9463: 9458: 9452: 9450: 9441: 9440: 9438: 9437: 9432: 9427: 9422: 9417: 9412: 9407: 9406: 9405: 9394: 9392: 9383: 9382: 9380: 9379: 9374: 9369: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9309: 9304: 9299: 9294: 9288: 9286: 9274: 9266: 9265: 9263: 9262: 9257: 9256: 9255: 9250: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9158:Pseudaconitine 9155: 9150: 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9098:Djenkolic acid 9095: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9075: 9070: 9065: 9060: 9055: 9050: 9044: 9042: 9035: 9034: 9032: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8921:gamma-amanitin 8913:alpha-amanitin 8906: 8900: 8898: 8892: 8891: 8888: 8887: 8885: 8884: 8879: 8873: 8871: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8859: 8858: 8857: 8852: 8840: 8839: 8838: 8833: 8820: 8819: 8818: 8807: 8805: 8799: 8798: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8791: 8790: 8789: 8773: 8772: 8771: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8744: 8742: 8736: 8735: 8733: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8708: 8700: 8693: 8691: 8683: 8682: 8679: 8678: 8676: 8675: 8670: 8664: 8662: 8660:Actinomycetota 8656: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8649: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8619: 8617: 8614:Staphylococcus 8609: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8604: 8603: 8593: 8587: 8581: 8575: 8574: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8567: 8562: 8556: 8554: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8542: 8530: 8529: 8528: 8523: 8511: 8510: 8509: 8504: 8492: 8491: 8490: 8485: 8472: 8470: 8458: 8449: 8438: 8429: 8421: 8420: 8418: 8417: 8416: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8372: 8371: 8364: 8357: 8349: 8340: 8339: 8337: 8336: 8324: 8311: 8308: 8307: 8305: 8304: 8302:Self-awareness 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8257:Neurodiversity 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8208: 8206: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8156:Neuromarketing 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8131:Neuroesthetics 8128: 8123: 8121:Neuroeconomics 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8072: 8070: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8014: 8012: 8004: 8003: 8001: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7968:Neuroradiology 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7948:Neuropathology 7945: 7940: 7938:Neuro-oncology 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7889: 7887: 7879: 7878: 7871: 7869: 7867: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7824:Neurochemistry 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7750: 7748: 7740: 7739: 7737: 7736: 7731: 7725: 7722: 7721: 7714: 7713: 7706: 7699: 7691: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7676:Tetraethyllead 7673: 7668: 7666:Toxopyrimidine 7663: 7658: 7652: 7650: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7616: 7614: 7610: 7609: 7607: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7590: 7588: 7582: 7581: 7579: 7578: 7573: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7491:Novichok agent 7488: 7483: 7477: 7475: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7399: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7371: 7369: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7293: 7291: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7260: 7258: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7248: 7243: 7237: 7235: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7218:Zetekitoxin AB 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7144: 7142: 7138: 7137: 7130: 7129: 7122: 7115: 7107: 7101: 7100: 7094: 7088: 7082: 7076: 7068: 7067:External links 7065: 7064: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7025: 6988: 6971: 6925: 6887: 6869:(2): 356–365. 6858: 6823: 6816: 6787: 6777: 6774: 6745: 6702: 6660: 6628:Brain Research 6623: 6570: 6556: 6528: 6514: 6489: 6486: 6465: 6436: 6399: 6370: 6333: 6296: 6265: 6228: 6224: 6195: 6165: 6128: 6125: 6080: 6076: 6055: 6026: 5997: 5960: 5931: 5878: 5846:Brain Research 5841: 5838:Human Anatomy. 5834: 5791: 5781: 5728: 5685: 5651:(20): 205102. 5645:Nanotechnology 5639: 5604: 5561: 5518: 5497: 5452: 5415: 5386: 5349: 5320: 5275: 5232: 5195: 5158: 5129: 5122: 5115: 5062: 5027: 4976: 4938: 4912:(2): 283–303. 4901: 4870: 4836:(24): 385–88. 4825: 4803: 4772: 4765: 4747:(2): 175–207. 