123:
is licensed by the affirmative environment of sentence (1), but it is forbidden (anti-licensed) by the negative environment of sentence (4). It can therefore be considered to be a positive polarity item (PPI). On the other hand,
81:
provides a licensing context for a PPI, while negation provides a licensing context for an NPI. However, there are many complications, and not all polarity items of a particular type have the same licensing contexts.
338:, and others (finally, only). Given this wide range of mostly non-downward entailing environments, the Fauconnier-Ladusaw Hypothesis has gradually been replaced in favor of theories based on the notion of
245:
However, licensing contexts can take many forms besides simple negation/affirmation. To complicate matters, polarity items appear to be highly idiosyncratic, each with its own set of licensing contexts.
139:
are not used to intensify each other, the language makes frequent use of certain NPIs that correspond in meaning to negative items, and can be used in the environment of another negative. For example,
384:
While NPIs have been discovered in many languages, their distribution is subject to substantial cross-linguistic variation; this aspect of NPIs is currently the subject of ongoing research in
266:
128:
is licensed by the negative environment of sentence (2), but anti-licensed by the positive environment of sentence (3), and is therefore considered a negative polarity item (NPI).
225:
The actual set of contexts that license particular polarity items is not as easily defined as a simple distinction between affirmative and negative sentences. Baker noted that
308:
257:. Much of the research on polarity items has centered around the question of what creates a negative context. In the late 1970s, William Ladusaw (building on work by
385:
284:
Nor is a downward entailing environment a sufficient condition for all negative polarity items, as first pointed out by Zwarts (1981) for Dutch "ook maar."
615:
In the book, there is an introductory discussion of negative polarity items spanning several chapters, covering syntax, semantics, sociolinguistic aspects.
458:
1346:
645:
1119:
269:. A downward entailing environment, however, is not a necessary condition for an NPI to be licensed—they may be licensed by some
17:
608:
174:
take on an opposing meaning in formal usage, but that this is not necessarily the case in colloquial contexts and in various
987:
654:
214:
1074:
619:
The
Collection of Distributionally Idiosyncratic Items, containing German and Rumanian NPIs (TĂĽbingen University)
1195:
1069:
728:
638:
847:
668:
455:
733:
311:
of universal quantifiers, non-affirmative verbs (doubt), adversative predicates (be surprised), negative
1215:
877:
698:
567:
182:, like most of the other NPIs listed below, is also used in other senses where it is not an NPI, as in
1220:
1170:
932:
821:
631:
589:
1275:
1139:
718:
331:
292:
43:
1270:
816:
132:
1300:
972:
942:
917:
857:
756:
688:
402:
300:
78:
1200:
1094:
1059:
947:
922:
766:
683:
312:
1185:
992:
771:
407:
296:
288:
210:
8:
1265:
1180:
1124:
1027:
1012:
982:
962:
937:
806:
791:
270:
1336:
1310:
1235:
1210:
1175:
1155:
1084:
1064:
1002:
997:
907:
897:
882:
826:
545:
492:
397:
354:
262:
623:
1290:
1245:
1230:
1190:
1129:
1099:
1079:
872:
801:
604:
597:
516:
258:
549:
1341:
1295:
1225:
1114:
892:
537:
456:"Negative and positive polarity items: licensing, compositionality and variation".
1104:
1007:
902:
867:
462:
339:
335:
226:
136:
91:
1331:
1285:
1280:
1205:
1089:
967:
862:
703:
250:
541:
507:(1964). "Negation in English". In Jerry A. Fodor & Jerrold J. Katz (ed.).
465:
Prepared for
Maienborn, Claudia, Klaus von Heusinger, and Paul Portner (eds).
1325:
952:
786:
349:
Different NPIs may be licensed by different expressions. Thus, while the NPI
599:
I-language: An
Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition
1240:
1165:
1032:
912:
796:
776:
618:
504:
417:
343:
287:
Licensing contexts across languages include the scope of n-words (negative
254:
39:
1160:
1134:
1017:
781:
708:
412:
328:
320:
316:
31:
273:(and thus not downward entailing) contexts, like "exactly N," as well.
