1784:. The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of the Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida did not have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy the Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid."
1731:
for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not the pacts which you make. You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay the Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah.
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1726:, Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army. In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows:
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1866:. Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be the advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed the
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1807:. The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through the
2124:, which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. Khalid, commanding the advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking the
2765:. This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While the Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat.
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the Muslim army. Abu
Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to the Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to
2884:. The Byzantine army, composed of the survivors of Yarmouk and other Syrian campaigns, was defeated, retreating to Antioch, whereupon the Muslims besieged the city. Having little hope of help from the Emperor, Antioch surrendered on 30 October, on the condition that all Byzantine troops would be given safe passage to Constantinople. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid towards the north and he himself marched to the south and captured
1776:. The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached the region between
2977:, Abu Ubaidah's headquarters. Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from northern Syria to Emesa, and the Christians laid in a siege. Khalid was in favor of an open battle outside the fort, but Abu Ubaidah referred the matter to Umar, who sent a detachment from Iraq to invade Jazirah from three different routes. Another detachment was sent to Emesa from Iraq under
2860:. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them at
2091:. Abu Ubaidah got the letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey."
2698:. Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated the treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslims
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Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under
General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome (
2876:, which was captured after fierce resistance from desperate Byzantine troops in October. Before marching towards Antioch, Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia. They accordingly sent detachments north to eliminate all possible Byzantine forces and captured the garrison town of
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The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the
Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them, the last action before
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This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture
Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor
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Here Khalid took over the command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu
Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000,
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In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him;
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Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped
Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force
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50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a
Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of
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After the battle, which proved to be the key to
Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with a relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl,
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After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture
Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back
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on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time
Heraclius' reinforcements had reached the city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid
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After the devastating defeat at Yarmouk, the remainder of the Byzantine empire was left vulnerable. With few military resources left, it was no longer in a position to attempt a military comeback in Syria. To gain time to prepare a defense of the rest of his empire, Heraclius needed the Muslims
3184:, paid by non-Muslims in return for state protection and exemption from military service. The Byzantine civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted; therefore, Greek remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests.
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as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper
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to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled the
2996:. When the Christians received the news of the Muslim invasion of their homeland, they abandoned the siege and hastily withdrew there. At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of the fort and devastated their army by attacking them from the rear. In late 638, Ibn Walid also
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Umar then called a halt to the expedition and ordered Abu Ubaidah, now governor of Syria, to consolidate his rule there. This decision can be explained by the dismissal of Khalid from the army, which ended his military career, and a drought followed by a plague the year after.
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had sought an alliance with Heraclius, marrying the latter's daughter (or granddaughter, according to tradition) Manyanh. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front in
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After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies.
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Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of the cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.
1610:(Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.
1665:. The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised the army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective.
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Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at Chalcis, which surrendered some time in June. With this strategic victory, the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah continued their march northward and laid
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placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at the
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Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the
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and thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs in
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although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won a
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The conquest of Jazirah was completed by 640 CE, after which Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm (conqueror of Jazirah) to invade Byzantine territory north of there. They marched independently and captured
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During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his
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With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer
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2932:, is reported to have said, "Farewell, a long farewell to Syria, my fair province. Thou art an infidel's (enemy's) now. Peace be with you, O, Syria – what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy hands."
1803:, in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through
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in February. Umar, after having learned of the position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture the
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the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar.
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coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to capture
1815:. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria.
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on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for
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Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the
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even reportedly forced Umar to praise Khalid's military genius, saying, "Khalid is truly the commander. May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been."
2757:. When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to the exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan.
2820:, due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637. Umar appointed his close advisor
1858:, the capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a
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offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured
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was fought, lasting six days and ending in a major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant.
3114:. Annual raids into western Anatolia dissuaded the Byzantines from further attempts to recapture Syria. In 654–655, Uthman ordered the preparation of an expedition to capture
2634:(died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the
2828:. Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria.