4736: 4699: 4672: 4637: 4608: 4601: 4569:Brain Research 4564: 4557: 4504: 4459: 4446: 4401: 4394: 4351: 4314: 4269: 4224: 4195: 4169:(10): 465–69. 4158: 4151: 4138: 4101: 4064: 4027: 3990: 3964:(4): 595–600. 3953: 3915: 3905:(2–3): 131–6. 3894: 3841: 3804: 3769: 3740: 3683: 3654: 3601: 3572: 3535: 3498: 3468: 3430: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3413: 3404: 3395: 3383: 3364: 3352: 3350:Bergamini 2004 3343: 3334: 3325: 3316: 3307: 3298: 3289: 3280: 3271: 3262: 3253: 3244: 3235: 3223: 3214: 3205: 3191: 3182: 3173: 3171:Norenberg 2004 3161: 3152: 3140: 3119:(4): 418–420. 3113:Anesthesiology 3099: 3090: 3078: 3069: 3057: 3048: 3039: 3030: 3021: 3012: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2967: 2958: 2949: 2940: 2931: 2929:Pirazzini 2011 2919: 2910: 2891: 2889:McCleskey 1987 2882: 2873: 2864: 2852: 2850:Soroceanu 1998 2843: 2834: 2825: 2816: 2802: 2793: 2784: 2751: 2708: 2694: 2682: 2660: 2620: 2568: 2554: 2542: 2540:Konopacka 2009 2530: 2521: 2512: 2473: 2461: 2449: 2440: 2426: 2412: 2400: 2388: 2376: 2367: 2355: 2343: 2334: 2322: 2308: 2299: 2280:(3): 361–376. 2260: 2251: 2242: 2230: 2218: 2204: 2192: 2183: 2172: 2156: 2147: 2138: 2129: 2127:Dikranian 2001 2120: 2106: 2094: 2048: 2039: 2023: 1983: 1974: 1950: 1938: 1926: 1917: 1904: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1835: 1832: 1807: 1804: 1786: 1783: 1774: 1771: 1753:by inhibiting 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1718: 1715: 1683:cardiovascular 1651:NMDA receptors 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1479: 1476: 1440:cerebral edema 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1362: 1359: 1321: 1318: 1314:κ-bungarotoxin 1297:α-bungarotoxin 1281: 1278: 1251:cholinesterase 1162: 1161: 1148: 1147: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1116:diethylmercury 1100: 1097: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1008: 1005: 997:TRPV1 receptor 973:SNARE proteins 927: 924: 922: 919: 901: 898: 896: 893: 873: 870: 868: 865: 834: 831: 829: 826: 724:porcupine fish 692: 689: 687: 686:Sodium channel 684: 682: 679: 676: 675: 658: 654: 653: 648: 644: 643: 626: 622: 621: 616: 612: 611: 606: 602: 601: 590: 586: 585: 556: 552: 551: 540: 536: 535: 524: 520: 519: 508: 504: 503: 498: 494: 493: 487: 483: 482: 477: 473: 472: 467: 463: 462: 459: 440: 437: 392:nervous system 386: 383: 310:Choroid plexus 309: 280:choroid plexus 200: 197: 145:excitotoxicity 104:(e.g. Botox), 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9936: 9925: 9922: 9921: 9919: 9904: 9896: 9895: 9892: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9860:Cyanopeptolin 9858: 9856: 9855:Cyanobacterin 9853: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9820: 9817: 9814: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9801: 9799: 9797: 9793: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9777: 9774: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9758: 9756: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9739: 9734: 9732: 9727: 9725: 9720: 9719: 9716: 9704: 9696: 9695: 9692: 9686: 9683: 9682: 9679: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9638: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9631: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9600:Samandaridine 9598: 9596: 9593: 9591: 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9574: 9573:Marinobufagin 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9550: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9543:Batrachotoxin 9541: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9533: 9529: 9524: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9509: 9507: 9503: 9498: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9453: 9451: 9447: 9442: 9436: 9433: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9416: 9413: 9411: 9408: 9404: 9401: 9400: 9399: 9396: 9395: 9393: 9389: 9384: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9297:Charybdotoxin 9295: 9293: 9290: 9289: 9287: 9283: 9278: 9275: 9271: 9267: 9261: 9258: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9245: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9208:Solauricidine 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9153:Protoanemonin 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9138:Oenanthotoxin 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9036: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9014:Trichothecene 