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1990:
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958:
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1802:(or 'spoke') nodes. The repeaters are used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the physical layer, the point-to-point distance between the central node and the peripheral nodes. Repeaters allow greater transmission distance, further than would be possible using just the transmitting power of the central node. The use of repeaters can also overcome limitations from the standard upon which the physical layer is based.
1837:
1774:
1700:
1025:(untwisted and possibly unshielded) has been a cost-effective media for serial protocols, especially within metallic enclosures or rolled within copper braid or foil, over short distances, or at lower data rates. Several serial network protocols can be deployed without shielded or twisted pair cabling, that is, with flat or ribbon cable, or a hybrid flat and twisted ribbon cable, should
757:), a common computer network installation. Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. A wide variety of physical topologies have been used in LANs, including
1848:
in a closed loop. Data travels around the ring in one direction. When one node sends data to another, the data passes through each intermediate node on the ring until it reaches its destination. The intermediate nodes repeat (retransmit) the data to keep the signal strong. Every node is a peer; there
1781:
In star topology, every peripheral node (computer workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to a central node called a hub or switch. The hub is the server and the peripherals are the clients. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network, but all
1758:
In a distributed bus network, all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium with more than two endpoints, created by adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium – the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the
1745:
In a linear bus network, all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has just two endpoints. When the electrical signal reaches the end of the bus, the signal is reflected back down the line, causing unwanted interference. To prevent this, the two endpoints of
1732:
A signal containing the address of the intended receiving machine travels from a source machine in both directions to all machines connected to the bus until it finds the intended recipient, which then accepts the data. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the data
1689:
sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring. An advantage of the ring is that the number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half. Since a message will eventually loop all of the way around, transmission does not need to go both directions. Alternatively, the ring
1392:
Repeaters work within the physical layer of the OSI model, that is, there is no end-to-end change in the physical protocol across the repeater, or repeater pair, even if a different physical layer may be used between the ends of the repeater, or repeater pair. Repeaters require a small amount of time
812:, the locations of nodes, and the links between the nodes and the cabling. The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunication circuits.
2129:
As in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node. If a link connecting a leaf fails, that leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes
1789:
The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. One advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure. Also, since all peripheral communication
1592:
is a network device for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in
1102:
is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity from electrical interference. Optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that
815:
In contrast, logical topology is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical
2169:
In a partially connected mesh topology, there are at least two nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths in case the link providing one of the paths fails. Decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a
1997:
In a partially connected network, certain nodes are connected to exactly one other node; but some nodes are connected to two or more other nodes with a point-to-point link. This makes it possible to make use of some of the redundancy of mesh topology that is physically fully connected, without the
1246:
Network nodes are the points of connection of the transmission medium to transmitters and receivers of the electrical, optical, or radio signals carried in the medium. Nodes may be associated with a computer, but certain types may have only a microcontroller at a node or possibly no programmable
977:
is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire surrounded by an insulating layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself is surrounded by a conductive
1111:
Price is a main factor distinguishing wired- and wireless technology options in a business. Wireless options command a price premium that can make purchasing wired computers, printers and other devices a financial benefit. Before making the decision to purchase hard-wired technology products, a
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based on the destination MAC address in each frame. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the physical ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. It can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. It learns to associate physical ports to MAC
2081:
linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral nodes.
1821:
A distributed star is a network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology connected in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their
1141: – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 50 km (30 mi) apart.
1733:
portion of the signal is ignored. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire it is less expensive to implement than other topologies, but the savings are offset by the higher cost of managing the network. Additionally, since the network is dependent on the single cable, it can be the
1332:
that provides a computer with the ability to access the transmission media, and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.
1083:. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios.
1665:
is accomplished by connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.
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addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames. If an unknown destination is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.
2245:
direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in
2160:
A daisy chain network can have two types: linear and ring. A linear daisy chain network is like an electrical series, where the first and last nodes are not connected. A ring daisy chain network is where the first and last nodes are connected, forming a loop.
2125:
has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators. Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.
1805:
A physical extended star topology in which repeaters are replaced with hubs or switches is a type of hybrid network topology and is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies.
1173: – Wireless local area networks use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area.
1066:
is the most widely used medium for all telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer network cabling (wired
1649:
The value of a permanent point-to-point network is unimpeded communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers and has been expressed as
2133:
To alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes, more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the nodes that are connected to the network. These
978:
layer. The insulation between the conductors helps maintain the characteristic impedance of the cable which can help improve its performance. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second.
1388:
segments from 15 meters to over a kilometer. In most twisted pair
Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart.
