Axon - Knowledge

1963: 291: 867:. The neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them. Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second. Afterward, inside the presynaptic terminal, a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane, ready to be released when the next action potential arrives. The action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron. 842: 203:. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. In some species, axons can emanate from dendrites known as axon-carrying dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other. 350: 942:

can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites. Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon. Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and

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separated from the axon origin. In many species some of the neurons have axons that emanate from the dendrite and not from the cell body, and these are known as axon-carrying dendrites. In many cases, an axon originates at an axon hillock on the soma; such axons are said to have "somatic origin". Some axons with somatic origin have a "proximal" initial segment adjacent the axon hillock, while others have a "distal" initial segment, separated from the soma by an extended axon hillock.

667: 656: 523: 744:, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively "jump" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain. 1057: 892:(~250μs). 2. The voltage change is triphasic. 3. Activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires. In recordings from freely moving rats, axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter. 941:

that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon. It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa, although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites

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Most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells. The defining characteristic of an action potential is

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The axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins. It is between approximately 20 and 60 μm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation. Both the position on the axon and the length of the AIS can change showing a degree of plasticity

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play an important role in regulating the length of axons. Based on this observation, researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level. These studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from

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In other cases as seen in rat studies an axon originates from a dendrite; such axons are said to have "dendritic origin". Some axons with dendritic origin similarly have a "proximal" initial segment that starts directly at the axon origin, while others have a "distal" initial segment, discernibly

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Later findings by other researchers identified two groups of Aa fibers that were sensory fibers. These were then introduced into a system (Lloyd classification) that only included sensory fibers (though some of these were mixed nerves and were also motor fibers). This system refers to the sensory

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is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo-A is blocked and neutralized, it is

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in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same direction – towards the axon terminals. This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping

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When an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium

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can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties. Axons were known to have different thicknesses (from 0.1 to 20 μm) and these differences were thought to relate to the speed at which an action potential could travel along the axon – its

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Axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals. This emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly. It was discovered that

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for this work in 1963. The formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. The understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further, and includes many details about individual

554:(AIS) is a structurally and functionally separate microdomain of the axon. One function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron; another function is to help initiate action potentials. Both of these functions support neuron 388:, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimeter in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. The numbers of axonal telodendria (the branching structures at the end of the axon) can also differ from one nerve fiber to the next. Axons in the 238:

of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called

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characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size. There are, however, some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals, of variable amplitude.

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arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body. Studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filaments – the microtubules, and

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In addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms,

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It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of

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proved this hypothesis, and identified several types of nerve fiber, establishing a relationship between the diameter of an axon and its nerve conduction velocity. They published their findings in 1941 giving the first classification of axons.

863:(tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axon's membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through 566:

that can fine-tune the neuronal output. A longer AIS is associated with a greater excitability. Plasticity is also seen in the ability of the AIS to change its distribution and to maintain the activity of neural circuitry at a constant level.

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that function in the release of neurotransmitters. However, axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential. Axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of

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Extracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals. While extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as

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takes place at the part of the axon furthest from the cell body. This degeneration takes place quickly following the injury, with the part of the axon being sealed off at the membranes and broken down by macrophages. This is known as

740:, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter. These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In 899:

in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons.

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content are inversely correlated; when PGMS becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite, its f-actin content is substantially decreased. In addition, exposure to actin-depolimerizing drugs and toxin B (which inactivates

1076:. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of 883:

can also be recorded. Extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways: 1. The signal has a shorter peak-trough duration (~150μs) than of

1139:, are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature. When the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target, the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times, depending on the 485:

The structure of a neuron is seen to consist of two separate functional regions, or compartments – the cell body together with the dendrites as one region, and the axonal region as the other.

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Fletcher TL, Banker GA (December 1989). "The establishment of polarity by hippocampal neurons: the relationship between the stage of a cell's development in situ and its subsequent development in culture".

647:. Dynein is minus-end directed. There are many forms of kinesin and dynein motor proteins, and each is thought to carry a different cargo. The studies on transport in the axon led to the naming of kinesin. 1162:

possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans. A recent study has also found that

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Hedgecock EM, Culotti JG, Hall DH (January 1990). "The unc-5, unc-6, and unc-40 genes guide circumferential migrations of pioneer axons and mesodermal cells on the epidermis in C. elegans".

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Serafini T, Kennedy TE, Galko MJ, Mirzayan C, Jessell TM, Tessier-Lavigne M (August 1994). "The netrins define a family of axon outgrowth-promoting proteins homologous to C. elegans UNC-6".

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The axonal region or compartment, includes the axon hillock, the initial segment, the rest of the axon, and the axon telodendria, and axon terminals. It also includes the myelin sheath. The

192:, and group C are unmyelinated. These groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers. Another classification groups only the sensory fibers as Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. 498:

that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region. Proteins needed for the growth of the axon, and the removal of waste materials, need a framework for transport. This

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also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the

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Schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon. Oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the CNS. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as

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netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly. The neurotrophic factors –

1768:, particularly when axonal transport is impaired, this is known as Wallerian-like degeneration. Studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein 4312: 230:

but can also make contact with muscle or gland cells. In some circumstances, the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron, resulting in an

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Axons are classified in two systems. The first one introduced by Erlanger and Gasser, grouped the fibers into three main groups using the letters A, B, and C. These groups,

778:. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an 1080:(CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAMs specific to neural systems include 1001:

at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon.

4434:"Perturbed interactions of mutant proteolipid protein/DM20 with cholesterol and lipid rafts in oligodendroglia: implications for dysmyelination in spastic paraplegia" 689:, or unmyelinated. This is the provision of an insulating layer, called a myelin sheath. The myelin membrane is unique in its relatively high lipid to protein ratio. 1124:. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. 246:

A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals. A bundle of axons make a

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to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired

81: 4571: 125: 1042:) causes the formation of multiple axons. Consequently, the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon. 243:("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. 1815:

that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury, can leave a susceptibility to further damage, after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries.

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Hsu K, Terakawa S (July 1996). "Fenestration in the myelin sheath of nerve fibers of the shrimp: a novel node of excitation for saltatory conduction".