1305:
957:
723:
678:
673:
496:
1109:
927:
852:
831:
761:
713:
693:
370:
1022:
811:
304:
73:
The linguistic environment in which a polarity item appears is a
467:
249:
Early discussion of polarity items can be found in the work of
229:
may provide an acceptable context for positive polarity items:
178:, which parallels other languages which have negative concord.
887:
528:
Giannakidou, Anastasia (2001). "The
Meaning of Free Choice".
362:
175:
653:
220:
590:
The
Polarity Items Bibliography (TĂĽbingen University)
380:*At most two of the visitors lifted a finger to help.
162:
is used in the environment of the preceding negative
261:) discovered that most English NPIs are licensed in
27:
Lexical item associated with affirmation or negation
596:
561:. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
594:
215:Affirmation and negation § Multiple negation
1323:
1120:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
559:Polarity Sensitivity as Inherent Scope Relations
280:Exactly three people have ever been on the moon.
131:Because standard English does not have negative
327:-phrases, negative predicates (unlikely), some
377:At most two of the visitors had seen anything.
155:is used when not preceded by another negative)
639:
233:I can't believe you don't fancy her somewhat.
170:Note that double-negative constructions like
519:(1975). "Polarity and the scale principle".
469:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. (January 2008).
90:As examples of polarity items, consider the
527:
511:. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 246-323.
646:
632:
515:
483:Baker, C. Lee (1970). "Double Negatives".
373:) is not licensed by the same expression.
277:*Some people have ever been on the moon.
143:is an NPI corresponding to the negative
556:
205:no longer/no more – any longer/any more
77:. In the simplest case, an affirmative
14:
1324:
565:
147:, as used in the following sentences:
102:, as used in the following sentences:
1075:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
627:
595:Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013).
503:
482:
1347:Formal semantics (natural language)
988:Quantificational variability effect
655:Formal semantics (natural language)
265:environments. This is known as the
221:Determination of licensing contexts
158:I was not going anywhere. (the NPI
151:I was going nowhere. (the negative
24:
568:"Negatief Polaire Uitdrukkingen I"
25:
1358:
583:
523:. Vol. 11. pp. 188–199.
115:*I didn't like the film somewhat.
211:English grammar § Negation
1070:Combinatory categorial grammar
448:
439:
430:
238:John doesn't have any potatoes
190:nobody/no one – anybody/anyone
109:I didn't like the film at all.
13:
1:
848:Antecedent-contained deletion
476:
267:Fauconnier–Ladusaw hypothesis
85:
557:Ladusaw, William A. (1979).
184:I would go anywhere with you
7:
603:. Oxford University Press.
391:
359:at most two of the visitors
10:
1363:
729:Syntax–semantics interface
530:Linguistics and Philosophy
521:Chicago Linguistic Society
386:cross-linguistic semantics
106:I liked the film somewhat.
1258:
1221:Question under discussion
1171:Conversational scoreboard
1148:
1052:
1045:
948:Intersective modification
933:Homogeneity (linguistics)
840:
749:
742:
661:
509:The structure of language
454:Giannakidou, Anastasia.
112:*I liked the film at all.
1276:Distributional semantics
423:
42:that is associated with
1271:Computational semantics
1013:Subsective modification
817:Propositional attitudes
542:10.1023/A:1012758115458
241:*John has any potatoes.
172:I was not going nowhere
46:. An affirmation is a
44:affirmation or negation
18:Negative polarity items
1301:Philosophy of language
943:Inalienable possession
923:Free choice inferences
918:Faultless disagreement
689:Generalized quantifier
566:Zwarts, Frans (1981).
403:Generalized quantifier
60:negative polarity item
48:positive polarity item
1201:Plural quantification
1095:Inquisitive semantics
1060:Alternative semantics
334:, some disjunctions,
1186:Function application
993:Responsive predicate
983:Privative adjectives
408:Grammatical polarity
1266:Cognitive semantics
1181:Existential closure
1125:Situation semantics
1028:Temperature paradox
998:Rising declaratives
963:Modal subordination
938:Hurford disjunction
898:Discourse relations
353:is licensed by the
1311:Semantics of logic
1236:Strict conditional
1211:Quantifier raising
1176:Downward entailing
1156:Autonomy of syntax
1085:Generative grammar
1065:Categorial grammar
1003:Scalar implicature
908:Epistemic modality
883:De dicto and de re
517:Fauconnier, Gilles
485:Linguistic Inquiry
461:2017-01-18 at the
398:Downward entailing
355:downward entailing
346:and Giannakidou).