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8974:Ibotenic acid 8972: 8970: 8967: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8917:beta-amanitin 8914: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8901: 8899: 8897: 8893: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8874: 8872: 8870: 8864: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8847: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8828: 8827: 8825: 8821: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8812: 8809: 8808: 8806: 8804: 8800: 8788: 8784: 8781: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8767: 8766: 8765: 8764: 8760: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8751: 8750: 8746: 8745: 8743: 8741: 8737: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8712: 8711:Cholera toxin 8709: 8707: 8705: 8701: 8698: 8695: 8694: 8692: 8690: 8684: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8665: 8663: 8661: 8657: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8621: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8610: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8588: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8576: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8560:Anthrax toxin 8558: 8557: 8555: 8549: 8541: 8538: 8537: 8536: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8518: 8517: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8499: 8498: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8483:Tetanospasmin 8481: 8480: 8479: 8478: 8474: 8473: 8471: 8467: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8422: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8380: 8379: 8376: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8363: 8358: 8356: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8335: 8334: 8325: 8323: 8322: 8313: 8312: 8309: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8203: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8186:Neurotheology 8184: 8182: 8181:Neurorobotics 8179: 8177: 8176:Neuropolitics 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8141:Neuroethology 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8073: 8071: 8065: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8038:Motor control 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8028:Chronobiology 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8013: 8011: 8005: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7988:Neurovirology 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7886: 7880: 7875: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7834:Neurogenetics 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7769:Brain-reading 7767: 7765: 7764:Brain mapping 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7749: 7747: 7741: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7726: 7723: 7719: 7712: 7707: 7705: 7700: 7698: 7693: 7692: 7689: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7653: 7651: 7647: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7611: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7587: 7583: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7478: 7476: 7474: 7470: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7423:Methamidophos 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7403:Fenpropathrin 7401: 7400: 7398: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7375:Ibotenic acid 7373: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7364: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7342:Oenanthotoxin 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7292: 7290: 7286: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7259: 7257: 7253: 7247: 7246:Tetanospasmin 7244: 7242: 7239: 7238: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7168:Charybdotoxin 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7148:Batrachotoxin 7146: 7145: 7143: 7141:Animal toxins 7139: 7135: 7128: 7123: 7121: 7116: 7114: 7109: 7108: 7105: 7098: 7095: 7092: 7089: 7086: 7083: 7080: 7077: 7074: 7071: 7070: 7061: 7058: 7055: 7052: 7049: 7046: 7043: 7040: 7037: 7034: 7033: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6977: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6824: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6798:(3): 385–94. 6797: 6793: 6788: 6785: 6782: 6778: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6756:(1–3): 9–13. 6755: 6751: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6674:(2): 361–71. 