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is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of

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Da Silva JS, Hasegawa T, Miyagi T, Dotti CG, Abad-Rodriguez J (May 2005). "Asymmetric membrane ganglioside sialidase activity specifies axonal fate".

372:. Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter. The longest axons in the human body are those of the 3446:"A ligand-gated association between cytoplasmic domains of UNC5 and DCC family receptors converts netrin-induced growth cone attraction to repulsion" 2957:"CLARITY reveals a more protracted temporal course of axon swelling and disconnection than previously described following traumatic brain injury" 1870:

was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the

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Grant G (December 2006). "The 1932 and 1944 Nobel Prizes in physiology or medicine: rewards for ground-breaking studies in neurophysiology".

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to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable. Most individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about one

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that it is "all-or-nothing" – every action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape. This

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is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon. It precedes the initial segment. The received

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Neurotransmitter released from presynaptic axon terminal, and transported across synaptic cleft to receptors on postsynaptic neuron

4320: 4714: 2141: 4498: 4263: 3141: 2821: 2739: 2711: 1903: 562:) of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region, and at the apical region the neuron's axon provides output signals. 1935:

has the largest axon known. Its size ranges from 0.5 (typically) to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its

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occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called

803:. Axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport. As a consequence protein accumulations such as 4583: 1017:(PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of 895:

In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the

1243:). The first group A, was subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma, and delta fibers – Aα, Aβ, Aγ, and Aδ. The 635:

carries cell waste materials from the axon terminal to the cell body. Outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of

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in the neuron are transmitted to the axon hillock for the generation of an action potential from the initial segment.

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the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a length-dependent frequency.

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in the initial segment where the action potential is initiated. The ion channels are accompanied by a high number of

5677: 5607: 1756: 659: 1878:, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. 5672: 5602: 5217: 3670:"The axonal glycoprotein TAG-1 is an immunoglobulin superfamily member with neurite outgrowth-promoting activity" 3337:

Arimura N, Kaibuchi K (March 2007). "Neuronal polarity: from extracellular signals to intracellular mechanisms".

3006:"Short duration waveforms recorded extracellularly from freely moving rats are representative of axonal activity" 2080:"Receptive fields, geometry and conduction block of sensory neurones in the central nervous system of the leech" 1939:

system. The fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 m/s, is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic

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Matalon R, Michals-Matalon K, Surendran S, Tyring SK (2006). "Canavan Disease: Studies on the Knockout Mouse".

4207:"Axonal conduction velocity changes following muscle tenotomy or deafferentation during development in the rat" 1093: 913: 804: 1886:

earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity,

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In the normally developed brain, along the shaft of some axons are located pre-synaptic boutons also known as

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surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development. These signaling molecules include proteins,

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extend. Elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target

76: 144:. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands. In certain 5287: 5275: 5046: 2272:"Axonal Membranes and Their Domains: Assembly and Function of the Axon Initial Segment and Node of Ranvier" 1748:. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired 1611: 905: 574: 470:

in the CNS. Where these tracts cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called

5327: 5265: 1855: 1808: 1573: 620: 539: 17: 632: 5322: 4969:"Heterogeneity of the Axon Initial Segment in Interneurons and Pyramidal Cells of Rodent Visual Cortex" 1866:

were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Kölliker named the axon in 1896.

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In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as

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An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greek for 'end of tree'). At the end of each

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of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies. A similar arrangement is seen in the

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is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss

5612: 5338: 2813: 1899: 1631: 1372: 1330: 800: 64: 4485:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 576. pp. 77–93, discussion 361–3. 5872: 5311: 5039: 4532:"Further evidence for altered myelin biosynthesis and glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia" 2323:"Ankyrin G Membrane Partners Drive the Establishment and Maintenance of the Axon Initial Segment" 1989: 700:. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell, the 393: 707:

The composition of myelin is different in the two types. In the CNS the major myelin protein is

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Rasband MN (August 2010). "The axon initial segment and the maintenance of neuronal polarity".

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also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include

1068:, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet-like extension called a 1039: 507: 392:(CNS) typically show multiple telodendria, with many synaptic end points. In comparison, the 161: 149: 31: 4850: 4605:

Wright DK, Brady RD, Kamnaksh A, Trezise J, Sun M, McDonald SJ, et al. (October 2019).

3238:"Experimental observations on the development of polarity by hippocampal neurons in culture" 2805: 1803:

can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as

5762: 5659: 5589: 5415: 5270: 4928: 4618: 4122: 4004: 3755: 3744:"Laser-based single-axon transection for high-content axon injury and regeneration studies" 3634: 3086: 2846: 2473:"Axon Initial Segment Cytoskeleton: Architecture, Development, and Role in Neuron Polarity" 1666: 1267:

groups as Types and uses Roman numerals: Type Ia, Type Ib, Type II, Type III, and Type IV.

1240: 1236: 1228: 1101: 959: 955: 741: 712: 440: 153: 3895:"Kinesin-5 regulates the growth of the axon by acting as a brake on its microtubule array" 3625:

Bradke F, Dotti CG (March 1999). "The role of local actin instability in axon formation".

2903:"Rapid and Reversible Development of Axonal Varicosities: A New Form of Neural Plasticity" 704:. Schwann cells myelinate a single axon. An oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons. 214:. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely. The end branches of an axon are called 8: 5802: 5647: 5642: 5177: 5110: 5021: 4662: 4280: 2806: 1984: 1593: 1232: 1224: 971: 929:

The development of the axon to its target, is one of the six major stages in the overall

909: 708: 479: 185: 181: 177: 4932: 4622: 4349: 4126: 4008: 3759: 3638: 3090: 2850: 2656: 2629: 384:(μm) across). The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 μm. The 5837: 5807: 5738: 5707: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5632: 5408: 5318: 5172: 4995: 4968: 4831: 4639: 4606: 4512: 4458: 4433: 4409: 4382: 4358: 4333: 4231: 4206: 4146: 4112: 4076: 4049: 4025: 3992: 3968: 3943: 3919: 3894: 3870: 3845: 3826: 3778: 3743: 3699: 3607: 3561: 3536:

Huang EJ, Reichardt LF (2003). "Trk receptors: roles in neuronal signal transduction".

