Computer network - Knowledge

2299: 2071: 2638: 2892:(SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the storage appears as locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized business environments. 824: 1860: 5188:"Many of the theoretical studies of the performance and design of the ARPA Network were developments of earlier work by Kleinrock ... Although these works concerned message switching networks, they were the basis for a lot of the ARPA network investigations ... The intention of the work of Kleinrock was to analyse the performance of store and forward networks, using as the primary performance measure the average message delay. ... Kleinrock extended the theoretical approaches of to the early ARPA network." 2291: 1627: 176: 8399: 1790: 1904: 1514: 8409: 3076: 52: 2205: 8419: 2806:(PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computers and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with 1435: 2570: 6778: 2329:, often constructed per the OSI model, communications functions are divided up into protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below it until the lowest layer controls the hardware that sends information across the media. The use of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is 5045:

Distributed Communications" in the early 1960's. Also of note was work done by Donald Davies and others at the National Physical Laboratory in England in the mid-1960's. ... Another early major network development which affected development of the ARPANET was undertaken at the National Physical Laboratory in Middlesex, England, under the leadership of D. W. Davies.

1618:, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location. Physical layout is not completely irrelevant, however, as common ducting and equipment locations can represent single points of failure due to issues like fires, power failures and flooding. 2371:, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet protocol (IP). At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for 1488:. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link is not overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case, the packet is 3819:. Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a client requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this certificate (all web browsers come with an exhaustive list of 2972:(WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by 2872:(HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a 3028:(GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile users across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial 5144:

Although there was considerable technical interchange between the NPL group and those who designed and implemented the ARPANET, the NPL Data Network effort appears to have had little fundamental impact on the design of ARPANET. Such major aspects of the NPL Data Network design as the standard network

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at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstruction so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted-pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of

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The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and

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is a network that is under the administrative control of a single organization but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities

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is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. An intranet typically uses the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits the use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly,

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Computer networks enhance how users communicate with each other by using various electronic methods like email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video calls, and video conferencing. Networks also enable the sharing of computing resources. For example, a user can print a document on a shared

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The hierarchical approach is further motivated by theoretical results (e.g., ) which show that, by optimally placing separators, i.e., elements that connect levels in the hierarchy, tremendous gain can be achieved in terms of both routing table size and update message churn. ... KLEINROCK, L., AND

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As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to

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based on the destination MAC address in each frame. They learn the association of physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request to all ports

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is a virtual network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from

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The physical or geographic locations of network nodes and links generally have relatively little effect on a network, but the topology of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as bus or star networks, a single failure can

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In mathematical modelling use is made of the theories of queueing processes and of flows in networks, describing the performance of the network in a set of equations. ... The analytic method has been used with success by Kleinrock and others, but only if important simplifying assumptions are made.

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priority schemes allowing selected traffic to bypass congestion. Priority schemes do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for critical services. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to

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Aside from the technical problems of interconnecting computers with communications circuits, the notion of computer networks had been considered in a number of places from a theoretical point of view. Of particular note was work done by Paul Baran and others at the Rand Corporation in a study "On

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that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the

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in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network. One common application is

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has key components implemented at the nanoscale, including message carriers, and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also

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is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require

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Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his

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A firewall is a network device or software for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from

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Network bridges and network switches are distinct from a hub in that they only forward frames to the ports involved in the communication whereas a hub forwards to all ports. Bridges only have two ports but a switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Switches normally have numerous ports,

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In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing

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are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, the structured addressing used by routers outperforms unstructured addressing used by bridging.

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the first occurrence in print of the term protocol in a data communications context ... the next hardware tasks were the detailed design of the interface between the terminal devices and the switching computer, and the arrangements to secure reliable transmission of packets of data over the

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secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.

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is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area. When designing a network backbone,

1882:, optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple streams of data on different wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for 3593:

access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-accessible resources. Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies, and individuals.

1927: – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 40 miles (64 km) apart. 1138:

proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organization of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centers. Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962

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is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model.

1894:(MMF). Single-mode fiber has the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the data rate and cable grade. 3040:

Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.

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interface, the routing algorithm, and the software structure of the switching node were largely ignored by the ARPANET designers. There is no doubt, however, that in many less fundamental ways the NPL Data Network had and effect on the design and evolution of the ARPANET.

1935: – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. 2834:(LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Wired LANs are most commonly based on Ethernet technology. Other networking technologies such as 3874:

Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered

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to another. Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints. Engineers usually report both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the delay into several components, the sum of which is the total delay:

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For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. Another example of a backbone network is the

6047:"IEEE Standard for Information Technology--Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems - Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Specific Requirements - Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications" 3428:

occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater data load than it is rated for, resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues become too full, packets have to be discarded, and participants must rely on

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is the largest example of internetwork. It is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet protocol suite. It is the successor of the

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Bridges and switches divide the network's collision domain but maintain a single broadcast domain. Network segmentation through bridging and switching helps break down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.

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Networks may be characterized by many properties or features, such as physical capacity, organizational purpose, user authorization, access rights, and others. Another distinct classification method is that of the physical extent or geographic scale.

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Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H. M. Teager and J. McCarthy at MIT delivered an unpublished paper "Time-shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM

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between computers over a network. Baran's work addressed adaptive routing of message blocks across a distributed network, but did not include routers with software switches, nor the idea that users, rather than the network itself, would provide the

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is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees). Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An

1707:. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination. 5113:

Significant aspects of the network's internal operation, such as routing, flow control, software design, and network control were developed by a BBN team consisting of Frank Heart, Robert Kahn, Severo Omstein, William Crowther, and David

2147:. In addition to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by modern network switches. 5621:

Council, National Research; Sciences, Division on Engineering and Physical; Board, Computer Science and Telecommunications; Applications, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and; Committee, NII 2000 Steering (1998-02-05).

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protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support circuit-switched

2106:. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce. 1227:

were connected using 50 kbit/s circuits between the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. Designed principally by

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A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the addressing or routing information included in the packet. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the

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is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. It is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes called

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Participants on the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet protocol suite and the IP addressing system administered by the

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him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.

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are often used to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed.

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and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for plugging in a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.

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cause the network to fail entirely. In general, the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Therefore, most network diagrams are arranged by their

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Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and

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Routing calculates good paths through a network for information to take. For example, from node 1 to node 6 the best routes are likely to be 1-8-7-6, 1-8-10-6 or 1-9-10-6, as these are the shortest routes.

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Message flows between two devices (A-B) at the four layers of the TCP/IP model in the presence of a router (R). Red flows are effective communication paths, black paths are across the actual network links.

986:. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes and are rarely changed after initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols such as the 1957: – Wireless LANs use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. 1809:

is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per

1220:, pioneered the implementation of the concept in 1968-69 using 768 kbit/s links. Both Baran's and Davies' inventions were seminal contributions that influenced the development of computer networks. 2422:

protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it is also found in WLANs) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless access key".

1851:. The transmission speed ranges from 2 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several 1457:

Packets consist of two types of data: control information and user data (payload). The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example, source and destination

1068:, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a wide array of technological developments and historical milestones. 6782: 2498:. ATM has similarities with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, 5327:

The Spanish, dark horses, were the first people to have a public network. They'd got a bank network which they craftily turned into a public network overnight, and beat everybody to the post.

3859:, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using VLANs. 3485:

techniques where endpoints typically slow down or sometimes even stop transmission entirely when the network is congested to try to avoid congestive collapse. Specific techniques include:

3402:. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads. Other types of performance measures can include the level of noise and echo. 1843:

and other standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce

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is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources.

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is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.

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Hierarchical addressing systems for network routing have been proposed by Fultz and, in greater detail, by McQuillan. A recent very full analysis may be found in Kleinrock and Kamoun.

3409:(ATM) network, performance can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, technology, modulation technique, and modem enhancements. 6679: 3091:

is the connection of multiple different types of computer networks to form a single computer network using higher-layer network protocols and connecting them together using routers.

1584:: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. 6862: 2595:

can also forward packets and perform routing, though because they lack specialized hardware, may offer limited performance. The routing process directs forwarding on the basis of

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Overlay networks have been used since the early days of networking, back when computers were connected via telephone lines using modems, even before data networks were developed.

3839:, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a network administrator is responsible for keeping that network up and running. A 3412:

There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example,

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mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure VPN technology.

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For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls.

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printer or use shared storage devices. Additionally, networks allow for the sharing of files and information, giving authorized users access to data stored on other computers.

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has less of a connection of being in a local area and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via

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data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet service providers or

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that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network, e.g., the Ethernet

4910: 2904:(CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, 2239:

Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more

1761:(LAN) technology are collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by 1657:. Even today, each Internet node can communicate with virtually any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and technologies. 3609:

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

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unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in

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The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s made it obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed.

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through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose

6198: 2379:, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. The Internet protocol suite is the defining set of protocols for the Internet. 1703:

in the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from

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is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental or corporate interference.

2225:. A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets and does not require broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big networks. 1244:

carried out mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET. His theoretical work on

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an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.

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Essentially all the work was defined by 1961, and fleshed out and put into formal written form in 1962. The idea of hot potato routing dates from late 1960.

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Users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of a network's trust and scope characteristics. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an

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published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks" and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.

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Davies's invention of packet switching and design of computer communication networks ... were a cornerstone of the development which led to the Internet

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are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. The network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN technology.

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use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area is served by a low-power

1499:(MTU). A longer message may be fragmented before it is transferred and once the packets arrive, they are reassembled to construct the original message. 692: 2932:

are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the backbone network's capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it.

3633: 2099: 1610:: nodes are arranged hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing. 5926: 6961: 5660: 4521: 5718: 1270:

was the first to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself.

6495: 5664: 5217:... It is heartening in Kleinrock's work to see the good correspondence achieved between the results of analytic methods and those of simulation. 1672:, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a 3016:

VPN may have best-effort performance or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider.

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Structured IP addresses are used on the Internet. Unstructured MAC addresses are used for bridging on Ethernet and similar local area networks.

4021: 4056: 3750:-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between 4140: 1217: 6687: 2550: 1598:: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other. 1147: 4297: 2132:

Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model but still require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a

6908: 6469: 5639: 5158: 4465: 1878:. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Using dense 6625: 4197: 7435: 5058: 3871:

is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).