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was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took a cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at the
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As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at the Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached
1461:
The 7th century was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from
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fell into Muslim hands, followed by most of Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman Empire in the region, which surrendered peacefully and agreed to pay Jizya.
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lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate the
1854:
through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards
1582:, had been killed. Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory.
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were kept apart in camps, and life went on much as before for the local population. The Muslims tolerated the Jews and Christians. The taxes instituted were the
2749:, while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with
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1907:, 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege. Khalid finally attacked and
1653:. Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when Caliph
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1645:, Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted the Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines.
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On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint
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Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day
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In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards
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Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanids' Arab allies, the
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to hold the lieutenancy of Medina. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then captured
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3084:, which had been lost to the Muslims during Umar's reign. A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to reconquer Syria.
1811:. It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at an
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2992:, which they found to be well fortified; thus, they left a fraction of the army to impose a siege on the city, while the rest went after
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2623:, were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around the time of the
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in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two
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Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the
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Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah to build a navy. From their base in Syria, the Muslims used this fleet to capture
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force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of
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Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine.
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1539:. During the battle the Muslim army was routed. After three Muslim leaders were killed, the command was given to
1458:, advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops.
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to send a contingent, which, together with the local garrison, defeated the Byzantine army in Northern Syria.
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and raided northern and central Anatolia. Heraclius had already abandoned all the forts between Antioch and
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with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards
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in order to complete the conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of
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Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended the raid.
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On the orders of Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of the Muslim army in Iraq, sent an army under
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The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns: page no:576 by Lieutenant-General
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Gil, Moshe; Ethel Broido (1997). A History of Palestine. Cambridge University Press, pp. 634–1099.
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Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception. Yazdegerd III lost his army at the
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and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces. The surviving Muslim forces retreated to
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Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500
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The Different Aspects of Islam Culture: Volume 3, The Spread of Islam throughout the World
3383:"Ghassan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 October 2006
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speakers with a partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The
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occupied in Syria. He thus sought help from the Christians (some of whom were Arabs) of
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dynasty, with Syria as its core and Damascus its capital for the next century to come.
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2651:) led by Schinos; the other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus (
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Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk CE 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing.
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to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (or
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Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid and Iyad ibn Ghanm's raids into Anatolia.
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and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards
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1434:. The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was
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a decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at
1229:. Clashes between the Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of the
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Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary.
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2190:
1891:
1567:
1555:
1517:
1478:
1446:
1378:
1312:
1230:
1154:
1121:
1096:
1025:
1010:
995:
948:
938:
917:
877:
872:
809:
794:
695:
591:
557:
371:
241:
228:
121:
4069:
The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.
3646:
The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary of the Bible, Known as 'Kitāb Jāmiʿ al-Alfāẓ' (Agron)
1282:
for seven centuries prior to the Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by the
4088:
4064:
4060:
3994:
3963:
The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text
3961:
3891:
3798:
3770:
3360:
3237:
3217:
2865:
2737:
2411:
2319:
1867:
1618:
1506:
1321:
1206:
1182:
1076:
958:
824:
819:
729:
646:
581:
552:
3384:
4157:
4149:
4019:
3928:
3916:
3165:
3157:
3115:
3004:
2947:
2917:
2845:
2699:
2687:
2504:
2384:
2129:
2112:
1920:
1758:
1723:
1563:
1559:
1527:
vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as the
1521:
1406:
1058:
908:
767:
750:
626:
616:
189:
3399:
3353:
3095:
In 645–646, Sufyan bin Mujib Al-Azdi, appointed by Muawiyah, managed to seize
4222:
4176:
4153:
4137:
3161:
2929:
2750:
2588:
2556:
2548:
2380:
2088:
1895:
1808:
1641:
After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of
1562:
as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region of
1258:
1226:
1066:
882:
174:
169:
3099:
to eventually capture the last Byzantine stronghold on the Levantine coast.