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Rishal I, Kam N, Perry RB, Shinder V, Fisher EM, Schiavo G, Fainzilber M (June 2012).

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Höfflin F, Jack A, Riedel C, Mack-Bucher J, Roos J, Corcelli C, et al. (2017).

4835: 4687: 4516: 4383:"Endogenous Nmnat2 is an essential survival factor for maintenance of healthy axons" 3703: 3611: 3565: 3522: 3479: 3430: 3366: 3222: 2882: 2673: 2450: 2256: 5789: 5752: 5747: 5095: 4990: 4980: 4936: 4889: 4815: 4634: 4626: 4579: 4543: 4486: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4404: 4394: 4353: 4345: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4177: 4130: 4071: 4061: 4020: 4012: 3963: 3955: 3914: 3906: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3844:

Gensel JC, Nakamura S, Guan Z, van Rooijen N, Ankeny DP, Popovich PG (March 2009).

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Rongjing Ge, Hao Qian, Na Chen and Jin-Hui Wang* (2014) Molecular Brain 7(26):1-16

1846:. However, medical sources generally use "nerve fiber" to refer to the axon only. 831: 5557: 5526: 5521: 5403: 5398: 5222: 4432:

Krämer-Albers EM, Gehrig-Burger K, Thiele C, Trotter J, Nave KA (November 2006).

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Leterrier C, Clerc N, Rueda-Boroni F, Montersino A, Dargent B, Castets F (2017).

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can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon.

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express UNC-6 to provide global and local netrin cues for guiding migrations in

966:(also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the 48: 5847: 5817: 5774: 5594: 5552: 5530: 5450: 5333: 5157: 5062: 5024:

at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center – "Slide 3

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Furley AJ, Morton SB, Manalo D, Karagogeos D, Dodd J, Jessell TM (April 1990).

3383: 2240: 2029:"Axons emanating from dendrites: phylogenetic repercussions with Cajalian hues" 1936: 1928: 1883: 1789: 1531: 1476: 1184: 1097: 979: 885: 559: 397: 365: 255: 226:

connection. Axons usually make contact with other neurons at junctions called

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Hong K, Hinck L, Nishiyama M, Poo MM, Tessier-Lavigne M, Stein E (June 1999).

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is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath. This is implicated in several

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Essential cell biology: an introduction to the molecular biology of the cell

766:(also called a synaptic bouton, or terminal bouton). Axon terminals contain 419:

is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of

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Rongjing Ge, Hao Qian and Jin-Hui Wang* (2011) Molecular Brain 4(19), 1~11

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Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology and Cognate Medical Sciences

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2812:(11th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott William & Wilkins. p. 1932: 1908: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1158: 1113: 1085: 1065: 1018: 990: 934: 889: 880: 872: 826: 795: 503: 467: 459: 377: 354: 275: 263: 247: 215: 4894:

10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199607)30:3<397::AID-NEU8>3.0.CO;2-#

5827: 5516: 5393: 5356: 4431: 3206: 1737: 1607: 1569: 1402: 1163: 864: 679: 463: 381: 300: 133: 4772:

Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function

2972: 2220:

Debanne D, Campanac E, Bialowas A, Carlier E, Alcaraz G (April 2011).

1170:

receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing

841: 396:

axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two

94: 5842: 5376: 5227: 5200: 5192: 4852:

The Brain, the Nervous System, and Their Diseases [3 volumes]

4480: 4258:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 187–189. 3846:"Macrophages promote axon regeneration with concurrent neurotoxicity" 3379: 2866: 2757:"Oligodendroglial membrane dynamics in relation to myelin biogenesis" 1940: 1073: 1034: 994: 693: 608: 586: 420: 290: 196: 4050:"A frequency-dependent decoding mechanism for axonal length sensing" 3350: 2434: 2320: 2136:(4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 61–65. 1021:

that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization.

666: 655: 5506: 5491: 5486: 5210: 5205: 5132: 5127: 4117: 3595: 3287:"Mechanical tension can specify axonal fate in hippocampal neurons" 3004:

Robbins AA, Fox SE, Holmes GL, Scott RC, Barry JM (November 2013).

2164:"The development of the corpus callosum in the healthy human brain" 1843: 1778:

causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease

1166:

activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the

1121: 1117: 604: 522: 295: 211: 207: 200: 4530:

Tkachev D, Mimmack ML, Huffaker SJ, Ryan M, Bahn S (August 2007).

2576:"Structural and Functional Plasticity at the Axon Initial Segment" 1056: 222:

which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a

27:

Long projection on a neuron that conducts signals to other neurons

5769: 5730: 5031: 3285:

Lamoureux P, Ruthel G, Buxbaum RE, Heidemann SR (November 2002).

3193:

Jiang H, Rao Y (May 2005). "Axon formation: fate versus growth".

1968:

Recordings in the hippocampus from different cell types and axons

1839: 1109: 938: 835: 779: 640: 231: 227: 223: 1826:, and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of 526:

Detail showing microtubules at axon hillock and initial segment.

199:

protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a

5429: 5384: 5149: 3284: 1887: 1769: 1167: 963: 737: 686: 644: 416: 408: 401: 337: 189: 129: 4741: 2219: 1947:

100–120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.)

1033:

filament content will become the axon. PGMS concentration and

3843: 1030: 967: 369: 4966: 3667: 3400: 2955:

Weber MT, Arena JD, Xiao R, Wolf JA, Johnson VE (May 2019).

2755:

Ozgen, H; Baron, W; Hoekstra, D; Kahya, N (September 2016).

152:), such as those for touch and warmth, the axons are called 3581: 3136:(5th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 520–524. 2630:"Activity-dependent regulation of excitable axonal domains" 1010: 998: 454:

in the brain. The myelin gives the white appearance to the

4604: 4529: 2837:

Hess A, Young JZ (November 1952). "The nodes of Ranvier".

3801:

Schwab ME (February 2004). "Nogo and axon regeneration".

3742:

Kunik D, Dion C, Ozaki T, Levin LA, Costantino S (2011).

1944: 1943:

and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meters/s (

1812: 982:(NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to 692:

In the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by

569:

The AIS is highly specialized for the fast conduction of

1822:

is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable

937:

neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple

585:

that anchor them to the cytoskeleton. Interactions with

156:

and the electrical impulse travels along these from the

4098: 2754: 589:

are important as it is the major organizer in the AIS.

136:, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as 1838:

Some general dictionaries define "nerve fiber" as any

1263:

having the Aα, Aβ, and Aγ nerve fibers, respectively.

3941: 3443: 3003: 2734:(4th ed.). New York: Garland. pp. 979–981. 1397:

are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers,

1064:

Growing axons move through their environment via the

954:

The extracellular signals that propagate through the

4536:

The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology

3492: 1764:. Dying back of an axon can also take place in many 407:

There are two types of axons in the nervous system:

128:) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or 4103:, Kruse K (May 2019). "Sound of an axon's growth". 3741: 1060:

Axon of nine-day-old mouse with growth cone visible

962:, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. 670:Cross section of an axon: (1) Axon (2) Nucleus (3) 502:is provided for in the axoplasm by arrangements of 218:. The swollen end of a telodendron is known as the 4047: 3990: 3944:"A motor-driven mechanism for cell-length sensing" 2954: 2161: 3993:"Delayed feedback model of axonal length sensing" 3073:Chen N, Yu J, Qian H, Ge R, Wang JH (July 2010). 2524:"Electrogenic tuning of the axon initial segment" 2521: 1772:, being prevented from reaching all of the axon. 1752:that affect both peripheral and central neurons. 5864: 4794:Kölliker would give the "axon" its name in 1896. 2374:"The Axon Initial Segment: An Updated Viewpoint" 631:needed for growth to the axon terminal. Ingoing 364:Axons are the primary transmission lines of the 3577: 3575: 3336: 3332: 3330: 2522:Clark BD, Goldberg EM, Rudy B (December 2009). 1135:of neuronal axon growth. These cells that help 997:(PMGS), which is involved in the activation of 993:-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside 4331: 4253: 3535: 3156: 2162:Luders E, Thompson PM, Toga AW (August 2010). 1902:. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the 1755:When an axon is crushed, an active process of 573:. This is achieved by a high concentration of 5047: 4380: 2470: 2269: 1275:Lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers: 1100:superfamily. Another set of molecules called 558:, in which dendrites (and, in some cases the 4325: 3572: 3327: 3235: 3072: 2702:(2nd ed.). New York: Garland. pp. 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 794:and these have been found in regions of the 643:, and ingoing return traffic is provided by 206:Axons are covered by a membrane known as an 4879: 4808:Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 4334:"Wallerian degeneration, wld(s), and nmnat" 4254:Pocock G, Richards CD, et al. (2004). 3624: 1393:innervate different types of nerve fibers. 1009:During axonal development, the activity of 623:from the cell body along the axon, carries 5054: 5040: 4914: 4564: 4163: 2627: 2573: 2022: 2020: 1015:phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate 1004: 949: 466:. Bundles of myelinated axons make up the 450:form the bulk of the neural tissue called 274:, formed of some 200 million axons in the 47: 4994: 4984: 4940: 4849:Hellier, Jennifer L. (16 December 2014). 4638: 4547: 4457: 4408: 4398: 4357: 4230: 4181: 4116: 4075: 4065: 4024: 3967: 3918: 3892: 3869: 3777: 3767: 3685: 3461: 3310: 3261: 3108: 3098: 3031: 3021: 2980: 2928: 2918: 2836: 2780: 2680: 2655: 2645: 2623: 2621: 2601: 2591: 2569: 2567: 2547: 2498: 2488: 2397: 2371: 2348: 2338: 2297: 2287: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2187: 2103: 2054: 2044: 919: 545: 3550:10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161629 3192: 2950: 2948: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2026: 1705: 1584: 1541: 1481: 1247:of the different motor fibers, were the 1055: 1024: 840: 830: 665: 654: 521: 482:, and this has around 20 million axons. 348: 4848: 4842: 4774:. Oxford University Press. p. 47. 4321:University of California, San Francisco 4204: 3991:Karamched BR, Bressloff PC (May 2015). 3716: 3710: 3131: 3125: 2729: 2695: 2420: 2017: 736:) are short unmyelinated segments of a 14: 5865: 4908: 4769: 4374: 4332:Coleman MP, Freeman MR (1 June 2010). 4278: 3800: 3661: 2803: 2797: 2725: 2723: 2618: 2564: 2204: 2131: 1811:. It has been shown in studies on the 1401:by type II and III sensory fibers and 785: 662:of a myelinated axon in cross-section. 5035: 4962: 4960: 4805: 4381:Gilley J, Coleman MP (January 2010). 2945: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2748: 2634:The Journal of Physiological Sciences 2457: 2263: 2150: 404:within a single region of the brain. 210:; the cytoplasm of an axon is called 4303: 3893:Myers KA, Baas PW (September 2007). 2761:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2127: 2125: 2123: 1954: 1634:has two kinds of peripheral fibers: 1177: 810: 685:In the nervous system, axons may be 639:. Outgoing transport is provided by 4869:from the original on 14 March 2018. 4350:10.1146/annurev-neuro-060909-153248 4048:Bressloff PC, Karamched BR (2015). 2720: 2077: 1923:have been extensively studied. The 1409:by type III and IV sensory fibers. 718: 592: 173: 24: 5061: 4973:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 4957: 4915:Salzer JL, Zalc B (October 2016). 4750:American Psychological Association 4054:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 2900: 2889: 2580:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 2327:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 2276:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 1202:The axons of neurons in the human 916:in response to short-term pulses. 176:into three types – 25: 5884: 5015: 4310:Trauma and Wallerian Degeneration 4291:from the original on 12 June 2018 4164:Andrew BL, Part NJ (April 1972). 3373: 3236:Goslin K, Banker G (April 1989). 2120: 1235:include both the sensory fibers ( 1191: 1072:which contain protrusions called 976:brain-derived neurotrophic factor 931:development of the nervous system 836:Synaptic connections from an axon 747: 376:, which run from the base of the 353:A dissected human brain, showing 4183:10.1113/expphysiol.1972.sp002151 1961: 1931:has the longest known axon. The 1914: 489: 289: 5218:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell 4873: 4799: 4763: 4734: 4707: 4680: 4655: 4598: 4523: 4474: 4425: 4272: 4247: 4198: 4157: 4092: 4041: 3984: 3935: 3886: 3837: 3803:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3794: 3735: 3721:(Sixth ed.). p. 947. 3618: 3529: 3486: 3437: 3394: 3278: 3229: 3186: 3150: 3066: 3057: 3048: 2997: 2830: 2628:Susuki K, Kuba H (March 2016). 