2976:, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI model: the physical layer, the 2546: 2599:, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. 3104: 2856:

to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to and in excess of

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The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built as an overlay on the

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Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a

4840: 3903: 3272:, i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected by processes such as 5129:

The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications: Volume 1 - Access Charges in the U.S.A. to Basics of Digital Communications

4577: 2470:. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting 1404:

In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was developed by

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The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the communication themselves, such as the

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In nearly all respects, Davies' original proposal, developed in late 1965, was similar to the actual networks being built today.

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is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be

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communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of

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paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party

2056:. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and so may perform multiple functions. 8028: 5475: 2956:(MAN) is a large computer network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a 6817:

Kurose James F and Keith W. Ross: Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, Pearson Education 2005.

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Almost immediately after the 1965 meeting, Davies conceived of the details of a store-and-forward packet switching system.

3797:, which relates to things such as the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent. 3135:. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the 2841:

also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.

8182: 7454: 5956: 5778: 5010:. Johns Hopkins studies in the history of technology New series. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. pp. 153–196. 4552: 4087: 3234: 3128: 3108: 2558: 1557: 5178: 3827:

for use in the session. The session is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel between the SSL server and the SSL client.

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IEEE STD 802.1X-2020 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.1X-2010 Incorporating IEEE STD 802.1Xbx-2014 and IEEE STD 802.1Xck-2018)

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KAMOUN, F. Hierarchical routing for large networks: Performance evaluation and optimization. Computer Networks (1977).

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cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant or owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.).

8334: 8162: 7692: 5843: 5694: 5343: 5186:(PhD thesis). Department of Electrical Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London. 4978: 4777: 4459: 2311: 2028:

Apart from any physical transmission media, networks are built from additional basic system building blocks, such as

1193: 1073: 135: 69: 2940:, which is a massive, global system of fiber-optic cable and optical networking that carry the bulk of data between 1718:). Academic research includes end system multicast, resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others. 1614:

The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with

8422: 7516: 7012: 6956: 1969: 1879: 1589: 1336: 1229: 756: 339: 102: 7810: 6931: 6901: 6793: 6713: 5549: 4942: 3836: 1119:

in Paris that year. McCarthy was instrumental in the creation of three of the earliest time-sharing systems (the

1111:

initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT. Strachey passed the concept on to

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Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous

2458: 2430:

Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described by a set of standards together called

2125: 1917:

Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic means of communication.

1883: 1643:

networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the

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specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the

2098:—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the 1750:, the software to handle the media is defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer. 637: 8243: 8220: 7950: 7940: 7402: 6951: 6936: 5038:(Report). Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc. 1 April 1981. pp. 13, 53 of 183 (III-11 on the printed copy). 3840: 3293: 2334: 1348: 1128: 792: 751: 268: 84: 8324: 7912: 7820: 7725: 7501: 7486: 6997: 6982: 6941: 3887:

names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the

3697: 3297: 2526: 2315: 2065: 2029: 907: 597: 441: 388: 203: 6239: 632: 8412: 8147: 7645: 7163: 7110: 6814:

Wendell Odom, Rus Healy, Denise Donohue. (2010) CCIE Routing and Switching. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press

6509: 5934: 4767: 3985: 3778: 3625: 2760: 2121: 1658: 1536:: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original 1233: 6284: 4490: 3244:

that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service.

8443: 8384: 8033: 7178: 7017: 6894: 5740: 5710: 5081: 4954:

Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer Paul Baran

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preloaded), and if the certificate checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a

3663:

society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to lawsuits such as

3406: 3318: 3161: 3132: 3079:

Partial map of the Internet based on 2005 data. Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing two

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sent over a standard voice telephone line. Modems are still commonly used for telephone lines, using a

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to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second (bit/s).

761: 667: 662: 627: 426: 324: 263: 3855:) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, 8402: 8329: 8304: 8167: 7815: 7421: 7213: 7032: 6992: 6987: 6946: 5802: 4734: 3852: 3740: 3648: 3172: 2953: 2714: 1974: 1887: 1848: 1704: 1496: 1282: 944: 349: 2102:(IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six 1665:

are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network.

8253: 8086: 7672: 7541: 7256: 7143: 7007: 4922:

This was the first digital local network in the world to use packet switching and high-speed links.

3925: 3806: 3724: 3571: 2652: 2538: 2182: 1931: 1891: 1828: 1774: 1495:

The physical link technologies of packet networks typically limit the size of packets to a certain

1237: 827: 785: 687: 647: 154: 40: 33: 4121: 3570:

on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a

2848:(WAN) using a router. The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a WAN, include higher 1157:

In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the "

545: 8314: 8248: 8139: 7955: 7615: 7002: 6709: 3990: 3949: 3907: 3880: 3786: 3482: 3434: 3206: 3136: 3005: 2877: 2741: 2368: 2256: 1981: 1844: 1601: 1566:: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a small 1451: 1232:, the network's routing, flow control, software design and network control were developed by the 1124: 1010: 1002: 768: 587: 354: 288: 243: 62: 6120:

The evolution of mobile communications in the US and Europe: Regulation, technology, and markets

5404:

Kirstein, P.T. (1999). "Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom".

2637: 8379: 8210: 8091: 7858: 7848: 7843: 7390: 7329: 7218: 7198: 7147: 7105: 5374:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" 4289: 3970: 3959: 3700:, from reading or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both 3689: 3326: 2819: 2753: 2419: 2403: 2307: 1987: 1679:

Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through

1669: 1426:

leverages resources from multiple computers across a network to perform tasks collaboratively.

1201: 933: 672: 657: 572: 6442: 5623: 5127: 4704: 4449: 4205: 4117: 3677:

has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance".

2450:

protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares many properties with wired Ethernet.

2251:

that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Early modems modulated

109: 8349: 8319: 8309: 8205: 8119: 7995: 7935: 7902: 7892: 7775: 7740: 7730: 7667: 7536: 7511: 7506: 7471: 7173: 7139: 7041: 6977: 6621: 6577:

Simmonds, A; Sandilands, P; van Ekert, L (2004). "An Ontology for Network Security Attacks".

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tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for other communication techniques.

2731: 2699: 2662: 2607: 2395: 2078:

network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.

2011: 2007: 1575: 1481: 1423: 1398:

In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed by GTE in Long Beach, California.

1388: 1325: 998: 773: 592: 562: 451: 406: 5066: 4721:

Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.

4255:

Gillies, James M.; Gillies, James; Gillies, James and Cailliau Robert; Cailliau, R. (2000).

2446:

standards, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well-known member of the

2070: 8109: 8081: 8053: 8048: 7877: 7853: 7805: 7788: 7783: 7765: 7755: 7750: 7712: 7662: 7657: 7574: 7520: 7370: 7344: 6762: 6478: 6424: 6390: 6000:"IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Port-Based Network Access Control" 5768: 5563: 4536:

Both Paul Baran and Donald Davies in their original papers anticipated the use of T1 trunks

3899: 3895: 3824: 3812: 3602: 3478: 3446: 3289: 3281: 3277: 3241: 2889: 2857: 2677: 2667: 2294:

The TCP/IP model and its relation to common protocols used at different layers of the model

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but does not prevent sending large amounts of information (they can have high throughput).

1991: 1980:

Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical means, the

1405: 1245: 1205: 1100: 1061: 1017: 540: 421: 5745:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968-1988

5380: 4451:

The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution

3636:, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens. 8: 8374: 8299: 8215: 8200: 7965: 7745: 7702: 7697: 7594: 7584: 7556: 7339: 7291: 7168: 6830:

Network Communication Architecture and Protocols: OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model

6101: 5977: 5259:

Feldmann, Anja; Cittadini, Luca; Mühlbauer, Wolfgang; Bush, Randy; Maennel, Olaf (2009).

4686:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988

3716: 3486: 3466: 3025: 2901: 1734: 1714:

manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of

1711: 1474: 1470: 1373: 1256: 1089: 1041: 994: 971: 577: 446: 436: 431: 283: 228: 218: 5059:"Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message Ever Sent Between Two Computers" 8339: 8238: 8114: 8071: 7980: 7922: 7907: 7897: 7682: 7481: 7276: 7183: 6600: 6489: 5683: 5654: 5603: 5456: 5421: 5289: 5104: 4842:

A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at remote Terminals

4817: 4573: 4513: 4427: 3980: 3888: 3816: 3782: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3665: 3547: 3539: 3509: 3474: 3449:

of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in

3425: 3368: 3359:

A certain minimum level of delay is experienced by signals due to the time it takes to

3346: 3210: 3120: 3112: 2929: 2849: 2831: 2672: 2199: 2178: 2049: 1824: 1758: 1700: 1680: 1466: 1213: 1197: 1188: 1151: 1112: 1065: 967: 416: 369: 344: 233: 223: 6319: 5270:. ReArch '09. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 43–48. 4839:

Davies, Donald; Bartlett, Keith; Scantlebury, Roger; Wilkinson, Peter (October 1967).

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space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the

8359: 8289: 8268: 8230: 8038: 8005: 7985: 7677: 7589: 7463: 7385: 7334: 7266: 7223: 7064: 6833: 6820: 6590: 6552: 6448: 6148: 6123: 6062: 6015: 5876:, Third Annual International Symposium on Advanced Radio Technologies, archived from 5849: 5839: 5690: 5629: 5520: 5339: 5279: 5236: 5205: 5133: 5011: 4902: 4773: 4740: 4736:

Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945-1995

4710: 4658: 4619: 4455: 4419: 4367: 4344: 4323: 4268: 4257: 4130: 4097: 4066: 4031: 4000: 3771: 3758:, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are 3728: 3674: 3660: 3629: 3360: 3352: 3273: 2969: 2957: 2941: 2937: 2869: 2845: 2790: 2726: 2657: 2600: 2588: 2467: 2133: 2103: 2083: 2023: 1875: 1793: 1727: 1673: 1654: 1567: 1485: 1484:

of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were

1384:. This underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s. 1274: 1241: 987: 963: 929: 876: 856: 713: 379: 329: 238: 213: 6867: 5460: 5108: 5008:

Transforming computer technology: information processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1986

4517: 4431: 1161:", a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users. 8192: 8076: 8043: 7838: 7760: 7649: 7635: 7630: 7579: 7491: 7444: 6917: 6797: 6752: 6604: 6582: 6414: 6380: 6315: 6054: 6007: 5593: 5553: 5512: 5448: 5425: 5413: 5344:"RCP, the Experimental Packet-Switched Data Transmission Service of the French PTT" 5293: 5271: 5096: 4875: 4821: 4809: 4650: 4611: 4505: 4411: 4359: 3820: 3794: 3582: 3524: 3508:

Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing

3460: 3399: 3334: 3157: 2920: 2905: 2709: 2584: 1995: 1939: 1912: 1739: 1523: 1508: 1352: 1184: 1169: 1165: 1057: 956: 900: 815: 472: 461: 359: 303: 5772: 5607: 4864:"all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control" 2513:, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user. 2506:

must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

2322:

or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.