6673: 6669: 6666: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6534: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6490: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6447:(1): 427–53. 6446: 6442: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6381:(5): 518–30. 6380: 6376: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6344:(2): 471–80. 6343: 6339: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6307:(6): 585–92. 6306: 6302: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6278:(3): 237–44. 6277: 6273: 6272: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6239:(2): 441–46. 6238: 6234: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6206:(6): 659–68. 6205: 6201: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6139:(4): 303–07. 6138: 6134: 6129: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6066:(8): 314–17. 6065: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6008:(2): 163–68. 6007: 6003: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5942:(9): 379–87. 5941: 5937: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5852:(2): 328–31. 5851: 5847: 5842: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5806:(5): 530–37. 5805: 5801: 5797: 5792: 5789: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5700:(2): 116–23. 5699: 5695: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5576:(4): 286–88. 5575: 5571: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5533:(3): 214–15. 5532: 5528: 5524: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5508:(4): 619–29. 5507: 5503: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5360:(3): 339–48. 5359: 5355: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5290:(3): 876–82. 5289: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5206:(3): 132–39. 5205: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5169:(3): 173–78. 5168: 5164: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5127: 5123: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4877: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4815:(9): 633–34. 4814: 4810: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4785:(6): 661–70. 4784: 4780: 4779: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4741:Toxin Reviews 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4710:(3): 359–79. 4709: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4619:(2): 161–78. 4618: 4614: 4609: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4565: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4402: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4366:(5): 931–37. 4365: 4361: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4325:(6): 659–73. 4324: 4320: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4284:(2): 357–68. 4283: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4239:(2): 369–79. 4238: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4206:(1): 171–82. 4205: 4201: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4159: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3958:Neurochem Res 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3927:(1): 132–39. 3926: 3922: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3815:(3): 179–82. 3814: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3583:(3): 207–27. 3582: 3578: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3509:(2): 169–76. 3508: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3442:(4): 151–55. 3441: 3437: 3432: 3431: 3417: 3408: 3402:Iadecola 1998 3399: 3392: 3387: 3380: 3376: 3373: 3372:Dirty Secrets 3368: 3361: 3356: 3347: 3338: 3332:Mitchell 1999 3329: 3320: 3314:Takadera 1990 3311: 3302: 3293: 3284: 3275: 3266: 3257: 3248: 3242:Bradbury 1993 3239: 3230: 3228: 3218: 3209: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3189:Vahidnia 2007 3186: 3177: 3168: 3166: 3156: 3150:Matsuoka 1991 3147: 3145: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3094: 3085: 3083: 3073: 3064: 3062: 3052: 3043: 3034: 3025: 3016: 3007: 2998: 2989: 2980: 2971: 2962: 2953: 2944: 2935: 2926: 2924: 2914: 2908:(S6): 146–68. 2907: 2904: 2898: 2896: 2886: 2877: 2868: 2859: 2857: 2847: 2838: 2829: 2820: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2797: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2773:(9): 830–33. 2772: 2768: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2724:(2): 718–23. 2723: 2719: 2712: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2689: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2667: 2665: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2641:(4): 325–38. 