1877:
Geographical map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria
1535:
after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who was en route to
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
3990:
3822:
3335:
3149:
3045:
2908:
before the Muslims arrived. He then arranged for the necessary defenses in
2741:
2733:
2648:
2635:
2125:
1919:. The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and the
1839:
1494:
1422:
1413:
of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful
1291:
3052:
to create a buffer zone between the Muslim controlled areas and Anatolia.
2928:. Heraclius hastily took the mountainous path and, on passing through the
3193:
2783:
in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of
2652:
2584:
2266:
2017:
1898:, 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in the
1827:
1823:
1270:
1222:
705:
267:
2952:
3232:
3085:
2608:
2205:
1859:
1740:
1606:
1532:
1362:
194:
126:
1934:
493:
4098:
3153:
3068:
Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman (654)
2993:
2981:, a veteran of Yarmouk, who had originally been sent to Iraq for the
2966:
2809:
2612:
2576:
2500:
2261:
2235:
1524:
1490:
1450:
1442:
1414:
1374:
1339:
211:
130:
3169:
2849:
2668:
2620:
2552:
2551:
surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of
2200:
1851:
1796:
1766:
1691:
1601:
1589:
1585:
1509:
1498:
1482:
1391:
1358:
1287:
1283:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1139:
746:
146:
3385:
Ghassan (ancient kingdom, Arabia) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
2904:
River in Anatolia. Emperor Heraclius had already left Antioch for
2641:
2116:
3413:
3300:
3127:
3041:
3007:
to conquer the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates up to
2913:
2857:
2853:
2844:
With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards
2720:
Muslim and Byzantine troop movements before the battle of Yarmouk
2672:
2210:
1912:
1843:
1402:
1383:
1307:
1303:
1791:
Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria.
4066:
Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.
3852:
The Sword of Allah Khalid Bin Al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns
3312:
3296:
3292:
3197:
3174:
3111:
3103:
3081:
3049:
2925:
2920:. On the way, he had a narrow escape when Khalid, who had just
2889:
2885:
2825:
2817:
2784:
2762:
2604:
2600:
2564:
2560:
2471:
2230:
1831:
1781:
1762:
1705:
1681:
1646:
1604:'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in the
1597:
1593:
1544:
1528:
1462:
1455:
1427:
1387:
1218:
70:
3338:(2007). "The decisive battles in the Arab Conquest of Syria".
3133:
2989:
2970:
2702:
which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months.
2663:. While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the
2611:, Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of
3308:
3180:
3107:
3012:
2974:
2840:
Map detailing the route of Muslim invasion of northern Syria.
2754:
2732:
Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of
2691:
2683:
2592:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2446:
1916:
1855:
1812:
1804:
1777:
1745:
1715:
1578:, in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son,
1536:
1431:
1418:
1410:
1370:
1338:. Part of the area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of the
1317:
1299:
3196:
broke out in the Muslim empire as a result of the murder of
2107:
Map detailing the route of Muslim invasion of central Syria.
1394:. To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of
4190:
Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group,
3676:
3674:
3122:
in 655, the expedition was delayed for decades, only to be
3118:, but, due to unrest in the caliphate that resulted in his
3089:
3008:
2877:
2746:
2596:
2121:
1800:
1773:
1748:, one of the first cities to fall to invading Muslim armies
1677:
1654:
1642:
1250:
2900:. Khalid moved north and raided territory up to as far as
1637:
Map detailing Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the Levant.
1574:
and its stated aim was to avenge the Muslim losses at the
1469:, but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively.
1373:
for over a decade before being forced by the victories of
3430:
3428:
2821:
3671:
3661:
3659:
2864:
5 kilometres (3 mi) east of Chalcis. The resulting
4107:(Yohanan Friedmann ed.). SUNY Press. p. 174.
3737:
3698:
3204:
as caliph, the Rashidun Caliphate was succeeded by the
2591:. Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of
3425:
1997:
3809:. London: Alexander P. Watt for the Committee of the
3656:
3018:
2128:. The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the
1649:
soon recruited tribal contingents from all over the
1196:
4203:
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
3980:
3781:
3686:
3461:
A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims
3440:
3419:
2985:. Umar himself marched from Medina with 1,000 men.