1961:

defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as

1863:

2007 map showing submarine optical fiber telecommunication cables around the world

8263: 8157: 8129: 8023: 7975: 7960: 7945: 7800: 7795: 7735: 7625: 7599: 7551: 7496: 7309: 7271: 7242: 6857: 6837: 6586: 6531: 6058: 6011: 5877: 4226: 4052: 3995: 3975: 3954: 3815:

took the first shot at a new standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was

3763: 3701: 3613: 3559: 3322: 3183: 3009: 2977: 2611: 2503: 2502:

content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a

2499: 2342: 2174: 2170: 2166:

facilitating a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches.

1952: 1684: 1635: 1549: 1462: 1458: 1442:

Most modern computer networks use protocols based on packet-mode transmission. A

1309: 1293: 1278: 1021: 1006: 979: 952: 940: 708: 489: 364: 273: 208: 162: 6881: 6765: 6746: 6427: 6408: 6393: 6374: 6334: 5260: 3528: 1999: 1874:

is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data via lasers and

1859: 1570:

LAN, where each client connects to a central network switch, and logically in a

27:

Network that allows computers to share resources and communicate with each other

8369: 8273: 8172: 8018: 7990: 7395: 7319: 7281: 7153: 6648:"Bigger Monster, Weaker Chains: The Growth of an American Surveillance Society" 6046: 5999: 5948: 5566: 5543: 5032: 4638: 4599: 3884: 3705: 3659:—have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a 3617: 3563: 3498: 3438: 3392: 3375:

delays can range from less than a microsecond to several hundred milliseconds.

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for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.

3116: 2973: 2704: 2495: 2326: 2240: 2160: 2156: 2045: 2041: 1852: 1699:

have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all

1553: 1443: 1356: 1321: 1081: 1025: 975: 937: 718: 524: 499: 494: 468: 457: 334: 298: 293: 253: 191: 5766: 5516: 5452: 5439:

Kirstein, Peter T. (2009). "The early history of packet switching in the UK".

5379:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. p. 11. Archived from 5312: 4615: 4548: 4363: 1465:

codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in

8437: 8258: 7546: 7304: 7261: 7100: 7054: 6876: 6852: 5985: 5853: 5524: 4906: 4763: 4662: 4623: 4423: 4371: 3964: 3567: 3502: 3413: 3340: 3309: 3285: 2981: 2596: 2248: 2222: 2087: 1870: 1805: 1800:

The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking.

1778: 1743: 1489: 1249: 1180: 1135: 1033: 1029: 948: 866: 677: 582: 567: 509: 258: 248: 5275: 5100: 4813: 4654: 4509: 4415: 2348:

There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.

2298: 8354: 8013: 7188: 3844: 3640: 3590: 3450: 3237:(DHCP) to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address. 3168: 3088: 3029: 2692: 2682: 2554: 2490:. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet protocol suite or 2462: 2319: 2252: 2144: 2037: 1835: 1696: 1640: 1607: 1595: 1581: 1571: 1563: 1267: 1104: 1093: 881: 622: 519: 374: 6260: 5598: 5581: 5351: 1072:

In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. military

8344: 7970: 7882: 7314: 7296: 7079: 7069: 7059: 5530:

S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.

3759: 3442: 3398:

In circuit-switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the

3218: 2853: 2647: 2443: 2415: 2407: 2399: 2338: 2279: 2095: 1958: 1944: 1820: 1766: 1626: 1533: 1367: 1344: 1317: 1209: 1037: 893: 861: 3920: 3349: – time it takes to push the packet's bits onto the link 2345:

and the home user's personal computer when the user is surfing the web.

1977:

is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.

8364: 8294: 7887: 7620: 7476: 6581:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3285. pp. 317–323. 5157:

Heart, F.; McKenzie, A.; McQuillian, J.; Walden, D. (January 4, 1978).

4093: 3944: 3876: 3790: 3693: 3670: 3454: 3384: 3372: 3265: 3214: 3080: 2569: 2521:

There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including:

2487: 2431: 2244: 2137: 1886:

to interconnect continents. There are two basic types of fiber optics,

1762: 1585: 1313: 1297: 1176: 557: 514: 504: 5417: 5204:. Internet Archive. Wiley. pp. See page refs highlighted at url. 4320:

How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet

3337: – time it takes a router to process the packet header 3209:

are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as

3083:. The length of the lines indicates the delay between those two nodes. 943:

to communicate with each other. These interconnections are made up of

7869: 7830: 7251: 7158: 7084: 7049: 6757: 6419: 6385: 5558: 4798:"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)" 4062: 3736: 3464:

same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as

3364: 2815: 1923: 1796:

are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another.

1747: 1715: 1332: 851: 722: 278: 6886: 5904: 5582:"Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks" 3628:

program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and

3075: 2434:

published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

2290: 1907:

Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links.

1513: 993:

Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the

175: 51: 7930: 7413: 7380: 6680:"Anonymous hacks UK government sites over 'draconian surveillance'" 6513: 4027: 3868: 3863: 3767: 3621: 3355: – time for a signal to propagate through the media 3202: 3095: 3063: 3050: 2811: 2736: 2592: 2534: 2491: 2447: 2387: 2213: 2204: 2124:, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is 2115: 2033: 1973:

uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases,

1903: 1840: 1732:

The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the

1692: 1644: 1537: 1305: 1301: 1263: 983: 925: 5397: 4838: 2173:(layer 2) of the OSI model and bridge traffic between two or more 1401:

In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard.

7375: 7074: 6576: 3644: 3367:. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to 3269: 3148: 3139:(BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. 3100: 2577: 2530: 2461:(SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized 1688: 1662: 1545: 1541: 1434: 1255:

In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on experimental

1224: 6231: 6006:. 7.1.3 Connectivity to unauthenticated systems. February 2020. 5620: 5579: 5268:

Proceedings of the 2009 workshop on Re-architecting the internet

3967: – International standard for electrical and optical cables 6871: 6053:. 4.2.5 Interaction with other IEEE 802 layers. February 2021. 4023:

Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

3856: 3542:

is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of

3490: 3388: 3198: 2260: 1526:

which is the map of logical interconnections of network hosts.

1392: 5258: 4876:"The National Physical Laboratory Data Communications Network" 4345:"The beginnings of packet switching: some underlying concepts" 2186:

except the source, and discovers the location from the reply.

2177:

to form a single local network. Both are devices that forward

1395:, a token-passing network first used to share storage devices. 7324: 6292: 5166:(Technical report). Burlington, MA: Bolt, Beranek and Newman. 5156: 5022:

Prominently cites Baran and Davies as sources of inspiration.

4254: 3720: 3712: 3514: 3383:

The parameters that affect performance typically can include

3261: 3186:

are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to

3123:, video transfer, and a broad range of information services. 2944:(WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks. 2835: 2234: 1962: 1813: 1789: 1085: 1077: 5542:

Cerf, Vinton; dalal, Yogen; Sunshine, Carl (December 1974).

4574:"NIHF Inductee Donald Davies, Who Invented Packet Switching" 4123:

The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide]

3620:, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent or investigate 1604:: each node is connected to every other node in the network. 6645: 5062: 4739:. National Museum of Science and Industry. pp. 132–4. 4290:"Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich. Russian Virtual Computer Museum" 3732: 3517: 3343: – time the packet spends in routing queues 3264:

may refer to consumed bandwidth, corresponding to achieved

2838: 2687: 2411: 2376: 2372: 2330: 2209: 2120:

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network

1816: 1770: 1615: 1447: 1381: 1377: 1312:

and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. Metcalfe, with

1140: 6825:

Computer Networking with Internet Protocols and Technology

6811:

Shelly, Gary, et al. "Discovering Computers" 2003 Edition.

5810: 4873: 1738:) used to link devices to form a computer network include 1196:. Davies' hierarchical network design included high-speed 1172:

that implemented computer control in the switching fabric.

7360: 6206: 4935:"The real story of how the Internet became so vulnerable" 4549:"NIHF Inductee Paul Baran, Who Invented Packet Switching" 2807: 2603:

techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.

1574:, where each wireless client associates with the central 1289:, the first international heterogeneous computer network. 1045: 5119: 3606:

authorization from a court or other independent agency.

3325:

for a bit of data to travel across the network from one

2143:

An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an

1252:

remains critical to the operation of the Internet today.

6051:

IEEE STD 802.11-2020 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.11-2016)

5545:

Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol

5125: 3531:

addresses the subject of congestion control in detail.

1339:

published their seminal 1974 paper on internetworking,

1048:, and use of email and instant messaging applications. 6714:"Hacktivists in the frontline battle for the internet" 6616: 6614: 6232:"IEEE P802.3ba 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s Ethernet Task Force" 5261:"HAIR: Hierarchical architecture for internet routing" 6306:

Mansfield-Devine, Steve (December 2009). "Darknets".