2640: 2636: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2566:Bressler 1999 2563: 2561: 2559: 2549: 2547: 2537: 2535: 2525: 2519:Rutgrere 2012 2516: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2480: 2478: 2468: 2466: 2456: 2454: 2444: 2438:Dutertre 2006 2435: 2433: 2431: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2407: 2405: 2395: 2393: 2383: 2381: 2374:McClesky 1987 2371: 2362: 2360: 2350: 2348: 2341:Lewendon 2001 2338: 2332:Brocardo 2011 2329: 2327: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2303: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2255: 2246: 2237: 2235: 2225: 2223: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2199: 2197: 2187: 2181: 2176: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2151: 2142: 2133: 2124: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2101: 2099: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2067:(4): 488–96. 2066: 2062: 2055: 2053: 2043: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2004:(4): 512–18. 2003: 1999: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1978: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1945: 1943: 1933: 1931: 1921: 1914: 1908: 1900: 1896: 1889: 1885: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1837: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1812: 1803: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1782: 1780: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1726: 1724: 1714: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1675:morphogenesis 1672: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1647:saturated fat 1644: 1640: 1639:lipid bilayer 1636: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1615: 1610: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1561: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1539:neurofilament 1536: 1532: 1528: 1527:intracellular 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1460:mitochondrial 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1424:liver failure 1421: 1413: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1330: 1326: 1317: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1277: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1243:acetylcholine 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1196:cyanobacteria 1193: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1175: 1174: 1168: 1158: 1149: 1144: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108:methylmercury 1105: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1081:renal failure 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1028:motor neurons 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1007:Tetanus toxin 1004: 1002: 999:expressed on 998: 994: 993:chili peppers 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 965:acetylcholine 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 945: 940: 932: 918: 916: 911: 906: 892: 890: 886: 882: 878: 864: 862: 857: 852: 848: 843: 839: 825: 823: 819: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 779: 775: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 720:ocean sunfish 717: 713: 709: 702: 697: 674: 673: 669: 667: 662: 659: 656: 655: 652: 649: 646: 645: 642: 641: 637: 635: 630: 627: 624: 623: 620: 617: 614: 613: 610: 607: 604: 603: 600: 599: 594: 591: 588: 587: 584: 583: 579: 577: 573: 571: 567: 565: 560: 557: 554: 553: 550: 549: 544: 541: 538: 537: 534: 533: 528: 525: 522: 521: 518: 517: 516:Tetanus toxin 512: 509: 506: 505: 502: 499: 496: 495: 491: 488: 485: 484: 481: 478: 475: 474: 471: 468: 465: 464: 460: 457: 456: 453: 451: 447: 436: 434: 433:bungarotoxins 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 401: 397: 393: 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 363: 359: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 339:neurotoxicity 335: 331: 327: 322: 318: 307: 303: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 260: 256: 254: 250: 245: 242: 238: 234: 230: 225: 223: 219: 215: 205: 196: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 167:impairments, 166: 163:, persistent 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 127:control over 126: 121: 119: 115: 111: 107: 106:tetanus toxin 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 82: 78: 75: 71: 67: 66:neurotoxicity 63: 59: 55: 48: 44: 40: 39:cyanobacteria 35: 29: 22: 9880:Microviridin 9835:Aplysiatoxin 9809:Microcystins 