263:downward entailing
202:nowhere – anywhere
193:nothing – anything
58:. A negation is a
1319:
1318:
1291:Logic translation
1254:
1253:
1246:Universal grinder
1231:Squiggle operator
1191:Meaning postulate
1130:Supervaluationism
1100:Intensional logic
1080:Dynamic semantics
1041:
1040:
873:Crossover effects
822:Tense–aspect–mood
802:Lexical semantics
610:978-0-19-953420-3
445:See Baker (1970).
436:See Baker (1970).
367:not lift a finger
259:Gilles Fauconnier
75:licensing context
16:(Redirected from
1354:
1296:Linguistics wars
1226:Semantic parsing
1115:Montague grammar
1050:
1049:
893:Deontic modality
747:
746:
734:Truth conditions
669:Compositionality
662:Central concepts
648:
641:
634:
625:
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614:
602:
579:
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137:double negatives
119:As can be seen,
21:
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1322:
1321:
1320:
1315:
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1144:
1105:Lambda calculus
1037:
1008:Sloppy identity
968:Opaque contexts
903:Donkey anaphora
868:Counterfactuals
836:
738:
657:
652:
611:
586:
479:
474:
473:
463:Wayback Machine
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431:
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394:
340:nonveridicality
227:double negation
223:
88:
28:
23:
22:
15:
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11:
5:
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1281:Formal grammar
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1090:Glue semantics
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1053:Formal systems
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978:Polarity items
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865:
863:Conservativity
860:
855:
850:
844:
842:
838:
837:
835:
834:
829:
827:Quantification
824:
819:
814:
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704:Presupposition
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584:External links
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536:(6): 659–735.
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491:(2): 169–186.
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94:lexical items
87:
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62:, abbreviated
50:, abbreviated
26:
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45:
41:
37:
36:polarity item
33:
19:
1241:Type shifter
1216:Quantization
1166:Continuation
1033:Veridicality
977:
913:Exhaustivity
878:Cumulativity
797:Indexicality
777:Definiteness
772:Conditionals
699:Logical form
598:
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571:
558:
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520:
508:
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418:Veridicality
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369:(known as a
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321:superlatives
317:comparatives
313:conjunctions
301:conditionals
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271:non-monotone
255:Edward Klima
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199:never – ever
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40:lexical item
35:
29:
1161:Context set
1135:Type theory
1018:Subtrigging
782:Disjunction
709:Proposition
413:Subtrigging
357:expression
336:imperatives
332:complements
329:subjunctive
315:(without),
293:quantifiers
291:, negative
135:, that is,
32:linguistics
1326:Categories
1306:Pragmatics
958:Mirativity
724:Speech act
679:Entailment
674:Denotation
477:References
309:restrictor
297:antecedent
86:In English
1337:Semantics
1110:Mereology
1046:Formalism
928:Givenness
853:Cataphora
841:Phenomena
832:Vagueness
762:Ambiguity
714:Reference
694:Intension
684:Extension
578:: 35–102.
371:minimizer
363:idiomatic
305:questions
289:particles
209:See also
79:statement
1259:See also
1149:Concepts
1023:Telicity
858:Coercion
812:Negation
807:Modality
757:Anaphora
550:10533949
459:Archived
392:See also
351:anything
180:Anywhere
160:anywhere
141:anywhere
121:somewhat
96:somewhat
1342:Grammar
767:Binding
497:4177551
295:), the
153:nowhere
145:nowhere
133:concord
92:English
1196:Monads
743:Topics
607:
548:
495:
361:, the
344:Zwarts
307:, the
213:, and
126:at all
100:at all
1332:Logic
888:De se
792:Focus
750:Areas
719:Scope
546:S2CID
493:JSTOR
424:Notes
176:lects
38:is a
605:ISBN
572:GLOT
365:NPI
319:and
253:and
98:and
34:, a
1140:TTR
538:doi
325:too
299:of
164:not
68:NEG
66:or
64:NPI
56:AFF
54:or
52:PPI
30:In
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