2515: 1744:. Axonal injury can also cause 1096:, all of which are part of the 517: 195:An axon is one of two types of 4450:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3581-06.2006 4223:10.1113/jphysiol.1980.sp013085 3862:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3992-08.2009 2471:Jones SL, Svitkina TM (2016). 2414: 2390:10.1523/jneurosci.1922-17.2018 2365: 2314: 2270:Nelson AD, Jenkins PM (2017). 2180:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5122-09.2010 2096:10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011643 2071: 1833: 1151:. This is also referred to as 924: 805:amyloid-beta precursor protein 650: 474:. The largest of these is the 446:The myelinated axons from the 53:An axon of a multipolar neuron 13: 1: 4338:Annual Review of Neuroscience 3719:Molecular biology of the cell 3647:10.1126/science.283.5409.1931 3538:Annual Review of Biochemistry 3463:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80804-1 2732:Molecular biology of the cell 2372:Leterrier C (February 2018). 2010: 1740:is considered a mild form of 906:voltage-gated sodium channels 575:voltage-gated sodium channels 344:Structure of a typical neuron 4746:APA Dictionary of Psychology 4400:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000300 4279:Dawodu ST (16 August 2017). 3960:10.1016/j.celrep.2012.05.013 3769:10.1371/journal.pone.0026832 3687:10.1016/0092-8674(90)90223-2 3507:10.1016/0896-6273(90)90444-K 3415:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90420-0 3339:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 3172:10.1016/0012-1606(89)90269-8 3100:10.1371/journal.pone.0011868 3010:Frontiers in Neural Circuits 2808:Langman's medical embryology 2423:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 1625: 1612:anterior spinothalamic tract 1088: – an axonal 1029:The neurite with the lowest 7: 5328:Postganglionic nerve fibers 4438:The Journal of Neuroscience 4205:Russell NJ (January 1980). 3899:The Journal of Cell Biology 3850:The Journal of Neuroscience 3291:The Journal of Cell Biology 3242:The Journal of Cell Biology 2378:The Journal of Neuroscience 2168:The Journal of Neuroscience 1973: 1856:Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters 1842:, including both axons and 1809:persistent vegetative state 1574:lateral spinothalamic tract 933:. Studies done on cultured 908:in the axons possess lower 368:, and as bundles they form 10: 5889: 5622: 5323:Preganglionic nerve fibers 4720:Taber's Medical Dictionary 4631:10.1038/s41598-019-51267-w 4135:10.1103/PhysRevE.99.050401 3815:10.1016/j.conb.2004.01.004 2241:10.1152/physrev.00048.2009 1860:Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker 1849: 1766:neurodegenerative diseases 1709: 1538:cutaneous mechanoreceptors 1380: 1195: 1049: 875:, axonal activity in both 820: 814: 751: 722: 596: 281: 270:tract in the brain is the 29: 5833:Olfactory receptor neuron 5788: 5729: 5722: 5658: 5588: 5545: 5505: 5497:Neurofibril/neurofilament 5467: 5449: 5442: 5428: 5375: 5347: 5253: 5244: 5191: 5148: 5141: 5078: 5069: 4942:10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.074 4820:10.1080/09647040600638981 4693:Oxford English Dictionary 4572:"Brain Injury, Traumatic" 4549:10.1017/S1461145706007334 4211:The Journal of Physiology 4017:10.1016/j.bpj.2015.03.055 3134:Principles of development 2920:10.3389/fnmol.2021.610857 2773:10.1007/s00018-016-2228-8 2647:10.1007/s12576-015-0413-4 2574:Yamada R, Kuba H (2016). 2084:The Journal of Physiology 2033:Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 1582: 1486: 1484: 1204:peripheral nervous system 1198:Nerve conduction velocity 1045: 433:peripheral nervous system 260:peripheral nervous system 87: 75: 63: 58: 46: 41: 4986:10.3389/fncel.2017.00332 4067:10.3389/fncel.2015.00281 3023:10.3389/fncir.2013.00181 2593:10.3389/fncel.2016.00250 2540:10.1177/1073858409341973 2340:10.3389/fncel.2017.00006 2289:10.3389/fncel.2017.00136 2134:Fundamental neuroscience 2078:Yau KW (December 1976). 2046:10.3389/fnana.2014.00133 1632:autonomic nervous system 1373:Intrafusal muscle fibers 1331:Extrafusal muscle fibers 1270: 1239:) and the motor fibers ( 801:traumatic brain injuries 4882:Journal of Neurobiology 4491:10.1007/0-387-30172-0_6 3717:Alberts, Bruce (2015). 3132:Wolpert, Lewis (2015). 1990:Giant axonal neuropathy 1530:Secondary receptors of 1078:cell adhesion molecules 1005:Intracellular signaling 950:Extracellular signaling 711:, and in the PNS it is 579:cell adhesion molecules 394:cerebellar granule cell 5780:Neuromuscular junction 5643:III or Aδ or fast pain 3254:10.1083/jcb.108.4.1507 2859:10.1098/rspb.1952.0063 2132:Squire, Larry (2013). 1876:Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1820:nerve guidance conduit 1801:traumatic brain injury 1776:Demyelination of axons 1762:Wallerian degeneration 1750:neurological disorders 1534:(flower-spray ending). 1356:Gamma (γ) motor neuron 1314:Alpha (α) motor neuron 1092: – and 1061: 920:Development and growth 846: 838: 682: 663: 552:axonal initial segment 546:Axonal initial segment 527: 508:intermediate filaments 478:that connects the two 390:central nervous system 361: 252:central nervous system 162:neurological disorders 150:pseudounipolar neurons 89:Anatomical terminology 5022:Histology image: 3_09 3911:10.1083/jcb.200702074 3303:10.1083/jcb.200207174 3160:Developmental Biology 2229:Physiological Reviews 2005:Single-unit recording 1925:longfin inshore squid 1868:Louis-Antoine Ranvier 1807:. This can lead to a 1805:diffuse axonal injury 1746:central chromatolysis 1742:diffuse axonal injury 1720:Demyelinating disease 1716:Peripheral neuropathy 1706:Clinical significance 1686:postganglionic fibers 1567:of touch and pressure 1479:(annulospiral ending) 1475:Primary receptors of 1338:Beta (β) motor neuron 1196:Further information: 1059: 1025:Cytoskeletal dynamics 859:concentration causes 844: 834: 821:Further information: 669: 658: 621:anterograde transport 607:is the equivalent of 525: 352: 188:. Groups A and B are 164:that affect both the 154:afferent nerve fibers 32:Axon (disambiguation) 5798:Meissner's corpuscle 5763:Postsynaptic density 5660:Efferent nerve fiber 5648:IV or C or slow pain 5590:Afferent nerve fiber 5416:Satellite glial cell 4099:Folz F, Wettmann L, 2490:10.1155/2016/6808293 2027:Triarhou LC (2014). 1900:Hodgkin–Huxley model 1667:preganglionic fibers 1413:Sensory fiber types 1209:conductance velocity 1102:extracellular matrix 960:neurotrophic factors 956:extracellular matrix 742:saltatory conduction 713:myelin basic protein 633:retrograde transport 480:cerebral hemispheres 441:saltatory conduction 234:. At a synapse, the 186:group C nerve fibers 182:group B nerve fibers 178:group A nerve fibers 126:spelling differences 30:For other uses, see 5803:Merkel nerve ending 4933:2016CBio...26.R971S 4623:2019NatSR...914626W 4127:2019PhRvE..99e0401F 4009:2015BpJ...108.2408K 3997:Biophysical Journal 3760:2011PLoSO...626832K 3639:1999Sci...283.1931B 3584:Nature Neuroscience 3195:Nature Neuroscience 3091:2010PLoSO...511868C 2851:1952RSPSB.140..301H 2804:Sadler, T. (2010). 