312:
374:
300:
288:
362:
647:
722:
350:
211:. Affirmative sentences work in opposition to negations. The affirmative, in an English example such as "the police chief here is a woman", declares a simple fact, in this case, it is a fact regarding the police chief and asserts that she is a woman. In contrast, the negative, in an English example such as "the police chief here is not a man", is stated as an assumption for people to believe. It is also widely believed that the affirmative is the
89:. This means that a clause, sentence, verb phrase, etc. may be said to have either affirmative or negative polarity (its polarity may be either affirmative or negative). Affirmative is typically the unmarked polarity, whereas a negative statement is marked in some way. Negative polarity can be indicated by negating words or
177:
Negation in
English is more difficult for the brain to process as it works in opposition to affirmation. If affirmation and negation were missing from language people would only be able to communicate through possibilities. The recent Reusing Inhibition for Negation (RIN) hypothesis states that there
1934:
Complications sometimes arise in the case of responses to negative statements or questions; in some cases the response that confirms a negative statement is the negative particle (as in
English: "You're not going out? No."), but in some languages this is reversed. Some languages have a distinct form
494:
effect of negation may be somewhat different. For example, in
English, the meaning of "you must not go" is not the exact negation of "you must go". The exact negation of this phrase would be expressed as "you don't have to go" or "you needn't go". The negation "must not" has a stronger meaning (the
249:
Two examples of affirmation include (1) John is here already and (2) I am a moral person. These two sentences are truth statements, and serve as a representation of affirmation in
English. The negated versions can be formed as the statements
148:
Affirmation and negation are a crucial building blocks for language. The presence of negation is the absence of affirmation, where affirmation functions individually. There are three main aspects to the concept of affirmation and negation;
510:
and upward entailing statements within the scope of the negation. For example, changing "one could have seen anything" to "no one could have seen anything" changes the meaning of the last word from "anything" to "nothing".
449:
particle which can again be reanalyzed as a positive, future, marker. This clause final particle is known to only be used to mark assertiveness in positive clauses because it is not seen co-occurring with negative markers.
78:"Joe is here" asserts that it is true that Joe is currently located near the speaker. Conversely, the negative sentence "Joe is not here" asserts that it is not true that Joe is currently located near the speaker.
1930:
and so on. Not all languages make such common use of particles of this type; in some (such as Welsh) it is more common to repeat the verb or another part of the predicate, with or without negation accordingly.
2350:
The linguist D. Biber refers to two types of negation, synthetic ('no', 'neither' or 'nor' negation) and analytic ('not' negation). For example, "He is neither here nor there" (synthetic) or "He is not here"
2476:
Tettamanti, Marco; Manenti, Rosa; Della Rosa, Pasquale A.; Falini, Andrea; Perani, Daniela; Cappa, Stefano F.; Moro, Andrea (2008). "Negation in the brain. Modulating action representation".
1265:
In
Dagaare, negation is marked specifically by pre-verb particles, where only four, out of the nearly 24 pre-verb particles, are designated as negation markers. The four negation markers are
1281:. To signal negation, as well as other semantic relation, these negation particles combine with different aspects of the verb. These pre-verb negatory particles can also be used to convey
1891:
Special affirmative and negative words (particles) are often found in responses to questions, and sometimes to other assertions by way of agreement or disagreement. In
English, these are
1067:
Although such elements themselves have negative force, in some languages a clause in which they appear is additionally marked for ordinary negation. For example, in
195:(PPIs) are expressions that are rejected by negation, usually escaping the scope of negation. PPIs in the literature have been associated with speaker oriented
896:("do not eat"). It could be argued that English has joined the ranks of these languages, since negation requires the use of an auxiliary verb and a distinct
311:
373:
299:
287:
1878:
361:
122:
Affirmative and negative responses (specifically, though not exclusively, to questions) are often expressed using particles or words such as
2080:"The generalizability of inhibition-related processes in the comprehension of linguistic negation. ERP evidence from the Mandarin language"
349:
2534:
877:, verbs have special inflections to be used in negative clauses. (In some language families, this may lead to reference to a negative
441:
is reanalyzed into a clause final particle simultaneously with the denominalisation of the clausal subject which brings the result of
3008:
1104:
In
Russian, all of the elements ("not", "never", "nobody", "nowhere") would appear together in the sentence in their negative form.
219:
standpoint. Pragmatically, affirmatives can sometimes derive the pragmatically unmarked form, or, at times, create novel affirmative
1241:"nobody") results in an affirmation, whereas a compound negative following a simple or compound negative strengthens the negation:
987:. Ways in which this constituent negation is realized depends on the grammar of the language in question. English generally places
119:– the grammatical rules for negation vary from language to language, and a given language may have multiple methods of negation.