6265:

IEEE 802.20 — Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)

4259:

How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web

3111:. The Internet utilizes copper communications and an 2402:) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a 2341:(the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the 3453:

lead either to only a small increase in the network

2852:, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on 6611: 6467: 3585:consists of provisions and policies adopted by the 3457:or to a potential reduction in network throughput. 1146:In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system 76:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6622:"Is the U.S. Turning Into a Surveillance Society?" 6095:"Design Principles for DSL-Based Access Solutions" 5682: 5498:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" 5005: 4256: 3624:activity. With the advent of programs such as the 2208:A typical home or small office router showing the 1056:Computer networking may be considered a branch of 5836:CompTIA Network+ exam guide : (Exam N10-005) 5541: 4848:. ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. 4639:"Principles and lessons in packet communications" 3634:Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act 2100:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1341:A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication. 8435: 6677: 6305: 5676: 5674: 5580:Robert M. Metcalfe; David R. Boggs (July 1976). 3317:is a design and performance characteristic of a 6410:Domain names – Implementation and Specification 5901:"Bergen Linux User Group's CPIP Implementation" 4089:AN/FSQ-7: the computer that shaped the Cold War 3612:Surveillance is very useful to governments and 1376:in Europe, North America and Japan began using 826: 6646:Jay Stanley; Barry Steinhardt (January 2003). 6639: 6199:"New global standard for fully networked home" 5918: 4892: 4795: 2259:technology and cable television systems using 1639:that of the underlying one. For example, many 32:"Datacom" redirects here. For other uses, see 7453:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 7429: 6902: 6440: 6335:"The Darknet: A Digital Copyright Revolution" 5829: 5827: 5671: 5235:. Internet Archive. Wiley. pp. 110–111. 5006:Norberg, Arthur L.; O'Neill, Judy E. (1996). 4198:"Reminiscences on the Theory of Time-Sharing" 3167:Darknets are distinct from other distributed 2987: 2761: 2477: 1218:National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) 955:methods that may be arranged in a variety of 901: 793: 6744: 5924: 5809:. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from 5732: 5659:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4874:Scantlebury, R. A.; Wilkinson, P.T. (1974). 4050: 2947: 2551:Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications 2094:In Ethernet networks, each NIC has a unique 1831:) to create a high-speed local area network. 1304:, a networking system that was based on the 1148:semi-automatic business research environment 962:The nodes of a computer network can include 928:sharing resources located on or provided by 6735: 6494:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6406: 5767:D. Andersen; H. Balakrishnan; M. Kaashoek; 4895:"Internet pioneers airbrushed from history" 4227:"Computer - Time-sharing and minicomputers" 3913: 2333:(the World Wide Web protocol) running over 1668:Another example of an overlay network is a 7436: 7422: 6909: 6895: 6740: 6738: 6708: 6167: 5824: 5663:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5033:A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade 4673: 4169:"Computer Pioneers - Christopher Strachey" 3711:Examples of end-to-end encryption include 3160:) — using non-standard protocols and 2999: 2768: 2754: 2547:Universal Mobile Telecommunications System 2362: 2285: 2002:. It was implemented in real life in 2001. 1380:in the late 1970s and interconnected with 974:, or other specialized or general-purpose 908: 894: 800: 786: 6756: 6418: 6384: 5976: 5970: 5625:The Unpredictable Certainty: White Papers 5597: 5557: 5180:Packet and circuit-switched data networks 4682:"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969" 4636: 3101:Advanced Research Projects Agency Network 2486:and encodes data into small, fixed-sized 1548:. This is still a common topology on the 136:Learn how and when to remove this message 6861:) is being considered for deletion. See 5866: 5680: 5495: 5476:"Oral History of Robert (Bob) W. Taylor" 5438: 5403: 5310: 5056: 4762: 4600:"On Distributed Communications Networks" 4454:. Simon and Schuster. pp. 237–246. 4447: 4019: 3680: 3437:. Typical effects of congestion include 3074: 2797: 2568: 2297: 2289: 2203: 2082:A network interface controller (NIC) is 2069: 1902: 1858: 1855:, designed for use in various scenarios. 1788: 1625: 1560:links instead, forming a star or a tree. 1512: 1433: 1408:, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus, and Yogen Dalal. 1117:UNESCO Information Processing Conference 947:technologies based on physically wired, 6840:, "Data Networks," Prentice Hall, 1992. 6447:(5th ed.). Elsevier. p. 372. 6400: 6372: 6261:"IEEE 802.20 Mission and Project Scope" 6117: 5838:(5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 5762: 5760: 5711:"Introduction to Ethernet Technologies" 5406:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5371: 5338: 5079: 4965: 4702: 4488: 4484: 4482: 4394: 4116: 3597: 3035: 2883: 2814:connections while technologies such as 2523:Global System for Mobile Communications 2150: 1150:(SABRE) went online with two connected 1013:mechanisms, and organizational intent. 14: 8436: 8153:Knowledge representation and reasoning 6877:IEEE Ethernet manufacturer information 6342:Richmond Journal of Law and Technology 5833: 5738: 5485:, CHM Reference number: X5059.2009: 28 5473: 5228: 5197: 5176: 5080:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 5042:from the original on 1 December 2012. 4966:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 4489:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 4395:Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). 4317: 4110: 4085: 4020:Sterling, Christopher H., ed. (2008). 3940:Comparison of network diagram software 3378: 3247: 3019: 2895: 2337:over IP (the Internet protocols) over 1183:independently invented the concept of 8178:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 7417: 6916: 6890: 6745:Rosen, E.; Rekhter, Y. (March 1999). 6444:Computer Networks: A Systems Approach 5232:Computer networks and their protocols 5201:Computer networks and their protocols 5073: 4791: 4789: 4732: 4597: 4342: 3550:and challenges to normal operation." 3534: 3420: 2825: 2543:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution 2516: 2353:Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol 2109: 2059: 1223:In 1969, the first four nodes of the 7497:Energy consumption (Green computing) 7443: 6510:"Telecommunications Magazine Online" 6441:Peterson, L.L.; Davie, B.S. (2011). 6332: 6326: 6142: 5757: 4479: 4263:. Oxford University Press. pp. 3830: 2963: 2863: 2784: 2247:by the digital signal to produce an 2169:Bridges and switches operate at the 1757:that uses copper and fiber media in 1592:(FDDI), made use of such a topology. 1347:, and Carl Sunshine wrote the first 74:adding citations to reliable sources 45: 8183:Distributed artificial intelligence 7455:ACM Computing Classification System 6882:A computer networking acronym guide 5779:Association for Computing Machinery 5505:IEEE Transactions on Communications 5372:Bennett, Richard (September 2009). 5222: 5082:"The evolution of packet switching" 4999: 4968:"The Evolution of Packet Switching" 4959: 4927: 4696: 4604:IEEE Transactions on Communications 4576:. National Inventors Hall of Fame. 4551:. National Inventors Hall of Fame. 4491:"The evolution of packet switching" 4397:"The evolution of packet switching" 4388: 4336: 4296:. Translated by Alexander Nitusov. 3577: 3558:Computer networks are also used by 3235:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 3129:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority 3109:United States Department of Defense 2914: 2618: 2559:Integrated Digital Enhanced Network 2494:that use variable-sized packets or 2357: 1502: 1363:as a shorthand for internetworking. 1143:economy management network project. 24: 7688:Integrated development environment 6805: 6653:. American Civil Liberties Union. 6624:. American Civil Liberties Union. 6555:. ResiliNets Research Initiative. 6092: 5489: 5467: 5350:. pp. 171–185. Archived from 5191: 5170: 4832: 4802:Annals of the History of Computing 4786: 4726: 4679: 4318:Peters, Benjamin (25 March 2016). 4287: 3178: 2096:Media Access Control (MAC) address 2086:that connects the computer to the 1773:signals as a transmission medium. 1683:guarantees achieve higher-quality 1621: 1366:In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and 1009:, the network size, the topology, 822: 25: 8455: 8163:Automated planning and scheduling 7693:Software configuration management 6865:to help reach a consensus. › 6844: 6468:ITU-D Study Group 2 (June 2006). 6407:Mockapetris, P. (November 1987). 6236:IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET WORKING GROUP 5313:"The Origins of Packet Switching" 4381:from the original on 2022-10-10. 4086:Ulmann, Bernd (August 19, 2014). 4058:A New History of Modern Computing 1429: 1285:(UCL), connecting the ARPANET to 1168:introduced the first widely used 1074:Semi-Automatic Ground Environment 8417: 8407: 8398: 8397: 7013:Object-oriented operating system 6781: This article incorporates 6776: 6471:Teletraffic Engineering Handbook 6145:Nanoscale Communication Networks 6122:. Boston, London: Artech House. 5474:Taylor, Bob (October 11, 2008), 5126:F.E. Froehlich, A. Kent (1990). 3894:Over the Internet, there can be 3303: 3240:Services are usually based on a 2860:, standardized by IEEE in 2010. 2636: 2017: 2006:The last two cases have a large 1970:Free-space optical communication 1721: 1590:Fiber Distributed Data Interface 1492:and waits until a link is free. 174: 50: 8408: 7811:Computational complexity theory 6794:General Services Administration 6724:from the original on 2018-03-14 6702: 6678:Emil Protalinski (2012-04-07). 6671: 6660:from the original on 2022-10-09 6628:from the original on 2017-03-14 6570: 6559:from the original on 2020-11-06 6545: 6520: 6502: 6461: 6434: 6366: 6355:from the original on 2012-04-15 6299: 6277: 6253: 6242:from the original on 2011-11-20 6224: 6191: 6180:from the original on 2023-02-04 6161: 6136: 6111: 6086: 6075:from the original on 2022-05-17 6039: 6028:from the original on 2023-02-04 5992: 5959:from the original on 2008-04-08 5941: 5903:. Blug.linux.no. Archived from 5893: 5860: 5795: 5785:from the original on 2011-11-24 5721:from the original on 2018-04-10 5703: 5642:from the original on 2023-02-04 5614: 5573: 5535: 5483:Computer History Museum Archive 5432: 5365: 5332: 5304: 5252: 5150: 5050: 5025: 4913:from the original on 2020-01-01 4886: 4867: 4855:from the original on 2022-10-10 4796:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1987). 