2078:
3981:El Hareir, Idris; M'Baye, El Hadji Ravane (2011).
3144:The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (
2135:
99:Annexation of the Levant by the Rashidun Caliphate
3394:
3392:
3377:
2098:
1324:, and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as
1225:rule and developed into the provincial region of
4220:
3346:
2973:, who mustered a large army and marched against
1927:, 305 kilometres (190 miles) north of Damascus.
1489:was fought in September 629 near the village of
3896:(2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press.
3870:Conquerors of Palestine Through Forty Centuries
2642:Battles for Emesa and Second Battle of Damascus
3893:Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study
3389:
3059:
2042:Conquest of Isfahan & Tabaristan (642–643)
16:7th-century conquest by the Rashidun Caliphate
3598:
3474:
3472:
3470:
2831:
2528:
1950:
1930:
509:
283:
3788:(in Arabic). مكتبة الكيان. pp. 309–311.
3548:Islamic Historical General Khalid Bin Waleed
3512:Islamic Historical General Khalid Bin Waleed
3482:, Nat. Publishing. House, Rawalpindi (1970)
3248:7th century in Lebanon § Administration
4196:The Islamic World to 1600: Tutorial Outline
4083:
3966:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing.
3754:
3752:
3140:Bilad al-Sham § Administrative history
3134:Administration under the Rashidun Caliphate
4163:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
4059:
4037:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
3934:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
3802:
3467:
3370:
3368:
2935:
2535:
2521:
1992:
1957:
1943:
1795:Khalid immediately set out for Syria from
1531:' attempt to take retribution against the
516:
502:
297:
290:
276:
4171:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 381–386.
4045:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 410–414.
3999:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3996:Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
2052:Conquest of Kerman & Makran (643–644)
1617:, starting with a confrontation with the
4128:
4013:
3749:
3743:
3704:
3545:Akram, Agha Ibrahim (13 February 2016).
3509:Akram, Agha Ibrahim (13 February 2016).
3063:
3022:
2951:
2835:
2715:
2102:
1872:
1786:
1739:
1722:Not knowing the precise position of the
1632:
1472:
3956:
3867:
3692:
3640:
3601:"50 Great Military Leaders of All Time"
3365:
3187:
1964:
1765:where it meets the southern end of the
1430:and Southern Syria from his capital at
523:
4221:
4212:The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu
4097:
3665:
3354:Syria – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
3334:
2790:
1718:. Move on Tabuk route after Shurahbil.
1628:
3989:
3889:
3845:
3680:
3648:(in Hebrew). Vol. 1. New Haven:
3544:
3508:
3446:
3400:Iran – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
2627:, lasted until the port fell in 640.
2087:as the new commander-in-chief of the
1938:
1257:was the most important leader of the
497:
271:
3942:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 756.
3910:
3785:فرسان النهار من الصحابة الأخيار – ج5
3434:
2705:
1735:
1445:, after re-capturing Syria from the
1233:had occurred during the lifetime of
2030:Conquest of Sassanid Persian Empire
2003:Conquest of Armenia (638 & 644)
1998:Campaigns in Eastern Anatolia (638)
1886:against the Byzantines on 30 July.
1862:army in a quick battle, called the
1570:. This expedition was known as the
1186:
13:
3652:. p. xxxix–xl (Introduction).
3342:. Vol. 101. pp. 297–358.
2896:and the coastal areas west of the
2753:, apparently inviting him to join
1708:. Move on Tabuk route after Yazid.
1365:had succeeded in occupying Syria,
14:
4285:
4184:
3458:
3019:Campaigns in Armenia and Anatolia
2013:Conquest of Lower Egypt (641–642)
2008:Conquest of Upper Egypt (640–641)
1818:
1477:Military confrontations with the
79:Praetorian prefecture of the East
4104:The history of at-Tabari Vol. 12
3644:(1936). Solomon L. Skoss (ed.).