2006:
Hybrid topology is also known as hybrid network. Hybrid networks combine two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a
1359:. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.
1451:
to form a single network. This breaks the network's collision domain but maintains a unified broadcast domain. Network segmentation breaks down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.
1162:
use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next
2023:. However, a tree network connected to another tree network is still topologically a tree network, not a distinct network type. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.
1690:
can be used to improve fault tolerance. If the ring breaks at a particular link then the transmission can be sent via the reverse path thereby ensuring that all nodes are always connected in the case of a single failure.
1676:
puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this was expensive in the early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two transmitters.
1882:
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by
1383:
at a higher power level, to the other side of an obstruction possibly using a different transmission medium, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. Commercial repeaters have extended
1544:
between networks by processing the routing information included in the packet or datagram (Internet protocol information from layer 3). The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the
1251:
transmitter can be connected by a pair of wires to one receiver, forming two nodes on one link, or a Point-to-Point topology. Some protocols permit a single node to only either transmit or receive (e.g.,
2065:
reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node. When the physical star topology is applied to a logical bus network such as
1462:
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers.
2069:, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All
2157:
Daisy chain topology is a way of connecting network nodes in a linear or ring structure. It is used to transmit messages from one node to the next until they reach the destination node.
1977:
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that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row, e.g., the
Ethernet
1103:
data can be sent, and helps enable data rates of up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for
2243:
1813:
in the way star networks are connected together. A tier-star topology uses a central node, while a tree topology uses a central bus and can also be referred as a star-bus network.
1504:
is often used loosely to include devices such as routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic based on load or based on application content (e.g., a Web
1849:
is no hierarchical relationship of clients and servers. If one node is unable to retransmit data, it severs communication between the nodes before and after it in the bus.
1642:
technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically and dropped when no longer needed. Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional
738:, or signal types may differ between two different networks, yet their logical topologies may be identical. A network's physical topology is a particular concern of the
1782:
of the peripheral nodes on the network must be connected to one central hub. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub, which acts as a
1149: – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in
703:, etc.) of a communication network. Network topology can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of telecommunication networks, including
1713:
In local area networks using bus topology, each node is connected by interface connectors to a single central cable. This is the 'bus', also referred to as the
1564:(MOdulator-DEModulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more
1619:
The simplest topology with a dedicated link between two endpoints. Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point
2174:. The number of arbitrary forks in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful.
1075:) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce
2375:
1304:, most address network concerns beyond the physical network topology and may be represented as single nodes on a particular physical network topology.
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1352:
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The study of network topology recognizes eight basic topologies: point-to-point, bus, star, ring or circular, mesh, tree, hybrid, or daisy chain.
1153:
35,786 km (22,236 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
2170:
single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is a
2511:
1549:(or forwarding table). A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets. A destination in a routing table can include a
1112:
review of the restrictions and limitations of the selections is necessary. Business and employee needs may override any cost considerations.
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726:
wherein communicating devices are modeled as nodes and the connections between the devices are modeled as links or lines between the nodes.
2900:
808:
layout used to link devices is the physical topology of the network. For conductive or fiber optical mediums, this refers to the layout of
2200:
is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are
679:
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methods and protocols. Some networks are able to dynamically change their logical topology through configuration changes to their
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1013:
are common for board-level serial communication, particularly between certain types integrated circuits, a common example being
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833:
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The extended star network topology extends a physical star topology by one or more repeaters between the central node and the
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that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Modems are commonly used for telephone lines, using a
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1351:(MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the
1981:
This makes it impractical for large networks. This kind of topology does not trip and affect other nodes in the network.
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1614:
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networks of one or more controllers interconnected with sensors and actuators over, invariably, a physical bus topology.
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held in memory. This lookup table then allows future transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.
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Application of a tetrahedral structure to create a resilient partial-mesh 3-dimensional campus backbone data network
2181:, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A multidimensional ring has a
929:. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by
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must flow through the central hub, the aggregate central bandwidth forms a network bottleneck for large clusters.
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1809:
A physical hierarchical star topology can also be referred as a tier-star topology. This topology differs from a
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because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data, i.e. the packets are dropped.
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nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The
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is the placement of the various components of a network (e.g., device location and cable installation), while
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1915:.) The simplest fully connected network is a two-node network. A fully connected network doesn't need to use
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933:. Ethernet transmits data over both copper and fiber cables. Wireless LAN standards (e.g. those defined by
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321:
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This article is about the topology of communication networks. For the topology of electrical networks, see
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The orders of the following wired technologies are, roughly, from slowest to fastest transmission speed.
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star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.
1920:
1232:, which gives slow two-way communication, but does not prevent sending large amounts of information.