178:
is a specific inhibitory control mechanism (one that is reused) that is needed when trying to understand negation in sentences.
518:, an affirmative statement may be intended to have the meaning of the corresponding negative, or vice versa. For examples see
2460:
1871:
2876:
2543:
834:
but that wording is considered archaic and is rarely used. It is much more common to use the dummy auxiliary to render
2470:
2223:
971:
Negation can be applied not just to whole verb phrases, clauses or sentences, but also to specific elements (such as
546:
Languages have a variety of grammatical rules for converting affirmative verb phrases or clauses into negative ones.
495:
effect is to apply the logical negation to the following infinitive rather than applying it to the full clause with
2078:
Liu, Bo; Wang, Huili; Beltrán, David; Gu, Beixian; Liang, Tengfei; Wang, Xiaoshuang; de Vega, Manuel (2019-09-05).
3225:
2963:
2465:
Douglas Biber, Susan Conrad, Randi Reppen, "Corpus
Linguistics: Investigating Language Structure and Use". 1998.
2006:"Investigating scalar implicatures in a truth-value judgement task: evidence from event-related brain potentials"
1864:
2244:"A tale of two distal demonstratives in Dagaare: Reflections on directionality principles in grammaticalisation"
483:. This is done by replacing an assertion that something is the case with an assertion that it is not the case.
3084:
2958:
2617:
2527:
32:
2736:
2557:
1116:
does not have to be there, and can be there only before the verb if it precedes all other negative elements:
405:, that serve as an affirmation or an emphasis to a verbal action. These verbal suffixes are also known as a
2622:
1840:
1327:
used with the perfective A and imperfective A forms of the verb to indicate negation in the present tense
479:
Simple grammatical negation of a clause, in principle, has the effect of converting a proposition to its
3104:
2766:
2587:
529:
For the use of double negations or similar as understatements ("not unappealing", "not bad", etc.) see
3109:
3059:
2821:
2710:
2520:
1625:
1575:
1512:
1492:
1293:, and polarity (negation), and in some cases can be used to convey more than one of these features.
3164:
3028:
2607:
1708:
1646:
1464:
1412:
936:
220:
3159:
2705:
1818:
1703:
1656:
1545:
1032:
There also exist elements which carry a specialized negative meaning, including pronouns such as
166:
74:
of a basic assertion, while a negative form expresses its falsity. For example, the affirmative
3189:
2861:
2831:
2806:
2746:
2645:
2577:
1823:
1795:
1756:
1736:
1691:
1686:
1555:
192:
75:
3089:
2983:
2948:
2836:
2811:
2655:
2572:
1696:
1459:
939:. In some languages negation may also affect the dependents of the verb; for example in some
2135:
646:
3074:
2881:
2660:
2051:
Jordan, Michael P (1998). "The power of negation in
English: Text, context and relevance".
1961:
1630:
1620:
1356:
605:
550:
82:
2402:
881:.) An example is Japanese, which conjugates verbs in the negative after adding the suffix
859:
8:
3154:
3069:
3013:
2916:
2901:
2871:
2851:
2826:
2695:
2680:
2363:"The why-how alternation and a new test for sentential negation—on negated how-questions"
1788:
1716:
1380:
621:
500:
487:
215:
base form from which the negative is produced, but this can be argued when coming from a
162:
112:
624:). In some other languages the negating particle follows the verb or verb phrase, as in
3230:
3199:
3124:
3099:
3064:
3044:
2973:
2953:
2891:
2886:
2796:
2786:
2771:
2715:
2501:
2334:
2281:
2169:"Anything negatives can do affirmatives can do just as well, except for some metaphors"
2107:
2033:
1954:
1580:
1560:
1505:
1481:
1454:
1290:
613:
507:
90:
2512:
2424:
2064:
3179:
3134:
3119:
3079:
3018:
2988:
2968:
2761:
2690:
2493:
2489:
2466:
2456:
2285:
2273:
2219:
2188:
2111:
2099:
2037:
2025:
1783:
1776:
1766:
1731:
1721:
1661:
1595:
1535:
1517:
1405:
1282:
855:
776:
721:
101:
2505:
2307:
3220:
3184:
3114:
3003:
2781:
2485:
2374:
2326:
2263:
2255:
2243:
2211:
2180:
2091:
2079:
2060:
2017:
2005:
1966:
1943:(these serve to contradict the negative statement suggested by the first speaker).