3243:Umayyad conquest of North Africa
3168:, was later added) and the Arab
2170:
2079:Dismissal of Khalid from command
1981:Conquest of Eastern Roman Empire
1752:
1465:after being exhausted by recent
1449:, set up new defense lines from
1296:fall of Jerusalem in the year 70
1201:; lit. "Conquest of Syria"), or
39:
3792:
3775:
3728:
3719:
3710:
3634:
3617:
3592:
3583:
3574:
3565:
3538:
3529:
3502:
3493:
3452:
3044:and the whole of Armenia up to
2136:Conquest of Palestine (634-641)
1993:Conquest of Palestine (635–636)
1657:fell short of manpower for the
1390:in the north to the top of the
1280:Syria had been under Roman rule
1205:, was a 634–638 CE invasion of
4090:History of the Byzantine State
3404:
3328:
3285:
2099:Conquest of the Central Levant
2067:Conquest of Khurasan (643–644)
2023:Conquest of North Africa (643)
1834:were first to fall to Khalid.
1264:
1:
4229:Muslim conquest of the Levant
3855:. Mr. Books. pp. 359–417
3839:
3340:Studia Orientalia Electronica
1830:, and the historical city of
1481:began during the lifetime of
1179:Muslim conquest of the Levant
26:Muslim conquest of the Levant
4244:630s in the Byzantine Empire
3782:سيد بن حسين العفاني (2005).
3322:
2924:, was heading south towards
2856:, and the regional capital,
2797:Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)
2482:Israeli Civil Administration
2062:Conquest of Azerbaijan (643)
2057:Conquest of Sistan (643–644)
1572:Expedition of Usama bin Zayd
1505:, between the forces of the
1401:Syria was mostly made up of
7:
3420:El Hareir & M'Baye 2011
3211:
3060:Under Caliph Uthman's reign
2956:Temple of Jupiter, Lebanon.
2630:According to lexicographer
1988:Conquest of Syria (634–637)
1596:and political successor at
1421:to Syria, who converted to
1197:
913:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder
10:
4290:
4194:, University of Calgary.
4099:Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir
4093:. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
3868:Allenby, Viscount (2003),
3811:Palestine Exploration Fund
3734:Tabari: Vol. 4, pp. 37–38.
3137:
2945:
2939:
2832:Conquest of northern Syria
2800:
2794:
2709:
2139:
2037:Conquest of Iraq (636–637)
1931:Conquest under Caliph Umar
1615:largest empires in history
1268:
4192:The Islamic World to 1600
3890:Betts, Robert B. (1978).
3764:Last accessed 20 Oct 2006
3760:The Islamic World to 1600
3459:Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher.
3162:Jund Filastin (Palestine)
3080:decided to recapture the
2988:In 638, Muslims attacked
2852:, Heraclius' homeland of
2803:Islamization of Jerusalem
2632:David ben Abraham al-Fasi
2085:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
2018:Conquest of Bahnasa (639)
1976:
1900:Battle of Maraj as Saffer
1712:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
959:George Maniakes in Sicily
535:
309:
165:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
136:
107:
53:
38:
30:
25:
3803:le Strange, Guy (1890).
3278:
3124:attempted unsuccessfully
2247:Ancient Israel and Judah
1925:Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj
1905:Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab
1846:were captured after the
1357:, beginning in 603, the
1245:who succeeded Muhammad:
47:Roman Theatre at Palmyra
3603:. Vij Books India Pvt.
3158:Jund al-Urdunn (Jordan)
3150:Jund Dimashq (Damascus)
2983:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah
2936:Byzantine counterattack
1864:Battle of Marj-al-Rahit
1663:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah
4130:Vaglieri, Laura Veccia
3716:Tabari: Vol. 3, p. 98.
3599:Jann Tibbetts (2016).