1190:
1080:
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229:
1355:(IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six
2270:
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and recording the address/identifier of each connected node and which port it is connected to in a
1725:
between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to be
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836:(AFDX) can be a cascaded star topology of multiple dual redundant Ethernet switches; however, the
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illustrates how data flows within a network. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections,
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234:
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1206:
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452:
2409:. Advances in Information Security, Privacy, and Ethics. IGI Global. pp. xvii, 228, 250.
1256:). Other protocols have nodes that can both transmit and receive into a single channel (e.g.,
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Two basic categories of network topologies exist, physical topologies and logical topologies.
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network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.
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structure of a network and may be depicted physically or logically. It is an application of
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849:
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301:
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that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A child's
1500:
are capable of routing based on layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels. The term
8:
1923:. However, since the number of connections grows quadratically with the number of nodes:
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805:
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457:
326:
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2432:"Towards Network X-ities From a Topological Point of View: Evolvability and Scalability"
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between the components determines the logical topology of the network. In comparison,
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2615:, Third Annual International Symposium on Advanced Radio Technologies, archived from
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2100:(i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An
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of the network. In this topology data being transferred may be accessed by any node.
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expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.
1859:
There is no need of network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
1856:
When the load on the network increases, its performance is better than bus topology.
1379:, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal may be reformed or
914:, these are defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer.
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2494:
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1916:
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physical linear bus topology because all nodes share a common transmission medium.
1714:
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1157:
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239:
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Aggregate network bandwidth is bottlenecked by the weakest link between two nodes.
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defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as
1091:
2007 map showing submarine optical fiber telecommunication cables around the world
848:
previously used in aircraft. Logical topologies are often closely associated with
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2404:
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can have many transceivers connected to a single bus). While the conventional
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2061:
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1810:
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Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote devices to LANs.
1124:
Personal computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links.
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2461:
Inc, S., (2002) . Networking
Complete. Third Edition. San Francisco: Sybex
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2020:
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1479:
1422:
Ethernet hubs and repeaters in LANs have been mostly obsoleted by modern
1372:
1348:
1220:
Extending the
Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves, the
1202:
There have been various attempts at transporting data over exotic media:
1174:
990:
938:
934:
903:
844:
single-transmitter bus connections, thus following the safety model of a
762:
719:
2735:
2495:"Algorithms for the Logical Topology Design in WDM All-Optical Networks"
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is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.
2070:
1989:
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1398:
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2575:, The Disadvantages of Wired Technology, Laura Acevedo, Demand Media.
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are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another.
911:
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828:
is a logical ring topology, but is wired as a physical star from the
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602:
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2805:
Understanding
Computer Science (for Advanced Level): The Study Guide
2089:, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an
793:
55:
2985:
2585:
2560:
Advantech Co., Ltd., Cable 50-Pin SCSI Ribbon type # PCL-10152-3E (
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uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases,
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The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the
735:
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1409:
1046:
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778:
2030:
network consists of two or more ring networks connected using a
1001:) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.
824:
was a logical bus topology carried on a physical star topology.
2849:
An
Analysis of Scaling Issues in MPLS-TE Core Networks RFC 5439
2512:
Cable Serial Male To Female 25L 4' DB25 M-DB25 28 AWG 300V Gray
2117:) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a
1385:
1376:
1257:
1248:
1042:
1038:
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topology is meshed at the core, but tree shaped at the edges.
1836:
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2728:"What is Hybrid Topology ? Advantages and Disadvantages"
2182:
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on each port during normal data transmission, examining the
2678:"What bridge devices and bridging do for computer networks"
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device at all. In the simplest of serial arrangements, one
1054:
1050:
985:
942:
891:
874:) used to link devices to form a computer network include
1505:
1416:
1347:
networks, each network interface controller has a unique
922:
754:
2545:
CANopen DR-303 V1.0 Cabling and
Connector Pin Assignment
1679:
By connecting the computers at each end of the chain, a
1746:
the bus are normally terminated with a device called a
2206:
1931:
1404:A repeater with multiple ports is known as hub, an
2376:Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions
2340:
2237:
1971:
1520:A typical home or small office router showing the
949:uses a building's power cabling to transmit data.
921:of transmission media used in local area network (
1419:networks use hubs to form tiered-star topologies.
1353:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
3018:
2493:Leonardi, E.; Mellia, M.; Marsan, M. A. (2000).
2093:of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way
781:, common in vehicles, are primarily distributed
2704:Network Design Basics for Cabling Professionals
2586:"Bergen Linux User Group's CPIP Implementation"
2365:
1340:for either the NIC or the computer as a whole.