9796:Hepatotoxins 9771:Antillatoxin 9752: 9684: 9663:Calcicludine 9653:Calciseptine 9636:Bungarotoxin 9605:Tarichatoxin 9553:Arenobufagin 9517:Tetrodotoxin 9476:Tetrodotoxin 9430:Vanillotoxin 9367:Phaiodotoxin 9270:Invertebrate 9193:Solasodamine 9128:Lotaustralin 8963:Fumonisin B4 8959:Fumonisin B2 8955:Fumonisin B1 8941:Cytochalasin 8843: 8823: 8775: 8761: 8755:Superantigen 8747: 8703: 8591:Streptolysin 8532: 8513: 8494: 8475: 8407: 8331: 8319: 8296: 8267:Neuroimaging 8262:Neurogenesis 8146:Neurohistory 8111:Neurobiotics 8010:neuroscience 7978:Neurosurgery 7903:Epileptology 7885:neuroscience 7854:Neurophysics 7844:Neurometrics 7819:Neurobiology 7814:Neuroanatomy 7784:Connectomics 7718:Neuroscience 7473:Nerve agents 7289:Plant toxins 7203:Vanillotoxin 7198:Tetrodotoxin 7163:Bungarotoxin 7133: 7099:at Toxipedia 6996: 6992: 6975: 6934: 6930: 6899:(1): 83–90. 6896: 6892: 6866: 6862: 6835: 6831: 6819: 6795: 6791: 6783: 6780: 6753: 6750:FEBS Letters 6749: 6714: 6710: 6671: 6667: 6631: 6627: 6582: 6578: 6539: 6497: 6493: 6473: 6469: 6444: 6440: 6407: 6403: 6378: 6374: 6341: 6338:Neuroscience 6337: 6304: 6300: 6275: 6269: 6236: 6232: 6203: 6199: 6174: 6171:Biochemistry 6170: 6136: 6132: 6088: 6084: 6063: 6059: 6034: 6030: 6005: 6001: 5968: 5964: 5939: 5935: 5890: 5886: 5849: 5845: 5837: 5803: 5799: 5787: 5784: 5740: 5736: 5697: 5693: 5648: 5644: 5616: 5612: 5573: 5569: 5530: 5526: 5505: 5501: 5460: 5456: 5423: 5419: 5394: 5390: 5357: 5353: 5328: 5324: 5287: 5283: 5247:(1): 17–27. 5244: 5240: 5203: 5199: 5166: 5162: 5140:(1): 51–54. 5137: 5133: 5125: 5118: 5074: 5070: 5039: 5035: 4988: 4984: 4950:(1): 70–74. 4947: 4943: 4909: 4905: 4880: 4874: 4833: 4829: 4812: 4808: 4782: 4776: 4768: 4744: 4740: 4707: 4703: 4684: 4681:Can. J. Chem 4680: 4649: 4645: 4616: 4612: 4604: 4572: 4568: 4560: 4516: 4512: 4474:(1): 21–34. 4471: 4467: 4454: 4450: 4409: 4405: 4397: 4363: 4359: 4322: 4318: 4281: 4277: 4236: 4232: 4203: 4199: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4146: 4142: 4109: 4105: 4072: 4068: 4035: 4031: 3998: 3994: 3961: 3957: 3924: 3920: 3902: 3898: 3853: 3849: 3812: 3808: 3781: 3777: 3748: 3744: 3730:cite journal 3695: 3691: 3662: 3658: 3613: 3609: 3580: 3576: 3546:(1): 47–53. 3543: 3539: 3506: 3502: 3477: 3473: 3439: 3435: 3420:Bonfoco 1995 3416: 3411:Beckman 1990 3407: 3398: 3386: 3367: 3355: 3346: 3337: 3328: 3319: 3310: 3305:Bernier 2011 3301: 3292: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3247: 3238: 3233:Lidskey 2003 3221:DeFuria 2007 3217: 3212:Brender 2005 3208: 3185: 3176: 3155: 3116: 3112: 3102: 3093: 3072: 3055:Tsetlin 2003 3051: 3042: 3037:Stewart 2008 3033: 3028:Metcalf 2009 3024: 3015: 3006: 2997: 2988: 2979: 2974:Brookes 1988 2970: 2961: 2952: 2943: 2934: 2913: 2905: 2902: 2885: 2876: 2871:Olivera 1987 2867: 2846: 2841:Deshane 2003 2837: 2828: 2819: 2796: 2787: 2770: 2766: 2721: 2718:J. Neurochem 2717: 2711: 2638: 2634: 2590: 2586: 2552:DeFuria 2006 2524: 2515: 2490: 2486: 2443: 2424:Aschner 1990 2370: 2337: 2302: 2277: 2273: 2263: 2258:Gartlon 2006 2254: 2245: 2228:Martini 2009 2186: 2175: 2150: 2141: 2132: 2123: 2104:Simpson 1986 2064: 2060: 2042: 2001: 1997: 1977: 1972:Kiernan 2005 1936:Spencer 2000 1920: 1907: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1809: 1791:nitric oxide 1788: 1785:Nitric oxide 1776: 1767:parkinsonism 1751:mitochondria 1737: 1720: 1679:craniofacial 1667: 1635:inflammation 1627:neurogenesis 1619: 1566: 1535:cytoskeleton 1521:of arsenic, 1481: 1468:antioxidants 1418: 1364: 1346: 1333: 1293:ion channels 1285:Bungarotoxin 1283: 1280:Bungarotoxin 1272: 1268: 1255: 1246: 1234: 1210: 1202: 1200: 1182: 1178: 1172: 1102: 1062: 1010: 985:asphyxiation 942: 937: 903: 875: 836: 784: 744:paraesthesia 708:Tetrodotoxin 706: 691:Tetrodotoxin 670: 664: 661:Nitric oxide 638: 632: 596: 580: 574: 568: 562: 546: 543:Bungarotoxin 530: 514: 470:Tetrodotoxin 461:Neurotoxins 442: 409:radiolabeled 396:neuroscience 388: 369:capacity of 355: 314: 300:heavy metals 265: 246: 226: 214:Roman Empire 210: 122: 114:nitric oxide 110:tetrodotoxin 98:nitric oxide 74:neurological 62:nerve tissue 53: 52: 43:algal blooms 9924:Neurotoxins 9850:Coibamide A 9845:Caldoramide 9840:Apratoxin A 9753:Neurotoxins 9745:Cyanotoxins 9626:Snake venom 9580:Epibatidine 9568:Cinobufagin 9425:Stromatoxin 9372:Imperatoxin 9322:Scyllatoxin 9228:Tagetitoxin 9223:Swainsonine 9213:Solauricine 9178:Solamargine 9173:Scopolamine 9163:Retronecine 9029:Zearalenone 8697:Shiga toxin 8668:Cord factor 8507:Enterotoxin 8502:Alpha toxin 8496:perfringens 8488:Tetanolysin 8466:Clostridium 8403:hepatotoxin 8393:enterotoxin 8383:cardiotoxin 8136:Neuroethics 7983:Neurotology 7625:Catecholine 7566:Fluorotabun 7413:Bromethalin 7357:Veratridine 7332:Ginkgotoxin 7302:Bicuculline 7256:Cyanotoxins 7223:Dendrotoxin 7213:Epibatidine 7188:Poneratoxin 7134:Neurotoxins 7097:Neurotoxins 5619:(1): 5–19. 