3571:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 609
3535:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 601
3200:and the nomination of
3069:
3028:
2957:
2898:Anti-Lebanon Mountains
2841:
2721:
2108:
2047:Conquest of Fars (642)
1878:
1848:Battle of al-Qaryatayn
1792:
1749:
1733:
1638:
1588:died in June 632, and
1441:The Byzantine Emperor
1294:, beginning after the
1213:. A part of the wider
1203:Arab conquest of Syria
301:Early Muslim conquests
137:Commanders and leaders
4239:History of the Levant
4014:Meinecke, M. (1995).
3769:10 April 2007 at the
3650:Yale University Press
3273:History of the Levant
3138:Further information:
3067:
3026:
2955:
2946:Further information:
2882:Battle of Iron bridge
2839:
2801:Further information:
2719:
2665:Battle of Marj ar-Rum
2497:Palestinian Authority
2302:Hellenistic Palestine
2277:Neo-Babylonian Empire
2106:
1876:
1790:
1743:
1728:
1636:
1473:Rise of the Caliphate
1298:, the entire region (
185:Shurahbil ibn Hassana
3985:. UNESCO publishing.
3874:Kessinger Publishing
3268:History of Palestine
3188:Rise of the Umayyads
3072:During the reign of
2942:Siege of Emesa (638)
2781:Battle of Qadisiyyah
2492:Palestinian enclaves
2477:Military Governorate
1702:Shurahbil ibn Hasana
1688:Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan
1436:Jabalah ibn al-Aiham
1327:Palaestina Salutaris
1253:. During this time,
1052:Byzantine reconquest
219:Jabalah ibn al-Aiham
180:Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan
4234:Arab–Byzantine wars
4209:Bishop John Nikiou
4134:"ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib"
4085:Ostrogorsky, George
3847:Akram, Agha Ibrahim
3551:. Lulu Press, Inc.
3515:. Lulu Press, Inc.
3437:, pp. 756–757.
3374:Kaegi, 1995, p. 41.
3359:14 May 2006 at the
3228:Byzantine-Arab Wars
3164:(to which a fifth,
2998:captured Germanicia
2791:Capturing Jerusalem
2462:Egyptian Gaza Strip
2457:Jordanian West Bank
2442:Mandatory Palestine
2336:Diocese of the East
2272:Neo-Assyrian Empire
2132:on 23 January 635.
1968:Wars of Caliph Umar
1894:in mid-August near
1680:route, then across
1629:Expedition to Syria
1623:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1552:Farewell Pilgrimage
1541:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1330:, sometimes called
1275:Diocese of the East
1255:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1251:Umar ibn al-Khattab
1215:Arab-Byzantine Wars
527:Arab–Byzantine wars
478:Visigothic Hispania
225:Theodore Trithyrius
200:Ikrima ibn Abi Jahl
160:Khalid ibn al-Walid
154:Umar ibn al-Khattab
75:Diocese of the East
33:Arab–Byzantine wars
4215:Chapters CXVI-CXXI
4146:Lévi-Provençal, E.
3958:Charles, Robert H.
3758:"Umar (634–644)",
3725:Regan 2003, p. 167
3683:, p. 359-417.
3589:Akram, chapter 31.
3480:Agha Ibrahim Akram
3253:History of Lebanon
3070:
3042:Melitene (Malatya)
3029:
2958:
2842:
2814:Siege of Jerusalem
2722:
2675:, where the great
2667:, Khalid moved to
2488:State of Palestine
2328:Province of Judaea
2142:Islam in Palestine
2109:
1909:conquered Damascus
1879:
1793:
1750:
1639:
1621:under the general
1467:Roman–Persian Wars
1355:Roman-Persian Wars
1221:was brought under
1211:Rashidun Caliphate
954:Straits of Messina
773:2nd Constantinople
758:1st Constantinople
115:Rashidun Caliphate
4076:978-0-88141-056-3
4052:978-90-04-09834-3
3973:978-1-889758-87-9
3949:978-90-04-09419-2
3911:Buhl, F. (1993).