1985:Ganglionic eminence 1757:axonal degeneration 1639: 1414: 1300:Conduction velocity 1280: 1249:lower motor neurons 1141:speed of conduction 972:nerve growth factor 792:axonal varicosities 786:Axonal varicosities 774:for release at the 709:proteolipid protein 458:in contrast to the 172:. Nerve fibers are 5838:Photoreceptor cell 5808:Pacinian corpuscle 5739:Electrical synapse 5693:Lower motor neuron 5688:Upper motor neuron 5409:Internodal segment 5349:Connective tissues 5319:Autonomic ganglion 4611:Scientific Reports 4315:2 May 2006 at the 3207:10.1038/nn0505-544 2907:Front Mol Neurosci 2730:Alberts B (2002). 2696:Alberts B (2004). 2528:The Neuroscientist 2143:978-0-12-385-870-2 1927:, often used as a 1890:, fiber size etc. 1780:multiple sclerosis 1637: 1565:Free nerve endings 1507:Golgi tendon organ 1412: 1279:Motor fiber types 1278: 1261:gamma motor neuron 1253:alpha motor neuron 1251: – 1106:adhesion molecules 1062: 847: 839: 734:myelin sheath gaps 683: 664: 528: 362: 241:en passant boutons 5860: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5823:Free nerve ending 5790:Sensory receptors 5718: 5717: 5633:Ib or Golgi or Aα 5541: 5540: 5424: 5423: 5301:Ramus communicans 5240: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5106:Commissural fiber 5101:Association fiber 5096:Projection fibers 4927:(20): R971–R975. 4770:Finger S (1994). 4500:978-0-387-30171-6 4483:N-Acetylaspartate 4265:978-0-19-858527-5 4105:Physical Review E 3143:978-0-19-967814-3 2973:10.1111/bpa.12677 2823:978-0-7817-9069-7 2741:978-0-8153-4072-0 2713:978-0-8153-3481-1 2477:Neural Plasticity 2222:"Axon physiology" 1980:Electrophysiology 1955:Additional images 1854:German anatomist 1824:neuroregeneration 1703: 1702: 1623: 1622: 1441:sensory receptors 1391:sensory receptors 1378: 1377: 1257:beta motor neuron 1178:Length regulation 1153:neuroregeneration 914:refractory period 861:synaptic vesicles 811:Action potentials 768:synaptic vesicles 629:membrane proteins 583:scaffold proteins 536:action potentials 264:placental mammals 138:action potentials 109:(from Greek ἄξων 103: 102: 98: 16:(Redirected from 5880: 5753:Synaptic vesicle 5748:Chemical synapse 5727: 5726: 5447: 5446: 5440: 5439: 5251: 5250: 5146: 5145: 5076: 5075: 5056: 5049: 5042: 5033: 5032: 5009: 5008: 4998: 4988: 4964: 4955: 4954: 4944: 4912: 4906: 4905: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4767: 4761: 4760: 4758: 4756: 4738: 4732: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4684: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4673: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4642: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4582:. Archived from 4568: 4562: 4561: 4551: 4527: 4521: 4520: 4478: 4472: 4471: 4461: 4444:(45): 11743–52. 4429: 4423: 4422: 4412: 4402: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4361: 4329: 4323: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4296: 4276: 4270: 4269: 4256:Human Physiology 4251: 4245: 4244: 4234: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4185: 4161: 4155: 4154: 4120: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4079: 4069: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4028: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3971: 3939: 3933: 3932: 3922: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3873: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3781: 3771: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3689: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3633:(5409): 1931–4. 3622: 3616: 3615: 3579: 3570: 3569: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3465: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3398: 3392: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3334: 3325: 3324: 3314: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3265: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3190: 3184: 3183: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3112: 3102: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3035: 3025: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2984: 2952: 2943: 2942: 2932: 2922: 2898: 2887: 2886: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2811: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2784: 2767:(17): 3291–310. 2752: 2746: 2745: 2727: 2718: 2717: 2693: 2678: 2677: 2659: 2649: 2625: 2616: 2615: 2605: 2595: 2571: 2562: 2561: 2551: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2502: 2492: 2468: 2455: 2454: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2401: 2384:(9): 2135–2145. 2369: 2363: 2362: 2352: 2342: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2301: 2291: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2226: 2217: 2202: 2201: 2191: 2174:(33): 10985–90. 2159: 2148: 2147: 2129: 2118: 2117: 2107: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2058: 2048: 2024: 1995:Neuronal tracing 1965: 1872:nodes of Ranvier 1840:neuronal process 1790:leukodystrophies 1640: 1636: 1616:Warmth receptors 1453:thermoreceptors 1415: 1411: 1399:mechanoreceptors 1385: 1384: 1281: 1277: 817:Action potential 772:neurotransmitter 730:Nodes of Ranvier 719:Nodes of Ranvier 599:Axonal transport 593:Axonal transport 500:axonal transport 448:cortical neurons 437:nodes of Ranvier 429:oligodendrocytes 386:squid giant axon 293: 95:edit on Wikidata 92: 51: 39: 38: 21: 5888: 5887: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5878: 5877: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5852: 5784: 5714: 5663: 5654: 5638:II or Aβ and Aγ 5593: 5584: 5537: 5527:Apical dendrite 5522:Dendritic spine 5501: 5463: 5433: 5420: 5404:Node of Ranvier 5399:Myelin incisure 5371: 5343: 5232: 5223:Oligodendrocyte 5206:Ependymal cells 5187: 5137: 5065: 5060: 5018: 5013: 5012: 4965: 4958: 4921:Current Biology 4913: 4909: 4878: 4874: 4863: 4847: 4843: 4804: 4800: 4782: 4768: 4764: 4754: 4752: 4740: 4739: 4735: 4725: 4723: 4713: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4696: 4686: 4685: 4681: 4671: 4669: 4667:Merriam-Webster 4661: 4660: 4656: 4603: 4599: 4589: 4587: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4528: 4524: 4501: 4479: 4475: 4430: 4426: 4393:(1): e1000300. 4379: 4375: 4330: 4326: 4317:Wayback Machine 4308: 4304: 4294: 4292: 4277: 4273: 4266: 4252: 4248: 4203: 4199: 4162: 4158: 4111:(5–1): 050401. 