2767:. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. p. 16.
2695:
2457:
2455:
1984:
1822:associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').
23:. For the topology of transport networks, see
2894:
673:
2402:
1729:by all nodes in the network simultaneously.
749:Examples of network topologies are found in
2754:
2752:
2452:
1393:to regenerate the signal. This can cause a
1336:The NIC responds to traffic addressed to a
2901:
2887:
2429:
1890:
1217:. It was implemented in real life in 2001.
680:
666:
2701:
2525:Ten ways to bulletproof RS-485 Interfaces
2398:
2396:
2234:
1968:
1439:connects and filters traffic between two
2758:
2749:
2605:
1988:
1972:{\displaystyle c={\frac {n(n-1)}{2}}.\,}
1894:
1835:
1772:
1698:
1515:
1311:
1119:
1115:
1086:
956:
792:
2801:
2423:
2406:Network Topology in Command and Control
2336:
2334:
2332:
797:Diagram of different network topologies
3019:
2908:
2514:, Part no.: 12408, Jameco Electronics.
2393:
1478:is a device that forwards and filters
1197:
925:) technology is collectively known as
834:Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet
16:Arrangement of a communication network
2882:
2238:{\displaystyle {\frac {n(n-1)}{2}}\,}
1362:
1307:
952:
2430:Chiang, Mung; Yang, Michael (2004).
2343:Network+ Study Guide, Fourth Edition
2341:Groth, David; Toby Skandier (2005).
2329:
1907:, all nodes are interconnected. (In
1572:by the digital signal to produce an
1459:Local bridges: Directly connect LANs
816:topology. For example, the original
695:is the arrangement of the elements (
2359:
2164:
2043:Two other hybrid network types are
1816:
1615:Point-to-point (telecommunications)
1455:Bridges come in three basic types:
13:
2177:This is similar in some ways to a
1753:
945:signals as a transmission medium.
14:
3043:
2866:
2054:
1993:Partially connected mesh topology
1608:
1600:
2015:) is a hybrid topology in which
1793:
1186:Free-space optical communication
54:
2840:
2795:
2720:
2670:
2644:
2632:
2599:
2578:
2567:
2554:
2534:
2261:Broadcast communication network
1375:device that receives a network
846:single-transmitter bus topology
3006:Topology of the World Wide Web
2517:
2505:
2486:
2464:
2439:Proc. 42nd Allerton Conference
2311:Switched communication network
2225:
2213:
1956:
1944:
1657:
1105:undersea communications cables
21:Topology (electrical circuits)
1:
2322:
2142:the layout of the network by
1899:Fully connected mesh topology
1740:
1270:network interface controllers
788:
2759:Sosinsky, Barrie A. (2009).
2706:. McGraw-Hill Professional.
2473:What Are Network Topologies?
2034:(MAU) as a centralized hub.
1583:
1326:network interface controller
1209:was a humorous April fool's
7:
2606:A. Hooke (September 2000),
2253:
1985:Partially connected network
1469:
1107:to interconnect continents.
773:. Conversely, mapping the
707:radio networks, industrial
10:
3048:
2403:Grant, T. J., ed. (2014).
2372:ATIS Telecom Glossary 2007
1875:
1829:
1766:
1706:
1612:
1511:
1430:
1239:
1127:
863:
18:
3001:
2934:
2916:
2873:Tetrahedron Core Network:
2499:Optical Networks Magazine
2001:
1556:
1528:network cable connections
1191:line-of-sight propagation
1146:Communications satellites
1081:electromagnetic induction
989:technology uses existing
900:fiber-optic communication
533:Exponential random (ERGM)
200:Informational (computing)
2271:Computer network diagram
2185:topology, for instance.
2130:isolated from the rest.
2032:multistation access unit
1408:in Ethernet networks, a
1235:
1228:Both cases have a large
947:Power line communication
888:power line communication
859:
779:Controller Area Networks
718:Network topology is the
220:Scientific collaboration
2609:Interplanetary Internet
2190:fully connected network
2085:If the central node is
2019:are interconnected via
1905:fully connected network
1891:Fully connected network
1871:
1825:
1762:
1735:single point of failure
1578:digital subscriber line
1222:Interplanetary Internet
649:Category:Network theory
169:Preferential attachment
2448:on September 21, 2013.
2239:
1994:
1973:
1900:
1841:
1778:
1704:
1694:
1685:can be formed. When a
1529:
1321:
1207:IP over Avian Carriers
1125:
1092:
1011:printed circuit boards
965:
798:
538:Random geometric (RGG)
2802:Bradley, Ray (2001).
2366:ATIS committee PRQC.