4756: 4630: 4591: 4580:from the original on 2022-02-12 4566: 4555:from the original on 2022-02-12 4541: 4527:from the original on 2023-02-04 4468:from the original on 2023-02-04 4441: 4311: 4300:from the original on 2023-02-04 4237:from the original on 2015-01-02 4179:from the original on 2019-05-15 4146:from the original on 2012-05-27 3632:software, and laws such as the 2822:typically form a wireless PAN. 2606:Routing can be contrasted with 2437: 1248:in the late 1970s with student 1103:filed a patent application for 1038:application and storage servers 1016:Computer networks support many 61:needs additional citations for 7595:Network performance evaluation 7023:Supercomputer operating system 6512:. January 2003. Archived from 4880:Proceedings of the 2nd ICCC 74 4281: 4248: 4219: 4190: 4161: 4079: 4044: 4013: 3657:American Civil Liberties Union 3653:Electronic Frontier Foundation 2509:ATM still plays a role in the 2459:Synchronous optical networking 1884:undersea communications cables 1159:Intergalactic Computer Network 1121:Compatible Time-Sharing System 1084:. It was the first commercial 13: 1: 7966:Multimedia information system 7951:Geographic information system 7941:Enterprise information system 7530:Computer systems organization 6850: 6376:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 6320:10.1016/S1361-3723(09)70150-2 6308:Computer Fraud & Security 6170:"personal area network (PAN)" 5689:. O'Reilly & Associates. 5685:Ethernet The Definitive Guide 5681:Spurgeon, Charles E. (2000). 5317:Computer Resurrection Issue 5 5229:Davies, Donald Watts (1979). 5198:Davies, Donald Watts (1979). 4893:Guardian Staff (2013-06-25). 4769:A Brief History of the Future 4709:. Stripe Press. p. 286. 4703:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018). 4007: 3793:. E2EE also does not address 3698:application service providers 3294:bandwidth allocation protocol 2583:In packet-switched networks, 2030:network interface controllers 1765:. Wireless LAN standards use 1687:. Previous proposals such as 1349:Transmission Control Protocol 1129:Dartmouth Time Sharing System 8325:Computational social science 7913:Theoretical computer science 7726:Software development process 7502:Electronic design automation 7487:Very Large Scale Integration 6998:Just enough operating system 6983:Distributed operating system 6587:10.1007/978-3-540-30176-9_41 6373:Klensin, J. (October 2008). 6209:. 2008-12-12. Archived from 6059:10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9363693 6012:10.1109/IEEESTD.2020.9018454 5628:. National Academies Press. 5441:IEEE Communications Magazine 4352:IEEE Communications Magazine 3505:in devices such as routers. 3363:a packet serially through a 3298:dynamic bandwidth allocation 3252: 3221:(people remember names like 2844:A LAN can be connected to a 2527:General Packet Radio Service 2453: 2266: 2066:Network interface controller 1990:was a humorous April fool's 1412:factor to its continued use. 1308:, developed in the 1960s by 7: 8148:Natural language processing 7936:Information storage systems 7111:User space and kernel space 6528:"State Transition Diagrams" 5867:A. Hooke (September 2000), 5496:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). 3986:Network planning and design 3932: 3626:Total Information Awareness 3553: 3497:and the original Ethernet, 3070: 3057: 3044: 2425: 2382: 2373:Internet Protocol Version 4 1898: 1092:in 1958. The modem allowed 1088:for computers, released by 10: 8460: 8064:Human–computer interaction 8034:Intrusion detection system 7946:Social information systems 7931:Database management system 7018:Real-time operating system 5927:"bridge – network bridges" 5774:Resilient Overlay Networks 5132:. CRC Press. p. 344. 3853:application-layer gateways 3804: 3800: 3520:home networking standard. 3407:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 3319:telecommunications network 3307: 3188:provide some functionality 3142: 2994:enterprise private network 2988:Enterprise private network 2564: 2484:time-division multiplexing 2478:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 2472:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 2442:Wireless LAN based on the 2350: 2270: 2232: 2197: 2193: 2154: 2113: 2063: 2021: 1910: 1880:wave division multiplexing 1839:cabling is used for wired 1725: 1705:Internet service providers 1506: 1107:in the United Kingdom and 1051: 38: 31: 8393: 8330:Computational engineering 8305:Computational mathematics 8282: 8229: 8191: 8138: 8100: 8062: 8004: 7921: 7867: 7829: 7774: 7711: 7644: 7608: 7565: 7529: 7462: 7451: 7353: 7290: 7236: 7214:Multilevel feedback queue 7209:Fixed-priority preemptive 7197: 7132: 7123: 7093: 7040: 7031: 6993:Hobbyist operating system 6988:Embedded operating system 6970: 6924: 6827:, Pearson Education 2004. 6553:"Definitions: Resilience" 6118:Paetsch, Michael (1993). 5739:Pelkey, James L. (2007). 5586:Communications of the ACM 5517:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 5453:10.1109/MCOM.2009.4785372 5160:Arpanet Completion Report 4616:10.1109/TCOM.1964.1088883 4448:Isaacson, Walter (2014). 4364:10.1109/MCOM.2002.1018006 3649:Reporters Without Borders 3414:state transition diagrams 3225:better than numbers like 2954:metropolitan area network 2948:Metropolitan area network 2228: 2216:network cable connections 1975:line-of-sight propagation 1932:Communications satellites 1888:single-mode optical fiber 1849:electromagnetic induction 1819:technology uses existing 1746:, and free space. In the 1517:Common network topologies 1497:maximum transmission unit 1287:British academic networks 1283:University College London 1238:Bolt Beranek & Newman 978:. They are identified by 945:telecommunication network 653:Exponential random (ERGM) 320:Informational (computing) 8340:Computational healthcare 8335:Differentiable computing 8254:Graphics processing unit 7673:Domain-specific language 7542:Computational complexity 7257:General protection fault 7008:Network operating system 6962:User features comparison 6863:templates for discussion 4772:. Phoenix. p. 292. 4733:Yates, David M. (1997). 3914:Journals and newsletters 3807:Transport Layer Security 3787:random number generators 3572:denial-of-service attack 2720:Municipal wireless (MWN) 2539:Evolution-Data Optimized 1892:multi-mode optical fiber 1784: 1775:Power line communication 1630:A sample overlay network 1387:In 1976, John Murphy of 1024:, such as access to the 1003:communications protocols 340:Scientific collaboration 34:Datacom (disambiguation) 8315:Computational chemistry 8249:Photograph manipulation 8140:Artificial intelligence 7956:Decision support system 7003:Mobile operating system 5870:Interplanetary Internet 5276:10.1145/1658978.1658990 5101:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 5089:Proceedings of the IEEE 4814:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023 4655:10.1109/PROC.1978.11143 4643:Proceedings of the IEEE 4510:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 4498:Proceedings of the IEEE 4416:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 4404:Proceedings of the IEEE 4231:Encyclopedia Britannica 3991:Network traffic control 3950:History of the Internet 3908:communications security 3881:Border Gateway Protocol 3589:to prevent and monitor 3435:reliable communications 3137:Border Gateway Protocol 3115:backbone to enable the 3103:(ARPANET) developed by 3006:virtual private network 3000:Virtual private network 2878:digital subscriber line 2742:Interplanetary Internet 2610:in its assumption that 2369:Internet protocol suite 2363:Internet protocol suite 2286:Communication protocols 2257:digital subscriber line 1982:Interplanetary Internet 1602:Fully connected network 1529:Common topologies are: 1452:packet-switched network 1446:is a formatted unit of 1343:Later that year, Cerf, 1296:wrote a formal memo at 1204:and the essence of the 1202:communication protocols 1125:BBN Time-Sharing System 997:used to carry signals, 934:communication protocols 932:. Computers use common 769:Category:Network theory 289:Preferential attachment 8380:Educational technology 8211:Reinforcement learning 7961:Process control system 7859:Computational geometry 7849:Algorithmic efficiency 7844:Analysis of algorithms 7492:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 7106:Loadable kernel module 6789:Federal Standard 1037C 6783:public domain material 6333:Wood, Jessica (2010). 5803:"End System Multicast" 5348:Proceedings of ICCC 74 5177:Clarke, Peter (1982). 4637:Kleinrock, L. (1978). 4120:; et al. (1963). 3971:Minimum-Pairs Protocol 3960:Information revolution 3779:technical exploitation 3690:digital communications 3501:reduction in TCP, and 3327:communication endpoint 3084: 2820:infrared communication 2574: 2420:Network Access Control 2404:Spanning Tree Protocol 2308:communication protocol 2303: 2295: 2217: 2079: 1988:IP over Avian Carriers 1908: 1864: 1797: 1670:distributed hash table 1631: 1518: 1439: 1416: 1240:. In the early 1970s, 1175:Throughout the 1960s, 833: 658:Random geometric (RGG) 18:Network infrastructure 8350:Electronic publishing 8320:Computational biology 8310:Computational physics 8206:Unsupervised learning 8120:Distributed computing 7996:Information retrieval 7903:Mathematical analysis 7893:Mathematical software 7776:Theory of computation 7741:Software construction 7731:Requirements analysis 7609:Software organization 7537:Computer architecture 7507:Hardware acceleration 7472:Printed circuit board 7174:Process control block 7140:Computer multitasking 6978:Disk operating system 5834:Meyers, Mike (2012). 5717:. WideBand Products. 5599:10.1145/360248.360253 4055:(14 September 2021). 3921:Open Computer Science 3841:community of interest 3686:End-to-end encryption 3681:End to end encryption 3587:network administrator 3489:in protocols such as 3292:(using, for example, 3213:(DNS) give names for 3078: 2874:cable Internet access 2804:personal area network 2798:Personal area network 2572: 2418:defines a port-based 2351:Further information: 2301: 2293: 2207: 2073: 2012:two-way communication 2008:round-trip delay time 1906: 1862: 1792: 1726:Further information: 1629: 1576:wireless access point 1516: 1507:Further information: 1437: 1424:Distributed computing 1389:Datapoint Corporation 1351:(TCP) specification, 1326:PARC Universal Packet 1266:network, directed by 832: 774:Category:Graph theory 8110:Concurrent computing 8082:Ubiquitous computing 8054:Application security 8049:Information security 7878:Discrete mathematics 7854:Randomized algorithm 7806:Computability theory 7784:Model of computation 7756:Software maintenance 7751:Software engineering 7713:Software development 7663:Programming language 7658:Programming paradigm 7575:Network architecture 7345:Virtual tape library 6937:Forensic engineering 6143:Bush, S. F. (2010). 5978:Tanenbaum, Andrew S. 4343:Baran, Paul (2002). 4173:history.computer.org 3904:consumer-to-consumer 3900:business-to-consumer 3896:business-to-business 3825:symmetric-key cipher 3603:Network surveillance 3598:Network surveillance 3479:congestion avoidance 3473:Modern networks use 3290:bandwidth allocation 3282:bandwidth throttling 3278:bandwidth management 3207:network file sharing 3036:Organizational scope 2890:storage area network 2884:Storage area network 2273:Firewall (computing) 2151:Bridges and switches 1992:Request for Comments 1374:Public data networks 1328:for internetworking. 1262:In 1973, the French 1257:public data networks 1246:hierarchical routing 1206:end-to-end principle 1101:Christopher Strachey 1090:AT&T Corporation 1062:computer engineering 70:improve this article 39:For other uses, see 8385:Document management 8375:Operations research 8300:Enterprise software 8216:Multi-task learning 8201:Supervised learning 7923:Information systems 7746:Software deployment 7703:Software repository 7557:Real-time computing 7354:Supporting concepts 7340:Virtual file system 4984:on 31 December 2018 4882:. pp. 223–228. 