4097: 4093: 4046: 4042: 3989: 3985: 3940: 3936: 3891: 3887: 3856:(12): 3956–68. 3842: 3838: 3799: 3795: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3715: 3711: 3666: 3662: 3623: 3619: 3580: 3573: 3534: 3530: 3491: 3487: 3442: 3438: 3399: 3395: 3384:pioneer neurons 3378: 3374: 3351:10.1038/nrn2056 3335: 3328: 3283: 3279: 3234: 3230: 3191: 3187: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3130: 3126: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3002: 2998: 2953: 2946: 2899: 2890: 2845:(900): 301–20. 2835: 2831: 2824: 2802: 2798: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2728: 2721: 2714: 2694: 2681: 2626: 2619: 2572: 2565: 2520: 2516: 2469: 2458: 2435:10.1038/nrn2852 2419: 2415: 2370: 2366: 2319: 2315: 2268: 2264: 2224: 2218: 2205: 2160: 2151: 2144: 2130: 2121: 2076: 2072: 2025: 2018: 2013: 1976: 1969: 1966: 1957: 1941:Penaeid shrimps 1917: 1880:Joseph Erlanger 1852: 1836: 1722: 1710:Main articles: 1708: 1661:velocity (m/s) 1660: 1652: 1647: 1646:Erlanger-Gasser 1628: 1614: 1579:thermoreceptors 1576: 1568: 1535: 1452: 1451:Nociceptors and 1435: 1427: 1422: 1421:Erlanger-Gasser 1407:thermoreceptors 1387: 1382: 1381: 1302:(meters/second) 1301: 1293: 1288: 1287:Erlanger-Gasser 1273: 1200: 1194: 1180: 1174:in the neuron. 1149:guidepost cells 1129:guidepost cells 1054: 1048: 1027: 1007: 952: 927: 922: 886:pyramidal cells 829: 819: 813: 788: 770:that store the 756: 750: 738:myelinated axon 732:(also known as 727: 725:Node of Ranvier 721: 702:oligodendrocyte 653: 601: 595: 548: 520: 492: 476:corpus callosum 398:parallel fibers 347: 346: 345: 342: 341: 340: 335: 330: 325: 322: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 284: 272:corpus callosum 170:central neurons 146:sensory neurons 142:nerve cell body 99: 54: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5886: 5876: 5875: 5873:Neurohistology 5858: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5848:Taste receptor 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5818:Muscle spindle 5815: 5813:Ruffini ending 5810: 5805: 5800: 5794: 5792: 5786: 5785: 5783: 5782: 5777: 5775:Ribbon synapse 5772: 5767: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5745: 5735: 5733: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5712: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5667: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5652: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5599: 5597: 5595:Sensory neuron 5586: 5585: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5570: 5565: 5563:Pseudounipolar 5560: 5555: 5549: 5547: 5543: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5535: 5534: 5533: 5531:Basal dendrite 5524: 5519: 5511: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5500: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5482:Axon terminals 5479: 5473: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5461: 5455: 5453: 5444: 5437: 5426: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5381: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5353: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5341: 5336: 5334:Nerve fascicle 5331: 5325: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5309: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5257: 5255: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5238: 5237: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5203: 5197: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5154: 5152: 5143: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5088: 5082: 5080: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5063:Nervous tissue 5059: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5030: 5029: 5017: 5016:External links 5014: 5011: 5010: 4956: 4907: 4888:(3): 397–409. 4872: 4861: 4841: 4798: 4780: 4762: 4733: 4706: 4679: 4654: 4597: 4586:on 26 May 2011 4576:Medcyclopaedia 4563: 4522: 4499: 4473: 4424: 4373: 4324: 4302: 4271: 4264: 4246: 4197: 4156: 4091: 4040: 4003:(9): 2408–19. 3983: 3934: 3905:(6): 1081–91. 3885: 3836: 3793: 3754:(11): e26832. 3734: 3727: 3709: 3660: 3617: 3596:10.1038/nn1442 3571: 3528: 3485: 3436: 3393: 3372: 3345:(3): 194–205. 3326: 3297:(3): 499–508. 3277: 3248:(4): 1507–16. 3228: 3185: 3149: 3142: 3124: 3065: 3056: 3047: 2996: 2967:(3): 437–450. 2944: 2888: 2829: 2822: 2796: 2747: 2740: 2719: 2712: 2679: 2617: 2563: 2514: 2456: 2413: 2364: 2313: 2262: 2235:(2): 555–602. 2203: 2149: 2142: 2119: 2070: 2015: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2008: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1975: 1972: 1971: 1970: 1967: 1960: 1956: 1953: 1937:jet propulsion 1929:model organism 1916: 1913: 1884:Herbert Gasser 1851: 1848: 1835: 1832: 1792:, and also in 1786:Dysmyelination 1707: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1682: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1663: 1662: 1657: 1654: 1649: 1648:Classification 1644: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1618: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1548: 1544: 1543: 1540: 1532:muscle spindle 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1477:muscle spindle 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1449: 1448:Mechanoceptors 1446: 1445:Proprioceptors 1443: 1437: 1436:velocity (m/s) 1432: 1429: 1424: 1423:Classification 1419: 1395:Proprioceptors 1386: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1352: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1310: 1309: 1303: 1298: 1295: 1290: 1289:Classification 1285: 1272: 1269: 1193: 1192:Classification 1190: 1185:motor proteins 1179: 1176: 1131:assist in the 1098:immunoglobulin 1050:Main article: 1047: 1044: 1026: 1023: 1006: 1003: 980:neurotrophin-3 951: 948: 926: 923: 921: 918: 852:all-or-nothing 815:Main article: 812: 809: 787: 784: 752:Main article: 749: 748:Axon terminals 746: 723:Main article: 720: 717: 652: 649: 637:motor proteins 614:neurofilaments 597:Main article: 594: 591: 571:nerve impulses 547: 544: 519: 516: 512:neurofilaments 491: 488: 366:nervous system 343: 336: 331: 326: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 288: 287: 286: 285: 283: 280: 140:away from the 101: 100: 91: 85: 84: 79: 73: 72: 67: 61: 60: 56: 55: 52: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5885: 5874: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5725: 5721: 5709: 5708:γ motorneuron 5706: 5704: 5703:β motorneuron 5701: 5699: 5698:α motorneuron 5696: 5695: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5591: 5587: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5544: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5466: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5417: 5414: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5374: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5284: 5281: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5190: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5147: 5144: 5140: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5050: 5045: 5043: 5038: 5037: 5034: 5027: 5023: 5020: 5019: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4963: 4961: 4952: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4917:"Myelination" 4911: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4876: 4868: 4864: 4862:9781610693387 4858: 4854: 4853: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4814:(4): 341–57. 