1726:
1590:
1375:
1286:
1068:
948:
940:
932:
878:
681:
583:
554:
394:
2259:
2168:
2095:
2021:
1140:(see above), specialized negatives appear in combination with the first particle (
2993:
2896:
2791:
2756:
2303:
2184:
1771:
1640:
1602:
1442:
1424:
1400:
1395:
1023:
944:
913:
851:
692:
669:
590:
94:
3235:
3174:
3169:
3094:
2978:
2856:
2751:
2592:
1835:
1666:
1585:
1469:
1390:
874:
863:
768:
760:
625:
598:
446:
3214:
2866:
2841:
2675:
2299:
2277:
2192:
2103:
2029:
1976:
1550:
1226:
952:
909:
55:
900:
in most cases; the form of the basic verb can change on negation, as in "he
3129:
3054:
2921:
2801:
2685:
2665:
2497:
2215:
1981:
1800:
1635:
1449:
1417:
1385:
1256:, "let (not) nobody raise an uproar", meaning "let nobody raise an uproar"
1237:"not (modal)") following another simple or compound negative (e.g. οὐδείς
499:). For more details and other similar cases, see the relevant sections of
3049:
3023:
2906:
2670:
2597:
1045:
976:
847:
519:
59:
20:
549:
In many languages, an affirmative is made negative by the addition of a
3194:
2846:
2612:
2567:
2562:
2268:
1850:
1845:
1830:
1761:
1570:
1476:
1432:
1348:
1336:
Various signed and manual languages are known to negate via headshake.
1120:. "Nobody ever brings you anything here", however, could be translated
956:
921:
791:
582:
Other examples of negating particles preceding the verb phrase include
553:, meaning "not". This may be added before the verb phrase, as with the
216:
158:
154:
123:
2379:
2362:
2338:
1249:, "nobody was not suffering something", i.e. "everybody was suffering"
226:
Affirmation can also be compared to the notion of assertiveness.
2998:
2816:
2741:
2720:
2650:
2602:
2582:
1540:
1437:
1011:
972:
738:
491:
150:
67:
70:. An affirmative (positive) form is used to express the validity or
2911:
2700:
2330:
1565:
1075:, literally "I nobody not see" – the ordinary negating particle не
995:, but a war." There are also negating affixes, such as the English
960:
733:
However, in colloquial French the first particle is often omitted:
480:
212:
2004:
Spychalska, Maria; Kontinen, Jarmo; Werning, Markus (2016-04-29).
234:
Affirmation can be indicated with the following words in
English:
2475:
1370:
1315:
can be used as a non-future, or present tense, negative marker:
1027:
530:
523:
431:
24:
1497:
996:
925:
897:
398:
196:
63:
115:. The process of converting affirmative to negative is called
2776:
1307:
zo! (Do not run!), indicates negative imperative construction
1079:("not") is used in addition to the negative pronoun никого́
737:. Similar use of two negating particles can also be found in
515:
104:
71:
1323:
kʊ a naŋkpaana (The buffalo has not killed the hunter), has
1971:
54:) are ways in which grammar encodes positive and negative
2003:
1091:
is also a possible clause with exactly the same meaning.
842:
go (since there is no auxiliary in the original sentence)
2542:
664:
in archaic and dialectal English ("you remember not"),
541:
486:
In some cases, however, particularly when a particular
317:
Syntax tree of (1c) John is not here already (negative)
111:, or by other means, which reverses the meaning of the
379:
Syntax tree of (2c) I am not a moral person (negative)
305:
Syntax tree of (1b) John might be here already (modal)
293:
Syntax tree of (1a) John is here already (affirmative)
2413:: 151–162 – via African Journals Online (AJOL).
1342:
979:) within sentences. This contrast is usually labeled
367:
Syntax tree of (2b) I might be a moral person (modal)
355:
Syntax tree of (2a) I am a moral person (affirmative)
143:
85:
associated with affirmatives and negatives is called
2242:
Mwinlaaru, Isaac N.; Yap, Foong Ha (November 2017).
1136:
In French, where simple negation is performed using
1071:, "I see nobody" is expressed as я никого́ не ви́жу
870:
could follow any verb, e.g. "I see not the horse.")