3666:Hepting v. AT&T 3487:exponential backoff 3467:congestive collapse 3379:Performance metrics 3321:. It specifies the 3248:Network performance 3026:global area network 3020:Global area network 2926:network performance 2902:campus area network 2896:Campus area network 2850:data transfer rates 2557:(IS-136/TDMA), and 2312:connection-oriented 2212:telephone line and 2010:, which gives slow 1712:Akamai Technologies 1676:) indexed by keys. 1359:, coining the term 1324:also developed the 995:transmission medium 972:networking hardware 578:Degree distribution 229:Community structure 8168:Search methodology 8115:Parallel computing 8072:Interaction design 7981:Computing platform 7908:Numerical analysis 7898:Information theory 7683:Software framework 7646:Software notations 7585:Network components 7482:Integrated circuit 7277:Segmentation fault 7125:Process management 5955:. September 1996. 5925:Bradley Mitchell. 4975:IEEE Invited Paper 4598:Baran, P. (1964). 4294:computer-museum.ru 4065:. pp. 87–89. 3981:Network simulation 3889:Domain Name System 3817:Netscape Navigator 3540:Network resilience 3535:Network resilience 3523:For the Internet, 3510:quality of service 3475:congestion control 3426:Network congestion 3421:Network congestion 3369:network congestion 3347:Transmission delay 3211:Domain Name System 3133:address registries 3121:Internet of things 3113:optical networking 3085: 2942:wide area networks 2930:network congestion 2832:local area network 2826:Local area network 2715:Metropolitan (MAN) 2575: 2517:Cellular standards 2304: 2296: 2218: 2200:Router (computing) 2129:kilometers apart. 2110:Repeaters and hubs 2080: 2060:Network interfaces 1909: 1876:optical amplifiers 1865: 1827:, phone lines and 1798: 1794:Fiber-optic cables 1781:to transmit data. 1777:uses a building's 1759:local area network 1681:quality of service 1659:Address resolution 1632: 1588:networks, and the 1552:, although modern 1519: 1480:With packets, the 1440: 1214:local area network 1189:data communication 1113:J. C. R. Licklider 1066:telecommunications 964:personal computers 957:network topologies 847:Process management 834: 762:Network scientists 688:Soft configuration 85:"Computer network" 8444:Computer networks 8431: 8430: 8360:Electronic voting 8290:Quantum Computing 8283:Applied computing 8269:Image compression 8039:Hardware security 8029:Security services 7986:Digital marketing 7766:Open-source model 7678:Modeling language 7590:Network scheduler 7411: 7410: 7267:Memory protection 7238:Memory management 7232: 7231: 7224:Shortest job next 7119: 7118: 6918:Operating systems 6834:Dimitri Bertsekas 6821:William Stallings 6596:978-3-540-23659-7 6579:Applied Computing 6454:978-0-1238-5060-7 6154:978-1-60807-003-9 6129:978-0-8900-6688-1 6068:978-1-5044-7283-8 6021:978-1-5044-6440-6 5982:Computer Networks 5635:978-0-309-17414-5 5418:10.1109/85.759368 5285:978-1-60558-749-3 5242:978-0-471-99750-4 5211:978-0-471-99750-4 5017:978-0-8018-5152-0 4746:978-0-901805-94-2 4716:978-1-953953-36-0 4706:The Dream Machine 4680:Pelkey, James L. 4649:(11): 1320–1329. 4274:978-0-19-286207-5 4136:978-0-262-03008-3 4103:978-3-486-85670-5 4037:978-1-85109-737-1 4001:Network on a chip 3883:. Typically, the 3831:Views of networks 3821:root certificates 3729:instant messaging 3715:for web traffic, 3661:mass surveillance 3461:Network protocols 3353:Propagation delay 3274:bandwidth shaping 2970:wide area network 2964:Wide area network 2958:metropolitan area 2938:Internet backbone 2870:home area network 2864:Home area network 2846:wide area network 2791:nanoscale network 2785:Nanoscale network 2778: 2777: 2612:network addresses 2601:Multipath routing 2589:packet forwarding 2585:routing protocols 2468:digital telephony 2134:propagation delay 2084:computer hardware 2024:Node (networking) 1940:Cellular networks 1753:A widely adopted 1728:Data transmission 1655:telephone network 1568:switched Ethernet 1459:network addresses 1281:into practice at 1242:Leonard Kleinrock 1236:team working for 1127:in 1962, and the 1115:at the inaugural 1080:system using the 988:Internet Protocol 980:network addresses 918: 917: 857:Memory management 816:Operating systems 810: 809: 730: 729: 638:Bianconi–Barabási 532: 531: 350:Artificial neural 325:Telecommunication 146: 145: 138: 120: 16:(Redirected from 8451: 8421: 8420: 8411: 8410: 8401: 8400: 8221:Cross-validation 8193:Machine learning 8077:Social computing 8044:Network security 7839:Algorithm design 7761:Programming team 7721:Control variable 7698:Software library 7636:Software quality 7631:Operating system 7580:Network protocol 7445:Computer science 7438: 7431: 7424: 7415: 7414: 7366:Computer network 7130: 7129: 7038: 7037: 6911: 6904: 6897: 6888: 6887: 6802: 6801: 6796:. Archived from 6780: 6779: 6770: 6769: 6760: 6758:10.17487/RFC2547 6742: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6706: 6700: 6699: 6697: 6695: 6686:. Archived from 6675: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6665: 6659: 6652: 6643: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6633: 6618: 6609: 6608: 6574: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6564: 6549: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6539: 6530:. Archived from 6524: 6518: 6517: 6506: 6500: 6499: 6493: 6485: 6483: 6477:. Archived from 6476: 6465: 6459: 6458: 6438: 6432: 6431: 6422: 6420:10.17487/RFC1035 6404: 6398: 6397: 6388: 6386:10.17487/RFC5321 6370: 6364: 6363: 6361: 6360: 6354: 6339: 6330: 6324: 6323: 6303: 6297: 6296: 6291:. Archived from 6289:The Opto Project 6281: 6275: 6274: 6272: 6271: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6247: 6228: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6185: 6168:Margaret Rouse. 6165: 6159: 6158: 6147:. Artech House. 6140: 6134: 6133: 6115: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6100:. Archived from 6099: 6093:Martin, Thomas. 6090: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6033: 5996: 5990: 5989: 5984:(4th ed.). 5974: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5964: 5945: 5939: 5938: 5933:. Archived from 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5897: 5891: 5890: 5889: 5888: 5882: 5875: 5864: 5858: 5857: 5831: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5818: 5807:project web site 5799: 5793: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5771:(October 2001), 5764: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5751: 5736: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5707: 5701: 5700: 5688: 5678: 5669: 5668: 5658: 5650: 5648: 5647: 5618: 5612: 5611: 5601: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5561: 5559:10.17487/RFC0675 5539: 5533: 5532: 5502: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5480: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5401: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5385: 5378: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5359: 5336: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5323: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5265: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5195: 5189: 5187: 5185: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5123: 5117: 5116: 5086: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5065:. Archived from 5054: 5048: 5047: 5037: 5029: 5023: 5021: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4989: 4983: 4977:. Archived from 4972: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4950: 4941:. Archived from 4931: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4918: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4871: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4860: 4854: 4847: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4827:high-speed lines 4808:(3/4): 221–247. 4793: 4784: 4783: 4760: 4754: 4753: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4585: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4532: 4526: 4495: 4486: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4473: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4401: 4392: 4386: 4385: 4380: 4349: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4305: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4262: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4204:. Archived from 4202:jmc.stanford.edu 4194: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4145: 4128: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4053:Ceruzzi, Paul E. 4048: 4042: 4041: 4017: 3795:traffic analysis 3583:Network Security 3578:Network security 3564:computer viruses 3560:security hackers 3400:grade of service 3335:Processing delay 3242:service protocol 3231: 3230: 3184:Network services 2921:backbone network 2915:Backbone network 2880:(DSL) provider. 2770: 2763: 2756: 2653:Near-field (NFC) 2640: 2627:Computer network 2623: 2622: 2619:Geographic scale 2358:Common protocols 2181:of data between 2175:network segments 1913:Wireless network 1853:category ratings 1740:electrical cable 1524:network topology 1509:Network topology 1503:Network topology 1486:circuit switched 1185:packet switching 1170:telephone switch 1166:Western Electric 1058:computer science 1036:, shared use of 941:interconnections 922:computer network 910: 903: 896: 825: 812: 811: 802: 795: 788: 673:Stochastic block 663:Hyperbolic (HGN) 612: 611: 475: 464: 396: 395: 304:Social influence 178: 150: 149: 141: 134: 130: 127: 121: 119: 78: 54: 46: 21: 8459: 8458: 8454: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8449: 8448: 8434: 8433: 8432: 8427: 8418: 8389: 8370:Word processing 8278: 8264:Virtual reality 8225: 8187: 8158:Computer vision 8134: 8130:Multiprocessing 8096: 8058: 8024:Security hacker 8000: 7976:Digital library 7917: 7868:Mathematics of 7863: 7825: 7801:Automata theory 7796:Formal language 7770: 7736:Software design 7707: 7640: 7626:Virtual machine 7604: 7600:Network service 7561: 7552:Embedded system 7525: 7458: 7447: 7442: 7412: 7407: 7349: 7310:Defragmentation 7295: 7286: 7272:Protection ring 7241: 7228: 7200: 7193: 7115: 7089: 7027: 6966: 6920: 6915: 6866: 6847: 6838:Robert Gallager 6808: 6806:Further reading 6786: 6777: 6775: 6773: 6743: 6736: 6727: 6725: 6707: 6703: 6693: 6691: 6676: 6672: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6650: 6644: 6640: 6631: 6629: 6620: 6619: 6612: 6597: 6575: 6571: 6562: 6560: 6551: 6550: 6546: 6537: 6535: 6526: 6525: 6521: 6508: 6507: 6503: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6474: 6466: 6462: 6455: 6439: 6435: 6405: 6401: 6371: 6367: 6358: 6356: 6352: 6337: 6331: 6327: 6304: 6300: 6283: 6282: 6278: 6269: 6267: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6245: 6243: 6230: 6229: 6225: 6216: 6214: 6197: 6196: 6192: 6183: 6181: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6141: 6137: 6130: 6116: 6112: 6104: 6097: 6091: 6087: 6078: 6076: 6069: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6031: 6029: 6022: 5998: 5997: 5993: 5975: 5971: 5962: 5960: 5949:"Define switch" 5947: 5946: 5942: 5923: 5919: 5910: 5908: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5886: 5884: 5880: 5873: 5865: 5861: 5846: 5832: 5825: 5816: 5814: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5788: 5786: 5765: 5758: 5749: 5747: 5737: 5733: 5724: 5722: 5709: 5708: 5704: 5697: 5679: 5672: 5652: 5651: 5645: 5643: 5636: 5619: 5615: 5578: 5574: 5540: 5536: 5500: 5494: 5490: 5478: 5472: 5468: 5437: 5433: 5402: 5398: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5376: 5370: 5366: 5357: 5355: 5337: 5333: 5321: 5319: 5309: 5305: 5286: 5263: 5257: 5253: 5243: 5227: 5223: 5212: 5196: 5192: 5183: 5175: 5171: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5140: 5124: 5120: 5095:(11): 1307–13. 5084: 5078: 5074: 5055: 5051: 5035: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5018: 5004: 5000: 4987: 4985: 4981: 4970: 4964: 4960: 4948: 4946: 4939:Washington Post 4933: 4932: 4928: 4916: 4914: 4891: 4887: 4872: 4868: 4858: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4794: 4787: 4780: 4761: 4757: 4747: 4731: 4727: 4717: 4701: 4697: 4678: 4674: 4635: 4631: 4596: 4592: 4583: 4581: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4558: 4556: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4504:(11): 1307–13. 