5397:(1): 1–20. 3751:(1): 1–26. 3287:Blanco 2005 3278:Bleich 2003 3269:Morris 2009 3251:Lasley 1999 3088:Bisset 1992 3010:Devlin 1977 2956:Walton 2006 2791:Ahasan 2004 2528:Roller 1994 2447:Koller 1988 2154:Nadler 1978 1981:Lidsky 2003 1815:gray matter 1643:cholesterol 1631:hippocampus 1589:homeostasis 1513:defects in 1511:neural tube 1507:development 1472:glutaminase 1456:L-carnitine 1337:(CBX) is a 1309:calcium ion 1225:called the 1188:algal bloom 1048:suffocation 1036:endocytosis 910:cone snails 877:Chlorotoxin 872:Chlorotoxin 849:seen in an 842:musculature 811:Neostigmine 716:puffer fish 701:puffer fish 619:Tau protein 490:Chlorotoxin 276:hydrophilic 272:capillaries 268:hydrophobic 233:spinal cord 189:antioxidant 54:Neurotoxins 28:nerve agent 9781:Kalkitoxin 9766:Guanitoxin 9761:Anatoxin-a 9658:Taicatoxin 9595:Samandarin 9548:Bufotoxins 9512:Ciguatoxin 9490:Vertebrate 9435:Huwentoxin 9415:Cupiennins 9398:Latrotoxin 9342:Kaliotoxin 9312:Margatoxin 9302:Maurotoxin 9243:Toxalbumin 9233:Tinyatoxin 9218:Strychnine 9203:Solasonine 9198:Solasodine 9183:Solanidine 9103:Falcarinol 9088:Delphinine 9004:Phalloidin 8994:Ochratoxin 8989:Orellanine 8979:Lolitrem B 8946:Ergotamine 8896:Mycotoxins 8740:Mechanisms 8699:/Verotoxin 8636:Exfoliatin 8596:Leukocidin 8413:phototoxin 8408:neurotoxin 8297:Neurotoxin 7998:Psychiatry 7571:Chinese VX 7481:Cyclosarin 7428:Endosulfan 7395:Pesticides 7367:Mycotoxins 7317:Strychnine 7312:Picrotoxin 7307:Penitrem A 7269:Guanitoxin 7264:Anatoxin-a 7183:Huwentoxin 7178:Fasciculin 6979:ProQuest. 6031:BioScience 5426:: 246–51. 5325:The Lancet 5036:Hepatology 4157:: 697–704. 4149:: 285–295. 3427:References 3323:Jones 1973 3296:Davis 1992 3260:Taffe 2010 3203:Rocha 2011 3046:Dixit 2005 3019:Moore 1977 2862:Jacob 2010 2680:, OSHA.gov 2410:Banks 1988 2365:DeBin 1993 2320:Adams 2003 2306:Lotti 2005 2249:Harry 1998 2240:Costa 2011 2202:Dobbs 2009 2190:Hodge 2002 2118:Arnon 2001 2046:Zhang 1994 1948:Olney 2002 1895:Vesitalous 1865:Pesticides 1855:Fertilizer 1845:Cangitoxin 1707:peroxidase 1695:cerebellum 1574:and young 1519:metabolite 1452:metabolism 1365:The term " 1343:star fruit 1335:Caramboxin 1329:Caramboxin 1320:Caramboxin 1192:cyanotoxin 1139:Anatoxin-a 1124:amino acid 957:spasticity 905:Conotoxins 770:of neuron 736:intestines 681:Inhibitors 582:5-MEO-DiPT 564:Caramboxin 559:Anatoxin-a 373:(includes 362:cytotoxins 321:physicians 317:scientists 253:astrocytes 199:Background 181:neuropathy 153:glial cell 81:endogenous 9865:Cyclamide 9819:Nodularin 9786:Saxitoxin 9563:Bufotenin 9558:Bufotalin 9528:Amphibian 9471:Saxitoxin 9461:Eledoisin 9456:Conotoxin 9327:Hefutoxin 9143:Oleandrin 9123:Linamarin 9113:Helenalin 9073:Cicutoxin 9068:Chaconine 9048:Amygdalin 9019:Vomitoxin 8969:Gliotoxin 8951:Fumonisin 8904:Aflatoxin 8867:Virulence 8803:Endotoxin 8534:botulinum 8515:difficile 8425:Bacterial 8398:hemotoxin 8388:cytotoxin 8242:Neurochip 8008:Cognitive 7933:Neurology 7418:Crimidine 7380:Muscarine 7352:Volkensin 7337:Cicutoxin 7297:Aconitine 7279:Saxitoxin 7233:Bacterial 7193:Saxitoxin 7173:Conotoxin 5971:: 74–78. 4575:: 74–82. 2992:Wood 2007 2983:Yang 2007 2965:Chan 2011 2947:Rabe 1982 2938:King 1981 2880:Cruz 1986 2823:Roed 1989 2706:Choi 1990 2136:Deng 2003 2037:Choi 1987 1860:Herbicide 1811:Glutamate 1806:Glutamate 1755:complex I 1691:vitamin E 1580:apoptosis 1464:glutamine 1428:cirrhosis 1341:found in 1215:twitching 1181:anatoxin- 1171:Anatoxin- 1128:glutamate 1126:(AA) and 1065:Aluminium 1059:Aluminium 1044:prognosis 989:capsaicin 949:paralysis 900:Conotoxin 764:ingestion 666:Glutamate 570:25I-NBOMe 527:Aluminium 501:Conotoxin 417:membranes 375:parathion 288:ependymal 193:antitoxin 149:apoptosis 141:pathology 118:glutamate 94:glutamate 72:chemical 70:exogenous 64:(causing 9918:Category 9903:Category 9703:Category 9466:Onchidal 9446:Mollusca 9357:Bestoxin 9352:Birtoxin 9317:Slotoxin 9307:Agitoxin 9282:Scorpion 9238:Tomatine 9188:Solanine 9133:Mimosine 9108:Gossypol 9093:Divicine 9058:Antiarin 9053:Anisatin 8984:Muscimol 8936:Citrinin 8909:Amatoxin 8855:Cry34Ab1 8783:AB toxin 8777:type III 8689:negative 8447:positive 8436:Exotoxin 8321:Category 8205:Concepts 8151:Neurolaw 7883:Clinical 7458:Schradan 7433:Fipronil 7385:Muscimol 7327:Rotenone 7158:Birtoxin 7153:Bestoxin 6921:84408095 6883:84284928 6812:16458972 6770:14741333 6698:19654265 6656:22160700 6619:20534463 6566:18461786 6500:: 1–49. 