2240:
2115:hierarchical topology
1992:
1974:
1898:
1844:A ring topology is a
1840:Ring network topology
1839:
1777:Star network topology
1776:
1702:
1621:communication channel
1540:device that forwards
1519:
1315:
1264:building blocks of a
1230:round-trip delay time
1123:
1116:Wireless technologies
1090:
960:
864:Further information:
818:twisted pair Ethernet
796:
654:Category:Graph theory
2918:Arrangements of the
2738:on September 9, 2016
2296:Rhizome (philosophy)
2204:
1929:
1703:Bus network topology
1627:is one example of a
1498:Multi-layer switches
1349:Media Access Control
1211:Request for Comments
1033:constraints permit:
850:media access control
1524:telephone line and
1198:Exotic technologies
1151:geostationary orbit
908:wireless networking
806:transmission medium
751:local area networks
705:command and control
458:Degree distribution
109:Community structure
2910:Network topologies
2702:Bicsi, B. (2002).
2564:#923-PCL-10152-3E)
2562:Mouser Electronics
2301:Scale-free network
2286:Network simulation
2235:
2198:full mesh topology
1995:
1969:
1901:
1842:
1779:
1705:
1629:physical dedicated
1530:
1363:Repeaters and hubs
1322:
1308:Network interfaces
1126:
1093:
997:, phone lines and
966:
962:Fiber-optic cables
953:Wired technologies
838:AFDX virtual links
799:
736:transmission rates
642:Network scientists
568:Soft configuration
25:Transport topology
3014:
3013:
2928:computer networks
2819:978-0-7487-6147-0
2774:978-0-470-43131-3
2638:U.S. Converters,
2549:CAN in Automation
2529:Texas Instruments
2382:on April 14, 2013
2281:Internet topology
2266:Butterfly network
2232:
2194:complete topology
2098:transmission time
2079:transmission line
2049:hierarchical star
1963:
1911:this is called a
1723:data transmission
1636:circuit-switching
1625:tin can telephone
1447:(layer 2) of the
1412:in USB networks.
1395:propagation delay
1330:computer hardware
1242:Node (networking)
917:A widely adopted
876:electrical cables
866:data transmission
830:media access unit
728:Physical topology
713:computer networks
690:
689:
610:
609:
518:Bianconi–Barabási
412:
411:
230:Artificial neural
205:Telecommunication
3039:
3032:Decentralization
3027:Network topology
2903:
2896:
2889:
2880:
2879:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2765:Networking Bible
2761:"Network Basics"
2756:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2734:. Archived from
2724:
2718:
2717:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2689:
2680:. Archived from
2674:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2658:. September 1996
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2621:
2614:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2582:
2576:
2571:
2565:
2558:
2552:
2538:
2532:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2441:. Archived from
2436:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2400:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2378:. Archived from
2363:
2357:
2356:
2338:
2276:Gradient network
2244:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2233:
2228:
2208:
2165:Decentralization
2136:network switches
2013:star-bus network
1978:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1964:
1959:
1939:
1917:packet switching
1817:Distributed star
1640:packet-switching
1441:network segments
1266:computer network
1130:Wireless network
941:, or others use
732:logical topology
693:Network topology
682:
675:
668:
553:Stochastic block
543:Hyperbolic (HGN)
492:
491:
355:
344:
276:
275:
184:Social influence
58:
30:
29:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3010:
2997:
2976:Switched fabric
2964:Arbitrated loop
2930:
2912:
2907:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2855:
2853:
2852:, February 2009
2846:
2845:
2841:
2832:
2830:
2820:
2812:. p. 244.
2800:
2796:
2787:
2785:
2775:
2757:
2750:
2741:
2739:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2700:
2696:
2687:
2685:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2661:
2659:
2652:"Define switch"
2650:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2604:
2600:
2591:
2589:
2588:. Blug.linux.no
2584:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2568:
2559:
2555:
2539:
2535:
2522:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2491:
2487:
2479:
2477:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2453:
2445:
2434:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2401:
2394:
2385:
2383:
2368:"mesh topology"
2364:
2360:
2353:
2339:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2256:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2167:
2057:
2004:
1987:
1940:
1938:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1893:
1880:
1878:Mesh networking
1874:
1863:Disadvantages:
1834:
1828:
1819:
1796:
1784:signal repeater
1771:
1765:
1756:
1754:Distributed bus
1743:
1711:
1697:
1673:linear topology
1660:
1617:
1611:
1603:
1586:
1566:carrier signals
1559:
1538:internetworking
1514:
1472:
1445:data link layer
1433:
1365:
1338:network address
1310:
1244:
1238:
1200:
1169:spread spectrum
1160:and PCS systems
1132:
1118:
955:
868:
862:
840:are modeled as
791:
686:
624:
589:Boolean network
563:Maximum entropy
513:Barabási–Albert
430:
347:
336:
124:Controllability
89:Complex network
76:
63:
62:
61:
60:
59:
43:Network science
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3045:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2956:
2954:Point-to-point
2951:
2946:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2906:
2905:
2898:
2891:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2868:
2867:External links
2865:
2862:
2861:
2839:
2818:
2810:Nelson Thornes
2808:. Cheltenham:
2794:
2773:
2748:
2719:
2712:
2694:
2669:
2643:
2640:RS232 Repeater
2631:
2598:
2577:
2566:
2553:
2533:
2516:
2504:
2485:
2463:
2451:
2422:
2415:
2392:
2358:
2351:
2345:. Sybex, Inc.