4813: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4781:9780195146943 4777: 4773: 4766: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4742:"nerve fiber" 4737: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4715:"nerve fiber" 4710: 4695: 4694: 4689: 4688:"nerve fibre" 4683: 4668: 4664: 4663:"nerve fiber" 4658: 4650: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4601: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4567: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4542:(4): 557–63. 4541: 4537: 4533: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4344:(1): 245–67. 4343: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4306: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4267: 4261: 4257: 4250: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4176:(2): 213–25. 4175: 4171: 4167: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4036: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3979: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3954:(6): 608–16. 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3809:(1): 118–24. 3808: 3804: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3730: 3728:9780815344643 3724: 3720: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3680:(1): 157–70. 3679: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3590:(5): 606–15. 3589: 3585: 3578: 3576: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3456:(7): 927–41. 3455: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3409:(3): 409–24. 3408: 3404: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3331: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3166:(2): 446–54. 3165: 3161: 3153: 3145: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3085:(7): e11868. 3084: 3080: 3076: 3069: 3060: 3051: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2951: 2949: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2901:Gu C (2021). 2897: 2895: 2893: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2825: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2809: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2743: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2724: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2700: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2640:(2): 99–104. 2639: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2568: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2534:(6): 651–68. 2533: 2529: 2525: 2518: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2429:(8): 552–62. 2428: 2424: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2266: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2223: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2139: 2135: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2090:(3): 513–38. 2089: 2085: 2081: 2074: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2023: 2021: 2016: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1977: 1964: 1959: 1958: 1952: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1921:invertebrates 1919:The axons in 1915:Other animals 1912: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1896:Andrew Huxley 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1794:schizophrenia 1791: 1787: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1658: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1635: 1633: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1580: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1539: 1533: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1433: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1307:muscle fibers 1304: 1299: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1283: 1282: 1276: 1268: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1245:motor neurons 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1199: 1189: 1186: 1175: 1173: 1172:neurotoxicity 1169: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1137:axon guidance 1134: 1130: 1127:Cells called 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070:lamellipodium 1067: 1058: 1053: 1052:Axon guidance 1043: 1041: 1040:Rho-signaling 1036: 1032: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1002: 1000: 996: 992: 987: 985: 984:Trk receptors 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 947: 945: 940: 936: 932: 917: 915: 911: 907: 901: 898: 897:digital codes 893: 891: 887: 882: 878: 874: 868: 866: 862: 856: 853: 843: 837: 833: 828: 824: 823:Neural coding 818: 808: 806: 802: 797: 793: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 764:axon terminal 761: 755: 754:Axon terminal 745: 743: 739: 735: 731: 726: 716: 714: 710: 705: 703: 699: 698:Schwann cells 695: 690: 688: 681: 677: 676:Myelin sheath 673: 668: 661: 657: 648: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 610: 606: 600: 590: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 567: 563: 561: 557: 556:cell polarity 553: 543: 541: 537: 533: 524: 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 490:Axonal region 487: 483: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 444: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 425:Schwann cells 422: 418: 414: 410: 405: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 374:sciatic nerve 371: 367: 360: 356: 351: 339: 338:Myelin sheath 334: 329: 328:Axon terminal 324: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 279: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 244: 242: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 220:axon terminal 217: 213: 209: 204: 202: 198: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 120: 116: 112: 108: 96: 90: 86: 83: 80: 78: 74: 71: 68: 66: 62: 57: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5743:Gap junction 5665:Motor neuron 5468: 5459:Axon hillock 5435:nerve fibers 5389:Schwann cell 5299: 5282: 5260: 5178:Medium spiny 5091:White matter 5079:Tissue Types 4976: 4972: 4924: 4920: 4910: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4855:. 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