6432:10645685 6395:21001466 6292:21439358 6220:12520755 6169:Venom". 6161:39221153 6153:15377862 6022:10064385 5993:41880444 5985:19929737 5874:10250413 5830:21784148 5724:20045663 5673:21825732 5635:12477693 5600:11567935 5514:10499360 5448:42719321 5440:19393034 5382:40455149 5374:15732107 5316:12574416 5271:19705062 5228:45011034 5191:31599093 5183:17710455 5154:12563582 5058:16729329 4964:21540059 4934:10159395 4926:20471420 4897:16959468 4799:16716265 4761:85651107 4732:21965033 4724:11447994 4668:12454020 4633:12606289 4597:37068398 4589:17961518 4390:17368774 4347:25418731 4339:17431646 4191:36909560 4097:33351533 4089:10812214 4060:27522735 4015:21315761 3978:10227691 3949:16171797 3837:33032529 3829:12531462 3800:16272348 3722:21471355 3679:15134560 3568:46507895 3494:11209178 3375:Archived 3180:Liu 2009 3135:71400545 3076:Hue 2007 3067:Liu 2008 2800:Lau 1995 2779:17728964 2674:Archived 2507:24281890 2294:18403021 2089:20849034 2018:10798588 1901:: 11–18. 1834:See also 1824:epilepsy 1795:ischemia 1717:n-Hexane 1703:catalase 1576:children 1531:caspases 1523:arsenite 1515:neonates 1495:smelting 1305:α7-nAChR 1265:alkaloid 1223:receptor 1110:(MeHg), 1085:symptoms 1077:patients 953:dystonia 881:scorpion 818:atropine 760:vomiting 672:Dopamine 640:Methanol 634:N-Hexane 351:skeletal 330:in vitro 185:myopathy 173:dementia 169:epilepsy 139:. Local 9621:Reptile 9083:Daphnin 9078:Coniine 9063:Brucine 9024:Zeranol 8999:Patulin 8846:toxins 8836:Cry3Bb1 8816:Lipid A 8763:type II 8704:E. coli 8456:Bacilli 8333:Commons 7746:science 7734:History 7729:Outline 7576:EA-2192 7551:EA-4056 7546:EA-3990 7486:EA-3148 7463:Dimefox 7453:Mipafox 7347:Thujone 7062:at NCBI 7056:at NCBI 7021:8080500 7001:Bibcode 6993:Science 6967:4372023 6959:8751438 6939:Bibcode 6913:9987013 6891:vivo". 6854:8631808 6741:8097530 6732:6576557 6689:2775269 6648:1982237 6610:2890755 6587:Bibcode 6524:6306751 6482:9809993 6461:3521461 6424:2468110 6366:6038419 6358:3670595 6329:1916154 6321:2547180 6261:7495252 6253:6896495 6191:2441741 6121:4267990 6093:Bibcode 6051:1297756 6002:Alcohol 5956:2238094 5927:2438698 5895:Bibcode 5866:1817738 5821:3183307 5777:7991613 5745:Bibcode 5715:2836425 5681:1260143 5653:Bibcode 5591:1718950 5557:8581253 5548:1342486 5493:4246917 5485:7687749 5465:Bibcode 5411:7016437 5345:4126070 5307:6741934 5262:3741454 5220:9061868 5111:8159737 5079:Bibcode 5023:9539010 5014:1533280 5005:3433917 4972:7100177 4866:4361381 4858:2904125 4838:Bibcode 4553:1648740 4521:Bibcode 4500:1345945 4491:6575679 4442:4271762 4414:Bibcode 4381:2077812 4310:2880937 4301:6568898 4265:2880938 4256:6568907 4220:1970230 4183:2469166 4114:Bibcode 4106:Science 4052:2894409 4023:1213492 3986:3017703 3929:Bibcode 3911:8247388 3890:7638161 3858:Bibcode 3765:1501489 3713:3086894 3650:2154753 3618:Bibcode 3597:4028954 3560:2671833 3531:8777931 3523:2190116 3464:3984106 3456:7517594 2746:9060404 2738:7830065 2655:2434114 2615:2467382 2595:Bibcode 2587:Science 2081:8622728 1870:Solvent 1789:Though 1779:in-vivo 1711:dietary 1687:fetuses 1629:in the 1622:ethanol 1604:Ethanol 1543:Lithium 1517:. As a 1499:neurite 1483:Arsenic 1478:Arsenic 1430:of the 1420:Ammonia 1407:Ammonia 1390:at the 1207:neurons 1120:seafood 1104:Mercury 1099:Mercury 1030:to the 889:gliomas 629:Ethanol 598:Arsenic 593:Ammonia 576:JWH-018 532:Mercury 358:neurite 334:in vivo 137:synapse 90:ethanol 77:insults 9811:(e.g. 9493:toxins 9388:Spider 9362:BmKAEP 9332:HgeTx1 9273:toxins 9148:Persin 9041:toxins 8869:factor 8850:Cry6Aa 8842:Other 8831:Cry1Ac 8749:type I 8552:Other: 8477:tetani 8427:toxins 8378:Toxins 8069:fields 7556:T-1123 7019: 6983: 6965: 6957: 6931:Nature 6919: 6911: 6881: 6852: 6810: 6768: 6739: 6729: 6696: 6686: 6654: 6646: 6617: 6607: 6564: 6554: 6522: 6512: 6480: 6459: 6430: 6422: 6393: 6364: 6356: 6327: 6319: 6290: 6259: 6251: 6227:Print. 6218: 6189: 6159: 6151: 6119: 6113:625338 6111: 6085:Nature 6049: 6020: 5991: 5983: 5954: 5925: 5918:305078 5915: 5872: 5864: 5828: 5818: 5775: 5765: 5722: 5712: 5679: 5671: 5633: 5598: 5588: 5555: 5545: 5512: 5491: 5483: 5457:Nature 5446: 5438: 5409: 5380: 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