2327:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:applications.
2231:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2166:
2163:
2123:tree structure
2056:
2055:Centralization
2053:
2003:
2000:
1986:
1983:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1913:complete graph
1892:
1889:
1876:Main article:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1868:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1830:Main article:
1827:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1795:
1792:
1767:Main article:
1764:
1761:
1755:
1752:
1742:
1739:
1707:Main article:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1677:
1663:Daisy chaining
1659:
1656:
1652:Metcalfe's Law
1613:Main article:
1610:
1609:Point-to-point
1607:
1602:
1601:Classification
1599:
1585:
1582:
1558:
1555:
1513:
1510:
1476:network switch
1471:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1437:network bridge
1432:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1420:
1364:
1361:
1309:
1306:
1240:Main article:
1237:
1234:
1226:
1225:
1218:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1182:
1164:
1154:
1142:
1128:Main article:
1117:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1085:
1084:
1071:as defined by
1058:
1029:, length, and
1018:
1002:
979:
954:
951:
872:physical media
861:
858:
856:and switches.
832:. Physically,
790:
787:
783:control system
740:physical layer
688:
687:
685:
684:
677:
670:
662:
659:
658:
657:
656:
651:
645:
644:
639:
634:
626:
625:
623:
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619:
615:
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611:
608:
607:
606:
605:
596:
591:
583:
582:
578:
577:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
528:Watts–Strogatz
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
497:
496:
488:
487:
483:
482:
481:
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475:
470:
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387:
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377:
372:
364:
363:
359:
358:
357:
356:
349:Incidence list
345:
338:Adjacency list
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
307:Data structure
304:
299:
294:
289:
281:
280:
272:
271:
265:
264:
263:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
235:Interdependent
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
194:
193:
189:
188:
187:
186:
181:
179:Network effect
176:
174:Balance theory
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
134:Social capital
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
78:
77:
75:
74:
68:
65:
64:
53:
52:
51:
50:
49:
46:
45:
39:
38:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3044:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3000:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2911:
2904:
2899:
2897:
2892:
2890:
2885:
2884:
2881:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2851:
2850:
2843:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2806:
2798:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2753:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2723:
2715:
2713:9780071782968
2709:
2705:
2698:
2684:on 2012-04-20
2683:
2679:
2673:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2622:on 2012-01-13
2618:
2611:
2610:
2602:
2587:
2581:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2557:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2537:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2513:
2508:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2458:
2456:
2444:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2418:
2416:9781466660595
2412:
2408:
2407:
2399:
2397:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2354:
2352:0-7821-4406-3
2348:
2344:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2328:
2317:
2316:Switched mesh
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2291:Relay network
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2251:
2249:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2210:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2175:
2173:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2110:tree topology
2105:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2062:star topology
2052:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2017:star networks
2014:
2010:
1999:
1991:
1982:
1979:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1932:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1888:
1886:
1879:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1838:
1833:
1823:
1814:
1812:
1811:tree topology
1807:
1803:
1801:
1794:Extended star
1791:
1787:
1785:
1775:
1770:
1760:
1751:
1749:
1738:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1701:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1682:ring topology
1678:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1655:
1653:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1606:
1598:
1596:
1595:cyber attacks
1591:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1574:analog signal
1571:
1567:
1563:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1547:routing table
1543:
1539:
1535:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1509:
1508:identifier).