1112:In Italian, a clause works much as in Russian, but
695:, particles are added both before the verb phrase (
1094:
16:Grammatical category indicating truth or falsehood
660:Particles following the verb in this way include
536:
383:
3212:
3009:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
2077:
991:before the negated element, as in "I witnessed
650:Syntax tree for (6b) Ik zie hem niet (negative)
2208:A dictionary and grammatical sketch of Dagaare
2205:
1935:to answer a negative question, such as French
1083:("nobody"). Italian behaves in a similar way:
775:. If no other auxiliary verb is present, then
136:is the affirmative, or positive particle, and
2528:
2325:(3), Linguistic Society of America: 502–513,
1872:
966:
2298:
2241:
1300:can be used to indicate polarity and mood:
2133:
1952:
755:In English, negation is achieved by adding
725:Syntax tree for (7b) Je sais pas (negative)
2535:
2521:
1879:
1865:
2378:
2267:
1118:Tu non porti mai nessuno da nessuna parte
1052:(as in "no apples"), and adverbs such as
931:Complex rules for negation also apply in
229:
186:
2367:Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics
937:Finnish grammar § Negation of verbs
763:typically uses a copula verb (a form of
720:
645:
430:There are also cases of the identifying
2400:
2308:"Cliticization vs. Inflection: English
2210:. Vol. 4. Language Science Press.
2206:Ali, M.; Grimm, S.; Bodomo, A. (2021).
759:after the verb. As a practical matter,
437:developing into an affirmative marker.
140:is the negation, or negative particle.
3213:
2136:"Negative and Positive Polarity Items"
2050:
474:
277:c. John is not here already (negative)
2964:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
2516:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2360:
2166:
339:c. I am not a moral person (negative)
274:b. John might be here already (modal)
2237:
2235:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2084:Language, Cognition and Neuroscience
2010:Language, Cognition and Neuroscience
1999:
1997:
1017:
542:Simple negation of verbs and clauses
336:b. I might be a moral person (modal)
199:, as well as expressions similar to
2877:Quantificational variability effect
2544:Formal semantics (natural language)
1126:Qui non ti porta mai niente nessuno
13:
2445:
2401:Saanchi, James Angkaaraba (2008).
2387:
1343:Affirmative and negative responses
144:Basis for affirmation and negation
14:
3247:
2232:
2149:
2118:
1994:
1331:
1311:For example, the negation marker
1296:For example, the negation marker
1087:, "nobody can see you", although
254:) John is not here already and (2
2490:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.08.004
1506:Singulative-Collective-Plurative
1220:
1010:, etc. Such elements are called
372:
360:
348:
310:
298:
286:
2417:
2407:Legon Journal of the Humanities
2354:
2134:Giannakidou, Anastasia (2011).
1122:Nessuno qui ti porta mai niente
1095:The negative in other languages
860:English grammar § Negation
790:) is normally introduced – see
752:("He cannot speak Afrikaans").
2959:Combinatory categorial grammar
2344:
2292:
2199:
2071:
2044:
1470:Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)
858:clauses. For more details see
807:b. I have not gone (negative;
716:b. Je (ne) sais pas (negative)
537:Grammatical rules for negation
384:Affirmation in other languages
181:
1:
2737:Antecedent-contained deletion
2453:A Natural History of Negation
2429:www.linguisticsinamsterdam.nl
2260:10.1016/j.langsci.2017.07.005
2096:10.1080/23273798.2019.1662460
2065:10.1016/S0378-2166(97)00086-6
2022:10.1080/23273798.2016.1161806
1987:
641:b. Ik zie hem niet (negative)
573:b. No está en casa (negative)
567:a. Está en casa (affirmative)
258:) I am not a moral person.
2185:10.1016/j.pragma.2005.12.006
1260:
885:(indicating negation), e.g.
804:a. I have gone (affirmative)
676:, "I am not sleeping"), and
172:
7:
2167:Giora, Rachel (July 2006).
1946:
1586:Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)
635:a. Ik zie hem (affirmative)
604:(they can also be found in
469:
10:
3252:
2618:Syntax–semantics interface
2425:"Linguistics in Amsterdam"
1346:
1107:
1099:
1021:
967:Negation of other elements
963:when the verb is negated.
928:or a derivational suffix.
388:
3147:
3110:Question under discussion
3060:Conversational scoreboard
3037:
2941:
2934:
2837:Intersective modification
2822:Homogeneity (linguistics)
2729:
2638:
2631:
2550:
2143:The University of Chicago
1131:
846:Different rules apply in
514:In some cases, by way of
3165:Distributional semantics
1899:respectively, in French
1709:Serial verb construction
1229:, a simple negative (οὐ
873:In some languages, like
821:a. He goes (affirmative)
710:a. Je sais (affirmative)
3160:Computational semantics
2902:Subsective modification
2706:Propositional attitudes
1647:Honorifics (politeness)
193:positive polarity items
167:Nietzschean affirmation
3226:Grammatical categories
3190:Philosophy of language
2832:Inalienable possession
2812:Free choice inferences
2807:Faultless disagreement
2578:Generalized quantifier
2361:Bross, Fabian (2020).
2216:10.5281/zenodo.5154710
1953:
1824:Polypersonal agreement
726:
699:) and after the verb (
688:, "he did not jump").