4493: 4487: 4480: 4471: 4469: 4462: 4446: 4442: 4410:(11): 1307–13. 4399: 4393: 4389: 4378: 4347: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4316: 4312: 4303: 4301: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4253: 4249: 4240: 4238: 4225: 4224: 4220: 4211: 4209: 4196: 4195: 4191: 4182: 4180: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4126: 4115: 4111: 4104: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4051:Haigh, Thomas; 4049: 4045: 4038: 4030:. p. 399. 4018: 4014: 4010: 4005: 3976:Network mapping 3955:Information Age 3935: 3916: 3833: 3809: 3803: 3785:, poor quality 3764:Yahoo Messenger 3702:confidentiality 3683: 3647:groups—such as 3614:law enforcement 3600: 3580: 3556: 3546:in the face of 3537: 3483:traffic control 3423: 3381: 3312: 3306: 3255: 3250: 3228: 3227: 3181: 3179:Network service 3145: 3073: 3060: 3047: 3038: 3022: 3010:overlay network 3002: 2990: 2978:data link layer 2974:common carriers 2966: 2950: 2917: 2898: 2886: 2866: 2858:100 Gbit/s 2828: 2800: 2787: 2774: 2683:Wireless (WLAN) 2630: 2621: 2567: 2519: 2504:virtual circuit 2480: 2456: 2440: 2428: 2385: 2375:(IPv4) and for 2365: 2360: 2355: 2343:wireless router 2318:, they may use 2288: 2275: 2269: 2241:carrier signals 2237: 2231: 2202: 2196: 2171:data link layer 2163: 2155:Main articles: 2153: 2118: 2112: 2068: 2062: 2026: 2020: 1953:spread spectrum 1915: 1901: 1787: 1735:physical medium 1730: 1724: 1685:streaming media 1636:overlay network 1624: 1622:Overlay network 1550:data link layer 1511: 1505: 1463:error detection 1432: 1419: 1320:, Ed Taft, and 1310:Norman Abramson 1294:Robert Metcalfe 1279:internetworking 1054: 1011:traffic control 1007:network traffic 953:radio-frequency 951:, and wireless 914: 839:Common features 831: 823: 806: 744: 709:Boolean network 683:Maximum entropy 633:Barabási–Albert 550: 467: 456: 244:Controllability 209:Complex network 196: 183: 182: 181: 180: 179: 163:Network science 142: 131: 125: 122: 79: 77: 67: 55: 44: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8457: 8447: 8446: 8429: 8428: 8426: 8425: 8415: 8405: 8394: 8391: 8390: 8388: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8286: 8284: 8280: 8279: 8277: 8276: 8274:Solid modeling 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8235: 8233: 8227: 8226: 8224: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8197: 8195: 8189: 8188: 8186: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8173:Control method 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8144: 8142: 8136: 8135: 8133: 8132: 8127: 8125:Multithreading 8122: 8117: 8112: 8106: 8104: 8098: 8097: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8068: 8066: 8060: 8059: 8057: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8019:Formal methods 8016: 8010: 8008: 8002: 8001: 7999: 7998: 7993: 7991:World Wide Web 7988: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7927: 7925: 7919: 7918: 7916: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7874: 7872: 7865: 7864: 7862: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7835: 7833: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7792: 7791: 7780: 7778: 7772: 7771: 7769: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7717: 7715: 7709: 7708: 7706: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7654: 7652: 7642: 7641: 7639: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7612: 7610: 7606: 7605: 7603: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7571: 7569: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7533: 7531: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7523: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7468: 7466: 7460: 7459: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7441: 7440: 7433: 7426: 7418: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7405: 7400: 7399: 7398: 7396:User interface 7393: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7357: 7355: 7351: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7320:File attribute 7317: 7312: 7307: 7301: 7299: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7284: 7282:Virtual memory 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7248: 7246: 7234: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7205: 7203: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7154:Context switch 7151: 7136: 7134: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7090: 7088: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7046: 7044: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6974: 6972: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6928: 6926: 6922: 6921: 6914: 6913: 6906: 6899: 6891: 6885: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6846: 6845:External links 6843: 6842: 6841: 6831: 6828: 6818: 6815: 6812: 6807: 6804: 6800:on 2022-01-22. 6772: 6771: 6734: 6712:(2012-04-20). 6701: 6670: 6638: 6610: 6595: 6569: 6544: 6519: 6516:on 2011-02-08. 6501: 6484:on 2007-01-11. 6460: 6453: 6433: 6399: 6365: 6325: 6298: 6295:on 2005-01-15. 6276: 6252: 6223: 6190: 6160: 6153: 6135: 6128: 6110: 6107:on 2011-07-22. 6085: 6067: 6038: 6020: 5991: 5969: 5940: 5937:on 2008-03-28. 5917: 5892: 5859: 5844: 5823: 5794: 5756: 5731: 5702: 5695: 5670: 5634: 5613: 5592:(5): 395–404. 5572: 5534: 5511:(5): 637–648. 5488: 5466: 5431: 5396: 5364: 5331: 5311:Derek Barber. 5303: 5284: 5251: 5241: 5221: 5210: 5190: 5169: 5149: 5138: 5118: 5072: 5069:on 2008-03-08. 5057:Chris Sutton. 5049: 5024: 5016: 4998: 4958: 4926: 4885: 4866: 4831: 4785: 4778: 4764:Naughton, John 4755: 4745: 4725: 4715: 4695: 4672: 4629: 4590: 4565: 4540: 4478: 4460: 4440: 4387: 4335: 4329:978-0262034180 4328: 4310: 4280: 4273: 4247: 4218: 4189: 4160: 4135: 4118:Corbató, F. J. 4109: 4102: 4078: 4072:978-0262542906 4071: 4043: 4036: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3929: 3915: 3912: 3885:human-readable 3847:technologies. 3832: 3829: 3805:Main article: 3802: 3799: 3682: 3679: 3639:However, many 3618:social control 3599: 3596: 3579: 3576: 3568:computer worms 3555: 3552: 3536: 3533: 3439:queueing delay 3431:retransmission 3422: 3419: 3393:bit error rate 3380: 3377: 3357: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3308:Main article: 3305: 3302: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3195:World Wide Web 3180: 3177: 3144: 3141: 3117:World Wide Web 3072: 3069: 3059: 3056: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3021: 3018: 3001: 2998: 2989: 2986: 2965: 2962: 2949: 2946: 2916: 2913: 2897: 2894: 2885: 2882: 2865: 2862: 2827: 2824: 2799: 2796: 2786: 2783: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2772: 2765: 2758: 2750: 2747: 2746: 2745: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2723: 2722: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2696: 2695: 2690: 2688:Virtual (VLAN) 2685: 2680: 2670: 2665: 2663:Personal (PAN) 2660: 2655: 2650: 2642: 2641: 2633: 2632: 2620: 2617: 2597:routing tables 2566: 2563: 2518: 2515: 2479: 2476: 2474:(ATM) frames. 2455: 2452: 2439: 2436: 2427: 2424: 2384: 2381: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2327:protocol stack 2316:connectionless 2287: 2284: 2271:Main article: 2268: 2265: 2233:Main article: 2230: 2227: 2198:Main article: 2195: 2192: 2161:Network switch 2157:Network bridge 2152: 2149: 2114:Main article: 2111: 2108: 2064:Main article: 2061: 2058: 2052:, modems, and 2022:Main article: 2019: 2016: 2004: 2003: 1985: 1978: 1966: 1948: 1936: 1928: 1911:Main article: 1900: 1897: 1896: 1895: 1857: 1856: 1832: 1811: 1786: 1783: 1723: 1720: 1623: 1620: 1612: 1611: 1605: 1599: 1593: 1579: 1561: 1558:point-to-point 1554:physical layer 1504: 1501: 1467:packet headers 1444:network packet 1438:Network Packet 1431: 1430:Network packet 1428: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1385: 1371: 1364: 1329: 1322:Butler Lampson 1290: 1275:Peter Kirstein 1271: 1260: 1253: 1221: 1173: 1162: 1155: 1144: 1132: 1097: 1082:Bell 101 modem 1053: 1050: 1026:World Wide Web 916: 915: 913: 912: 905: 898: 890: 887: 886: 885: 884: 879: 874: 869: 867:Device drivers 864: 859: 854: 849: 841: 840: 836: 835: 819: 818: 808: 807: 805: 804: 797: 790: 782: 779: 778: 777: 776: 771: 765: 764: 759: 754: 746: 745: 743: 742: 739: 735: 732: 731: 728: 727: 726: 725: 716: 711: 703: 702: 698: 697: 696: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 648:Watts–Strogatz 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 617: 616: 608: 607: 603: 602: 601: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 552: 551: 549: 548: 543: 537: 534: 533: 530: 529: 528: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 484: 483: 479: 478: 477: 476: 469:Incidence list 465: 458:Adjacency list 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 427:Data structure 424: 419: 414: 409: 401: 400: 392: 391: 385: 384: 383: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 355:Interdependent 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 314: 313: 309: 308: 307: 306: 301: 299:Network effect 296: 294:Balance theory 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 254:Social capital 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 198: 197: 195: 194: 188: 185: 184: 173: 172: 171: 170: 169: 166: 165: 159: 158: 144: 143: 58: 56: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8456: 8445: 8442: 8441: 8439: 8424: 8416: 8414: 8406: 8404: 8396: 8395: 8392: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8287: 8285: 8281: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8259:Mixed reality 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8236: 8234: 8232: 8228: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8198: 8196: 8194: 8190: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8145: 8143: 8141: 8137: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8107: 8105: 8103: 8099: 8093: 8092:Accessibility 8090: 8088: 8087:Visualization 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8069: 8067: 8065: 8061: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8007: 8003: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7928: 7926: 7924: 7920: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7875: 7873: 7871: 7866: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7836: 7834: 7832: 7828: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7785: 7782: 7781: 7779: 7777: 7773: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7714: 7710: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7607: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7572: 7570: 7568: 7564: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7547:Dependability 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7534: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7469: 7467: 7465: 7461: 7456: 7450: 7446: 7439: 7434: 7432: 7427: 7425: 7420: 7419: 7416: 7404: 7401: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7300: 7298: 7293: 7289: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7262:Memory paging 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7239: 7235: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7202: 7196: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7135: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7122: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7101:Device driver 7099: 7098: 7096: 7092: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7043: 7042:Architectures 7039: 7036: 7034: 7030: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6975: 6973: 6969: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6929: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6912: 6907: 6905: 6900: 6898: 6893: 6892: 6889: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6869: 6864: 6860: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6848: 6839: 6835: 6832: 6829: 6826: 6822: 6819: 