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1381:retransmitted
1378:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1314:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
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1263:
1259:
1255:
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1243:
1233:
1231:
1223:
1219:
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1203:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1183:
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1172:
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1165:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1122:
1113:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1099:optical fiber
1095:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1006:Signal traces
1003:
1000:
996:
995:coaxial cable
992:
988:
987:
984:
980:
976:
975:
974:Coaxial cable
971:
970:
969:
963:
959:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
915:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
896:optical fiber
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
867:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
842:time-switched
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
822:repeater hubs
819:
813:
811:
807:
802:
795:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
747:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
716:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
683:
678:
676:
671:
669:
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647:
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640:
638:
635:
633:
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629:
628:
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617:
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614:
613:
604:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
586:
585:
584:
580:
579:
574:
573:LFR Benchmark
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
558:Blockmodeling
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
523:Fitness model
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
500:
499:
498:
494:
493:
490:
489:
485:
484:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
463:Assortativity
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
435:
434:
433:
427:
424:
422:
419:
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416:
415:
406:
403:
401:
398:
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388:
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368:
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354:
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328:
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318:
315:
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310:
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278:
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226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
197:
196:
195:
192:Network types
191:
190:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
139:Link analysis
137:
135:
132:
130:
129:Graph drawing
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
81:
80:
79:
73:
70:
69:
67:
66:
57:
48:
47:
44:
41:
40:
36:
32:
31:
26:
22:
2981:Tree network
2971:Star network
2959:Ring network
2949:Mesh network
2944:Grid network
2909:
2854:, retrieved
2848:
2842:
2831:. Retrieved
2804:
2797:
2786:. Retrieved
2764:
2740:. Retrieved
2736:the original
2731:
2722:
2703:
2697:
2686:. Retrieved
2682:the original
2672:
2660:. Retrieved
2655:
2646:
2634:
2624:, retrieved
2617:the original
2608:
2601:
2590:. Retrieved
2580:
2569:
2556:
2536:
2519:
2507:
2498:
2488:
2478:, retrieved
2476:, 5 May 2011
2472:
2466:
2443:the original
2438:
2425:
2405:
2384:. Retrieved
2380:the original
2371:
2361:
2342:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2187:
2179:grid network
2176:
2168:
2159:
2156:
2152:lookup table
2148:data packets
2143:
2139:
2132:
2128:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2101:
2086:
2084:
2060:
2058:
2048:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2036:
2027:
2025:
2021:bus networks
2012:
2009:tree network
2005:
1996:
1980:
1925:
1921:broadcasting
1909:graph theory
1904:
1902:
1881:
1862:
1852:Advantages:
1851:
1843:
1832:Ring network
1820:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1788:
1780:
1769:Star network
1757:
1744:
1731:
1721: – all
1712:
1680:
1671:
1661:
1648:
1633:
1628:
1618:
1604:
1587:
1580:technology.
1560:
1531:
1501:
1496:
1473:
1454:
1434:
1406:Ethernet hub
1403:
1391:
1366:
1342:
1335:
1323:
1245:
1227:
1214:
1213:, issued as
1201:
1184:
1171:technologies
1166:
1156:
1144:
1136:Terrestrial
1135:
1110:
1097:
1062:Twisted pair
1060:
1022:Ribbon cable
1020:
1004:
981:
972:
967:
918:
916:
871:
869:
814:
803:
800:
748:
731:
727:
724:graph theory
717:
692:
691:
548:Hierarchical
503:Random graph
351: /
340: /
322:Neighborhood
164:Transitivity
144:Optimization
2939:Bus network
2306:Shared mesh
2045:hybrid mesh
1846:daisy chain
1709:Bus network
1658:Daisy chain
1480:OSI layer 2
1175:IEEE 802.11
999:power lines
991:home wiring
939:radio waves
935:IEEE 802.11
904:radio waves
720:topological
709:fieldbusses
594:agent based
508:Erdős–Rényi
149:Reciprocity
114:Percolation
99:Small-world
3021:Categories
2920:data links
2856:2024-08-05
2833:2016-03-26
2788:2016-03-26
2742:2018-01-26
2688:2017-10-24
2626:2011-11-12
2592:2014-03-01
2480:2016-09-17
2386:2008-10-10
2323:References
2095:round trip
2071:peripheral
1885:Reed's Law
1800:peripheral
1748:terminator
1741:Linear bus
1551:black hole
1489:) between
1399:5-4-3 rule
1373:electronic
1167:Radio and
1073:IEEE 802.3
931:IEEE 802.3
910:). In the
826:Token Ring
789:Topologies
621:Categories
478:Efficiency
473:Modularity
453:Clustering
438:Centrality
426:Algorithms
250:Dependency
225:Biological
104:Scale-free
2991:Hypertree
2783:359673774
2732:OROSK.COM
2656:Webopedia
2220:−
2172:hypercube
2144:listening
2119:hierarchy
2038:Snowflake
2028:star-ring
1951:−
1644:telephony
1631:channel.