651:
576:"(S)he is not at home"
230:Affirmation in English
187:Meaning of affirmation
3090:Plural quantification
2984:Inquisitive semantics
2949:Alternative semantics
2403:"Negation In Dagaare"
2173:Journal of Pragmatics
2053:Journal of Pragmatics
1460:Genitive construction
1247:oudeìs ouk épaskhé ti
1245:οὐδεὶς οὐκ ἔπασχέ τι
724:
649:
606:constructed languages
3075:Function application
2882:Responsive predicate
2872:Privative adjectives
1713:Traditional grammar
1681:Syntax relationships
1357:Grammatical features
1254:mḕ thorubḗsēi mēdeís
985:constituent negation
267:John is here already
83:grammatical category
3155:Cognitive semantics
3070:Existential closure
3014:Situation semantics
2917:Temperature paradox
2887:Rising declaratives
2852:Modal subordination
2827:Hurford disjunction
2787:Discourse relations
2304:Pullum, Geoffrey K.
1631:Comparison (degree)
1381:Dative construction
1252:μὴ θορυβήσῃ μηδείς
1085:Non ti vede nessuno
1073:ja nikovó nye vízhu
981:sentential negation
955:often changes from
501:English modal verbs
475:Meaning of negation
397:, there are verbal
329:I am a moral person
3200:Semantics of logic
3125:Strict conditional
3100:Quantifier raising
3065:Downward entailing
3045:Autonomy of syntax
2974:Generative grammar
2954:Categorial grammar
2892:Scalar implicature
2797:Epistemic modality
2772:De dicto and de re
2451:Laurence R. Horn,
1955:De Interpretatione
1581:Grammatical aspect
904:" vs. "he doesn't
727:
652:
644:"I do not see him"
570:"(S)he is at home"
508:downward entailing
490:is expressed, the
419:(3) ò kyɛ́ng-ɛ́ɛ́-
3208:
3207:
3180:Logic translation
3143:
3142:
3135:Universal grinder
3120:Squiggle operator
3080:Meaning postulate
3019:Supervaluationism
2989:Intensional logic
2969:Dynamic semantics
2930:
2929:
2762:Crossover effects
2711:Tense–aspect–mood
2691:Lexical semantics
2461:978-1-57586-336-8
2380:10.5334/gjgl.1175
2300:Zwicky, Arnold M.
2248:Language Sciences
1962:Jespersen's Cycle
1889:
1888:
1784:Topic and Comment
1767:Thematic relation
1662:Reflexive pronoun
1576:Tense–aspect–mood
1536:Associated motion
1518:Universal grinder
1018:Multiple negation
811:is the auxiliary)
674:ich schlafe nicht
426:"S/he has walked"
414:factitive marker.
3243:
3185:Linguistics wars
3115:Semantic parsing
3004:Montague grammar
2939:
2938:
2782:Deontic modality
2636:
2635:
2623:Truth conditions
2558:Compositionality
2551:Central concepts
2537:
2530:
2523:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2398:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2358:
2352:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2316:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2271:
2239:
2230:
2229:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2164:
2147:
2146:
2140:
2131:
2116:
2115:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2001:
1967:Negative raising
1958:
1881:
1874:
1867:
1615:General features
1530:Related to verbs
1365:Related to nouns
1353:
1352:
941:Slavic languages
916:have shown that
747:Afrikaans praat
686:han hoppade inte
481:logical negation
376:
364:
352:
314:
302:
290:
191:Affirmations or
52:
51:
40:
39:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3139:
3033:
2994:Lambda calculus
2926:
2897:Sloppy identity
2857:Opaque contexts
2792:Donkey anaphora
2757:Counterfactuals
2725:
2627:
2546:
2541:
2448:
2446:Further reading
2443:
2442:
2433:
2431:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2399:
2388:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2345:
2314:
2297:
2293:
2240:
2233:
2226:
2204:
2200:
2179:(7): 981–1014.
2165:
2150:
2138:
2132:
2119:
2076:
2072:
2049:
2045:
2002:
1995:
1990:
1949:
1885:
1856:
1855:
1814:
1806:
1805:
1752:
1744:
1743:
1682:
1674:
1673:
1643:(verbal number)
1641:Pluractionality
1616:
1608:
1607:
1531:
1523:
1522:
1502:
1443:Collective noun
1425:Construct state
1366:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1334:
1263:
1223:
1134:
1110:
1102:
1097:
1089:Nessuno ti vede
1030:
1024:Double negative
1022:Main articles:
1020:
969:
866:, the particle
797:. For example,
777:dummy auxiliary
544:
539:
506:Negation flips
477:
472:
391:
386:
380:
377:
368:
365:
356:
353:
318:
315:
306:
303:
294:
291:
257:
253:
232:
189:
184:
175:
146:
49:
48:
37:
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3249:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3175:Inferentialism
3172:
3170:Formal grammar
3167:
3162:
3157:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3095:Possible world
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2979:Glue semantics
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2943:
2942:Formal systems
2936:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2867:Polarity items
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2752:Conservativity
2749:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2718:
2716:Quantification
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2593:Presupposition
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2540:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2484:(2): 358–367.