6816: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6790: 6784: 6767: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6750: 6749: 6748:BGP/MPLS VPNs 6741: 6739: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6705: 6690:on 2013-04-03 6689: 6685: 6681: 6674: 6656: 6649: 6642: 6627: 6623: 6617: 6615: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6573: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6534:on 2003-10-15 6533: 6529: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6505: 6497: 6491: 6480: 6473: 6472: 6464: 6456: 6450: 6446: 6445: 6437: 6429: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6411: 6403: 6395: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6369: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6336: 6329: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6302: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6280: 6266: 6262: 6256: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6227: 6213:on 2009-02-21 6212: 6208: 6204: 6203:ITU-T Newslog 6200: 6194: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6156: 6150: 6146: 6139: 6131: 6125: 6121: 6114: 6103: 6096: 6089: 6074: 6070: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6027: 6023: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5995: 5987: 5986:Prentice Hall 5983: 5979: 5973: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5921: 5907:on 2014-02-15 5906: 5902: 5896: 5883:on 2012-01-13 5879: 5872: 5871: 5863: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5845:9780071789226 5841: 5837: 5830: 5828: 5813:on 2005-02-21 5812: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5775: 5770: 5763: 5761: 5746: 5742: 5741:"Yogen Dalal" 5735: 5720: 5716: 5715:www.wband.com 5712: 5706: 5698: 5696:1-56592-660-9 5692: 5687: 5686: 5677: 5675: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5627: 5626: 5617: 5609: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5576: 5568: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5546: 5538: 5531: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5499: 5492: 5484: 5477: 5470: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5435: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5400: 5386:on 2019-08-29 5382: 5375: 5368: 5354:on 2013-10-20 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5335: 5328: 5318: 5314: 5307: 5300: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5262: 5255: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5225: 5218: 5213: 5207: 5203: 5202: 5194: 5182: 5181: 5173: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5146: 5141: 5135: 5131: 5130: 5122: 5115: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5083: 5076: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5041: 5034: 5028: 5019: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4995: 4988:September 10, 4980: 4976: 4969: 4962: 4955: 4945:on 2015-05-30 4944: 4940: 4936: 4930: 4923: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4889: 4881: 4877: 4870: 4851: 4844: 4843: 4835: 4828: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4790: 4781: 4779:9780753810934 4775: 4771: 4770: 4765: 4759: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4722: 4718: 4712: 4708: 4707: 4699: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4676: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4633: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4554: 4550: 4544: 4537: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4485: 4483: 4467: 4463: 4461:9781476708690 4457: 4453: 4452: 4444: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4384: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4331: 4325: 4322:. MIT Press. 4321: 4314: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4276: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4260: 4251: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4222: 4208:on 2020-04-28 4207: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4157: 4142: 4138: 4132: 4129:. MIT Press. 4125: 4124: 4119: 4113: 4105: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4090: 4082: 4074: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4059: 4054: 4047: 4039: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4024: 4016: 4012: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3965:ISO/IEC 11801 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3927: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3917: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3798: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3744: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3678: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3610: 3607: 3604: 3595: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3575: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3504: 3503:fair queueing 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3469: 3468: 3462: 3458: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3418: 3415: 3410: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3396: 3395:and latency. 3394: 3390: 3386: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3342: 3341:Queuing delay 3339: 3336: 3333: 3332: 3331: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3315:Network delay 3311: 3310:Network delay 3304:Network delay 3301: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3286:bandwidth cap 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3245: 3243: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3229:210.121.67.18 3224: 3220: 3219:MAC addresses 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3124: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3090: 3082: 3077: 3068: 3065: 3055: 3052: 3042: 3033: 3031: 3030:wireless LANs 3027: 3017: 3014: 3011: 3007: 2997: 2995: 2985: 2983: 2982:network layer 2979: 2975: 2971: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2945: 2943: 2939: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2891: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2833: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2795: 2792: 2782: 2771: 2766: 2764: 2759: 2757: 2752: 2751: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2717: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2678:Storage (SAN) 2676: 2675: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2645: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2634: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2579: 2571: 2562: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2514: 2512: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2435: 2433: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2394:For example, 2392: 2389: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2354: 2349: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2300: 2292: 2283: 2281: 2280:cyber attacks 2274: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2253:audio signals 2250: 2249:analog signal 2246: 2242: 2236: 2226: 2224: 2223:routing table 2215: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2191: 2187: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2148: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2127: 2126:retransmitted 2123: 2117: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2089: 2088:network media 2085: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2057: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2025: 2018:Network nodes 2015: 2013: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1972: 1971: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1914: 1905: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1871:optical fiber 1867: 1866: 1861: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1825:coaxial cable 1822: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1808: 1807: 1806:Coaxial cable 1803: 1802: 1801: 1795: 1791: 1782: 1780: 1779:power cabling 1776: 1772: 1769:, others use 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1744:optical fiber 1741: 1737: 1736: 1729: 1722:Network links 1719: 1717: 1713: 1710:For example, 1708: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1628: 1619: 1617: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1556:variants use 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1515: 1510: 1500: 1498: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1453: 1450:carried by a 1449: 1445: 1436: 1427: 1425: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306:Aloha network 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1251: 1250:Farouk Kamoun 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1181:Donald Davies 1178: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1160: 1156: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1137: 1136:Anatoly Kitov 1133: 1130: 1126: 1123:in 1961, the 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1109:John McCarthy 1106: 1102: 1098: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1030:digital video 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 991: 989: 985: 982:and may have 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 960: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 939: 935: 931: 930:network nodes 927: 923: 911: 906: 904: 899: 897: 892: 891: 889: 888: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 844: 843: 842: 838: 837: 821: 820: 817: 814: 813: 803: 798: 796: 791: 789: 784: 783: 781: 780: 775: 772: 770: 767: 766: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 749: 748: 747: 740: 737: 736: 734: 733: 724: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 706: 705: 704: 700: 699: 694: 693:LFR Benchmark 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 678:Blockmodeling 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 643:Fitness model 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 620: 619: 618: 614: 613: 610: 609: 605: 604: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 583:Assortativity 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 555: 554: 553: 547: 544: 542: 539: 538: 536: 535: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 487: 486: 485: 481: 480: 474: 470: 466: 463: 459: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 404: 403: 402: 398: 397: 394: 393: 390: 387: 386: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 317: 316: 315: 312:Network types 311: 310: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 259:Link analysis 257: 255: 252: 250: 249:Graph drawing 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 201: 200: 199: 193: 190: 189: 187: 186: 177: 168: 167: 164: 161: 160: 156: 152: 151: 148: 140: 137: 129: 118: 115: 111: 108: 104: 101: 97: 94: 90: 87: – 86: 82: 81:Find sources: 75: 71: 65: 64: 59:This article 57: 53: 48: 47: 42: 35: 30: 19: 8355:Cyberwarfare 8014:Cryptography 7566: 7365: 7297:file systems 7189:Time-sharing 6856: 6824: 6798:the original 6788: 6774: 6747: 6726:. Retrieved 6718:The Guardian 6717: 6704: 6692:. Retrieved 6688:the original 6683: 6673: 6662:. Retrieved 6641: 6630:. Retrieved 6578: 6572: 6561:. Retrieved 6547: 6536:. Retrieved 6532:the original 6522: 6514:the original 6504: 6479:the original 6470: 6463: 6443: 6436: 6409: 6402: 6375: 6368: 6357:. Retrieved 6345: 6341: 6328: 6311: 6307: 6301: 6293:the original 6288: 6279: 6268:. Retrieved 6264: 6255: 6244:. Retrieved 6235: 6226: 6215:. Retrieved 6211:the original 6202: 6193: 6182:. Retrieved 6173: 6163: 6144: 6138: 6119: 6113: 6102:the original 6088: 6077:. Retrieved 6050: 6041: 6030:. Retrieved 6003: 5994: 5981: 5972: 5961:. Retrieved 5952: 5943: 5935:the original 5930: 5920: 5909:. Retrieved 5905:the original 5895: 5885:, retrieved 5878:the original 5869: 5862: 5835: 5815:. Retrieved 5811:the original 5806: 5797: 5787:, retrieved 5773: 5748:. Retrieved 5744: 5734: 5723:. Retrieved 5714: 5705: 5684: 5644:. 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