1584:Firewalls
1570:modulated
1483:datagrams
1449:OSI model
1328:(NIC) is
1302:firewalls
1274:repeaters
1254:ARINC 429
1138:microwave
1077:crosstalk
1031:bandwidth
912:OSI model
775:data flow
744:OSI model
370:Bipartite
292:Component
210:Transport
159:Homophily
119:Evolution
94:Contagion
2986:Fat tree
2828:47869750
2662:April 8,
2551:, p. 10.
2531:, p. 5.
2523:AN-1057
2501:: 35–46.
2254:See also
2248:military
2183:toroidal
2121:. This
2113:(a.k.a.
2067:Ethernet
1727:received
1715:backbone
1590:firewall
1526:Ethernet
1470:Switches
1424:switches
1369:repeater
1345:Ethernet
1298:gateways
1286:switches
1272:(NICs),
1268:include
1215:RFC 1149
1158:Cellular
1069:Ethernet
943:infrared
927:Ethernet
880:Ethernet
637:Software
599:Epidemic
581:Dynamics
495:Topology
468:Distance
405:Weighted
380:Directed
375:Complete
279:Features
240:Semantic
35:a series
33:Part of
2541:CANopen
2087:passive
2075:failure
1542:packets
1512:Routers
1443:at the
1431:Bridges
1410:USB hub
1290:routers
1282:bridges
902:), and
884:HomePNA
854:routers
810:cabling
742:of the
421:Metrics
390:Labeled
260:on-Chip
245:Spatial
154:Closure
2826:
2816:
2781:
2771:
2710:
2413:
2349:
2102:active
2002:Hybrid
1634:Using
1562:Modems
1557:Modems
1536:is an
1534:router
1502:switch
1487:frames
1386:RS-232
1377:signal
1371:is an
1357:octets
1300:, and
1294:modems
1262:system
1249:RS-232
1057:, etc.
1043:RS-485
1039:RS-422
1035:RS-232
937:) use
919:family
820:using
632:Topics
486:Models
443:Degree
400:Random
353:matrix
342:matrix
332:Vertex
287:Clique
269:Graphs
215:Social
72:Theory
2924:nodes
2620:(PDF)
2613:(PDF)
2446:(PDF)
2435:(PDF)
2196:, or
2140:learn
2138:will
2077:of a
1903:In a
1719:trunk
1717:, or
1491:ports
1236:Nodes
1179:Wi-Fi
1163:area.
983:ITU-T
860:Links
701:nodes
697:links
618:Lists
448:Motif
395:Multi
385:Hyper
362:Types
302:Cycle
84:Graph
2922:and
2824:OCLC
2814:ISBN
2779:OCLC
2769:ISBN
2708:ISBN
2664:2008
2411:ISBN
2347:ISBN
2091:echo
2059:The
2047:and
2011:(or
1872:Mesh
1826:Ring
1763:Star
1687:node
1568:are
1522:ADSL
1278:hubs
1079:and
1064:wire
1055:SCSI
1051:GPIB
986:G.hn
892:G.hn
804:The
771:star
769:and
767:mesh
759:ring
711:and
327:Path
317:Loop
312:Edge
255:Flow
2926:of
1919:or
1786:.
1695:Bus
1638:or
1506:URL
1417:USB
1343:In
1318:ATM
1316:An
1258:CAN
1096:An
1047:CAN
1027:EMC
1015:SPI
1009:on
923:LAN
894:),
763:bus
755:LAN
746:.
603:SIR
297:Cut
3023::
2822:.
2777:.
2763:.
2751:^
2730:.
2654:.
2547:,
2527:,
2497:.
2454:^
2437:.
2395:^
2374:.
2370:.
2331:^
2192:,
2188:A
2107:A
2051:.
2026:A
1887:.
1750:.
1670:A
1654:.
1646:.
1597:.
1588:A
1532:A
1474:A
1435:A
1401:.
1367:A
1324:A
1296:,
1292:,
1288:,
1284:,
1280:,
1276:,
1053:,
1049:,
1045:,
1041:,
1037:,
890:,
886:,
882:,
765:,
761:,
715:.
699:,
37:on
2902:e
2895:t
2888:v
2836:.
2791:.
2745:.
2716:.
2691:.
2666:.
2595:.
2543:,
2419:.
2389:.
2355:.
2230:2
2226:)
2223:1
2217:n
2214:(
2211:n
1966:.
1961:2
1957:)
1954:1
1948:n
1945:(
1942:n
1936:=
1933:c
1485:(
1426:.
1224:.
1181:.
1017:.
993:(
906:(
898:(
878:(
753:(
681:e
674:t
667:v
601:/
27:.
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