2473:
2463:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2416:
2386:
2353:
2343:
2331:10.2307/413900
2291:
2231:
2224:
2198:
2148:
2117:
2090:(7): 885–895.
2070:
2059:(6): 705–752.
2043:
2016:(6): 817–840.
1992:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1948:
1945:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1876:
1869:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1836:Empty category
1833:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1764:
1759:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1667:Reflexive verb
1664:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1391:Quirky subject
1388:
1383:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1347:Main article:
1344:
1341:
1333:
1332:Sign Languages
1330:
1329:
1328:
1309:
1308:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1189:
1171:
1133:
1130:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1019:
1016:
968:
965:
924:suffix, not a
864:Middle English
844:
843:
832:
831:
830:
829:
822:
815:
814:
813:
812:
805:
769:auxiliary verb
761:Modern English
731:
730:
729:
728:
719:"I don't know"
717:
714:
711:
658:
657:
656:
655:
653:
642:
639:
636:
580:
579:
578:
577:
574:
571:
568:
543:
540:
538:
535:
476:
473:
471:
468:
467:
466:
463:
428:
427:
424:
390:
387:
385:
382:
381:
378:
371:
369:
366:
359:
357:
354:
347:
345:
344:
343:
342:
341:
337:
334:
332:
330:
319:
316:
309:
307:
304:
297:
295:
292:
285:
283:
282:
281:
280:
279:
275:
272:
270:
268:
255:
251:
231:
228:
188:
185:
183:
180:
174:
171:
145:
142:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3248:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2862:Performatives
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2842:Logophoricity
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:Evidentiality
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2538:
2533:
2531:
2526:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2472:
2471:0-521-49957-7
2468:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2430:
2426:
2420:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2381:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2347:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2236:
2227:
2225:9783961103232
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2144:
2137:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1977:Polarity item
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1950:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:, in Spanish
1921:
1917:
1913:
1910:, in Swedish
1909:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1882:
1877:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1841:Incorporation
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1551:Evidentiality
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1429:Countability
1428:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1340:
1337:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1227:Ancient Greek
1221:Ancient Greek
1213:
1209:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1105:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
964:
962:
958:
954:
953:direct object
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
894:
888:
884:
880:
876:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
841:
837:
836:
835:
827:
823:
820:
819:
817:
816:
810:
806:
803:
802:
800:
799:
798:
796:
794:
789:
785:
781:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
751:
750:
746:
740:
736:
723:
718:
715:
712:
709:
708:
706:
705:
704:
702:
698:
694:
689:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
654:
648:
643:
640:
637:
634:
633:
631:
630:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
600:
596:
592:
588:
585:
575:
572:
569:
566:
565:
563:
562:
561:
559:
556:
552:
547:
534:
532:
527:
525:
521:
517:
512:
509:
504:
502:
498:
493:
489:
484:
482:
464:
462:(affirmative)
461:
457:
453:
452:
451:
448:
444:
440:
436:
433:
425:
423:(affirmative)
422:
418:
417:
416:
415:
411:
408:
404:
400:
396:
375:
370:
363:
358:
351:
346:
340:
338:
335:
333:(affirmative)
331:
328:
326:
325:
324:
323:
322:
313:
308:
301:
296:
289:
284:
278:
276:
273:
271:(affirmative)
269:
266:
264:
263:
261:
260:
259:
248:
247:would rather.
244:
240:
237:
227:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
179:
170:
168:
164:
163:Schopenhauers
160:
159:philosophical
156:
155:psychological
152:
141:
139:
135:
131:
130:
126:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
103:
99:
96:
92:
88:
84:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
45:
41:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3130:Type shifter
3105:Quantization
3055:Continuation
2922:Veridicality
2802:Exhaustivity
2767:Cumulativity
2686:Indexicality
2666:Definiteness
2661:Conditionals
2588:Logical form
2481:
2477:
2452:
2432:. Retrieved
2428:
2419:
2410:
2406:
2370:
2366:
2356:
2346:
2322:
2318:
2309:
2294:
2251:
2247:
2207:
2201:
2176:
2172:
2142:
2087:
2083:
2073:
2056:
2052:
2046:
2013:
2009:
1982:Veridicality
1940:
1939:and Swedish
1936:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1890:
1801:Veridicality
1692:Transitivity
1651:
1636:Egophoricity
1450:Definiteness
1418:Measure word
1406:Instrumental
1386:Dative shift
1338:
1335:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1310:
1304:
1297:
1295:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1253:
1246:
1238:
1234:
1233:"not" or μή
1230:
1224:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1192:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1174:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1156:
1148:is omitted:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1135:
1125:
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1117:
1113:
1111:
1103:
1088:
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1049:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1031:
1007:
1003:
999:
993:not a debate
992:
988:
984:
980:
977:noun phrases
970:
930:
922:inflectional
917:
905:
901:
892:
890:
889:("eat") and
886:
882:
872:
867:
845:
839:
833:
825:
824:b. #He goes
808:
792:
787:
783:
779:
772:
764:
756:
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748:
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734:
732:
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677:
673:
665:
661:
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609:
601:
594:
586:
581:
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548:
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528:
513:
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496:
485:
478:
459:
455:
447:nominalising
445:as a clause
442:
438:
434:
429:
420:
413:
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406:
402:
392:
320:
246:
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238:
235:
233:
225:
209:would rather
208:
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190:
176:
147:
137:
133:
128:
124:
121:
116:
108:
97:
93:such as the
86:
80:
60:verb phrases
47:
43:
35:
28:
18:
3050:Context set
3024:Type theory
2907:Subtrigging
2671:Disjunction
2598:Proposition
2351:(analytic).
2269:10397/73178
2254:: 130–151.
1737:Predicative
1657:Reciprocity
1626:Boundedness
1546:Conjugation
1513:Specificity
1046:determiners
848:subjunctive
735:Je sais pas
638:"I see him"
622:Interlingua
520:antiphrasis
465:"I will go"
221:derivatives
182:Affirmation
66:, or other
33:abbreviated
29:affirmation
21:linguistics
3215:Categories
3195:Pragmatics
2847:Mirativity
2613:Speech act
2568:Entailment
2563:Denotation
2478:NeuroImage
2434:2022-11-04
1988:References
1851:Markedness
1846:Inflection
1831:Declension
1762:Mirativity
1571:Mirativity
1477:Noun class
1465:Possession
1433:Count noun
1413:Classifier
1401:Comitative
1396:Nominative
1349:Yes and no
1319:a mɔnaabʊ
1138:ne ... pas
1012:privatives
973:adjectives
957:accusative
943:, such as
856:non-finite
852:imperative
828:(negative)
401:, such as
165:theory or
68:utterances
3231:Semantics
2999:Mereology
2935:Formalism
2817:Givenness
2742:Cataphora
2730:Phenomena
2721:Vagueness
2651:Ambiguity
2603:Reference
2583:Intension
2573:Extension
2286:148942057
2278:0388-0001
2193:0378-2166
2112:203052216
2104:2327-3798
2038:124648175
2030:2327-3798
1819:Agreement
1813:Phenomena
1751:Semantics
1717:Predicate
1704:Branching
1541:Clusivity
1438:Mass noun
1206:("I have
1058:no longer
739:Afrikaans
614:Esperanto
239:certainly
217:pragmatic
173:Cognitive
151:Cognitive
113:predicate
100:, or the
91:particles
3148:See also
3038:Concepts
2912:Telicity
2747:Coercion
2701:Negation
2696:Modality
2646:Anaphora
2506:17658822
2498:18771737
2455:. 2001.
2319:Language
2306:(1983),
1947:See also
1796:Volition
1757:Contrast
1687:Argument
1652:Polarity
1566:Telicity
1556:Modality
1489:Singular
1203:personne
1184:("I see
1181:personne
1048:such as
997:prefixes
961:genitive
840:does not
795:-support
767:) or an
713:"I know"
551:particle
492:semantic
488:modality
470:Negation
410:particle
399:suffixes
243:already,
213:unmarked
132:, where
117:negation
102:Japanese
87:polarity
76:sentence
56:polarity
44:negation
3221:Grammar
2656:Binding
1777:Patient
1732:Adjunct
1722:Subject
1697:Valency
1371:Animacy
1261:Dagaare
1212:anybody
1170:drink")
1144:), but
1108:Italian
1100:Russian
1069:Russian
1062:nowhere
1042:nothing
1028:Litotes
983:versus
933:Finnish
743:Hy kan
682:Swedish
591:Russian
584:Italian
555:Spanish
531:litotes
524:sarcasm
458:na cen
432:pronoun
395:Dagaare
389:Dagaare
223:.
205:already
197:adverbs
95:English
64:clauses
25:grammar
3085:Monads
2632:Topics
2504:
2496:
2469:
2459:
2339:413900
2337:
2284:
2276:
2222:
2191:
2110:
2102:
2036:
2028:
1727:Object
1621:Affect
1561:Person
1498:Plural
1482:Number
1455:Gender
1291:aspect
1277:, and
1239:oudeís
1199:jamais
1186:nobody
1163:jamais
1132:French
1081:nikovó
1034:nobody
947:, the
945:Polish
935:; see
926:clitic
920:is an
914:Pullum
910:Zwicky
898:syntax
887:taberu
862:. (In
693:French
670:German
599:Polish
207:, and
42:) and
3236:Truth
2777:De se
2681:Focus
2639:Areas
2608:Scope
2502:S2CID
2335:JSTOR
2315:(PDF)
2282:S2CID
2139:(PDF)
2108:S2CID
2034:S2CID
1789:Focus
1772:Agent
1603:Voice
1596:Tense
1283:tense
1279:tɔ́ɔ́
1210:seen
1208:never
1179:vois
1168:never
1161:bois
1152:(10)
1054:never
951:of a
902:sings
875:Welsh
771:with
666:nicht
626:Dutch
516:irony
412:or a
407:focus
236:some,
105:affix
72:truth
58:into
2494:PMID
2467:ISBN
2457:ISBN
2274:ISSN
2220:ISBN
2189:ISSN
2100:ISSN
2026:ISSN
1972:Not!
1926:and
1918:and
1906:and
1901:oui,
1895:and
1591:Mood
1493:Dual
1376:Case
1287:mood
1271:kʊ̀ŋ
1191:c. J
1173:b. J
1166:("I
1155:a. J
1060:and
1040:and
1038:none
1026:and
1000:non-
975:and
949:case
912:and
906:sing
891:tabe
883:-nai
879:mood
854:and
818:(9)
809:have
801:(8)
784:does
707:(7)
678:inte
632:(6)
616:and
597:and
564:(5)
522:and
497:must
454:(4)
321:(2)
262:(1)
245:and
201:some
157:and
127:and
81:The
23:and
3029:TTR
2486:doi
2375:doi
2327:doi
2310:n't
2264:hdl
2256:doi
2212:doi
2181:doi
2092:doi
2061:doi
2018:doi
1920:nej
1908:non
1893:yes
1225:In
1201:vu
1197:ai
1146:pas
1128:.
1124:or
1114:non
1077:nye
1008:in-
1004:un-
989:not
959:to
918:n't
908:".
893:nai
868:not
838:He
826:not
788:did
773:not
757:not
749:nie
745:nie
703:):
701:pas
691:In
680:in
668:in
662:not
620:in
618:non
612:in
602:nie
595:nye
593:не
587:non
403:-ng
393:In
327:a.
265:a.
256:NEG
252:NEG
169:).
134:yes
125:yes
109:nai
98:not
50:NEG
38:AFF
19:In
3217::
2500:.
2492:.
2482:43
2480:.
2427:.
2411:19
2409:.
2405:.
2389:^
2373:.
2369:.
2365:.
2333:,
2323:59
2321:,
2317:,
2302:;
2280:.
2272:.
2262:.
2252:64
2250:.
2246:.
2234:^
2218:.
2187:.
2177:38
2175:.
2171:.
2151:^
2141:.
2120:^
2106:.
2098:.
2088:35
2086:.
2082:.
2057:29
2055:.
2032:.
2024:.
2014:31
2012:.
2008:.
1996:^
1941:jo
1937:si
1928:no
1924:sí
1916:jo
1914:,
1912:ja
1904:si
1897:no
1325:ba
1321:ba
1313:ba
1305:Ta
1298:ta
1289:,
1285:,
1275:ta
1273:,
1269:,
1267:ba
1235:mḗ
1231:ou
1214:")
1195:n'
1193:e
1188:")
1177:ne
1175:e
1159:ne
1157:e
1142:ne
1064:.
1056:,
1050:no
1044:,
1036:,
1014:.
1006:,
1002:,
850:,
793:do
786:,
780:do
765:be
741::
697:ne
628::
610:ne
608::
589:,
560::
558:no
533:.
526:.
503:.
460:na
456:ɭ̃
443:na
439:na
435:na
421:ńg
250:(1
241:,
203:,
153:,
138:no
129:no
62:,
27:,
2536:e
2529:t
2522:v
2508:.
2488::
2437:.
2383:.
2377::
2371:5
2329::
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2288:.
2266::
2258::
2228:.
2214::
2195:.
2183::
2145:.
2114:.
2094::
2067:.
2063::
2040:.
2020::
1880:e
1873:t
1866:v
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684:(
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161:(
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