3903:978-0-8042-0796-6
3629:978-0-521-59984-9
3610:978-93-85505-66-9
3558:978-1-312-23371-3
3522:978-1-312-23371-3
3488:978-0-7101-0104-4
3263:History of Jordan
2774:Battle of Yarmouk
2712:Battle of Yarmouk
2706:Battle of Yarmouk
2696:Maarrat al-Nu'man
2677:Temple of Jupiter
2625:Battle of Yarmouk
2545:
2544:
2314:Hasmonean kingdom
2282:Achaemenid Empire
2075:
2074:
1826:, Quraqir, Suwa,
1744:Ruins of ancient
1736:Conquest of Syria
1659:Battle of Yarmouk
1651:Arabian peninsula
1580:Zayd ibn Harithah
1503:Karak Governorate
1336:Palaestina Tertia
1195:
1172:
1171:
491:
490:
437:Caucasian Albania
266:
265:
103:
102:
4281:
4180:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4094:
4080:
4061:Meyendorff, John
4056:
4028:Heinrichs, W. P.
4010:
3991:Kaegi, Walter E.
3986:
3977:
3953:
3925:Heinrichs, W. P.
3907:
3886:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3779:
3773:
3756:
3747:
3741:
3735:
3732:
3726:
3723:
3717:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3684:
3678:
3669:
3663:
3654:
3653:
3638:
3632:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3596:
3590:
3587:
3581:
3578:
3572:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3542:
3536:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3506:
3500:
3497:
3491:
3476:
3465:
3464:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3438:
3432:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3402:
3396:
3387:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3363:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3332:
3316:
3289:
3258:History of Syria
3223:Muslim conquests
2738:Sassanid emperor
2537:
2530:
2523:
2340:Palaestina Prima
2332:Syria Palaestina
2324:Herodian kingdom
2295:Classical period
2191:Natufian culture
2174:
2164:
2146:
2145:
1971:
1969:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1936:
1935:
1892:Battle of Yaqusa
1682:Valley of Arabah
1576:Battle of Mu'tah
1568:Byzantine Empire
1518:Byzantine Empire
1487:Battle of Mu'tah
1479:Byzantine Empire
1243:Rashidun caliphs
1239:Battle of Muʿtah
1231:Byzantine Empire
1200:
1190:
1188:
939:Marianos Argyros
815:Asia Minor (806)
800:Asia Minor (782)
789:Border conflicts
686:Babylon Fortress
530:
528:
518:
511:
504:
495:
494:
447:Khazar Khaganate
442:Caucasian Iberia
331:Byzantine Empire
304:
302:
292:
285:
278:
269:
268:
246:
233:
122:Byzantine Empire
55:
54:
43:
23:
22:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4219:
4218:
4200:Edward Gibbon,
4187:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4077:
4053:
4020:Bosworth, C. E.
4007:
3974:
3950:
3917:Bosworth, C. E.
3904:
3884:
3858:
3856:
3842:
3837:
3827:
3825:
3799:Yaqut al-Hamawi
3797:
3793:
3780:
3776:
3771:Wayback Machine
3757:
3750:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3691:
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3664:
3657:
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3622:
3618:
3611:
3597:
3593:
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3579:
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3559:
3543:
3539:
3534:
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3523:
3507:
3503:
3498:
3494:
3477:
3468:
3457:
3453:
3445:
3441:
3433:
3426:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3366:
3361:Wayback Machine
3351:
3347:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3320:
3319:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3238:Iudaea Province
3218:Spread of Islam
3214:
3192:When the first
3190:
3142:
3136:
3078:Constantine III
3062:
3021:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2922:captured Marash
2874:siege to Aleppo
2866:Battle of Hazir
2834:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2714:
2708:
2644:
2541:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2495:
2472:State of Israel
2437:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2388:
2371:Muslim conquest
2366:
2365:
2354:
2353:
2320:Roman Palestine
2297:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2258:
2241:Egyptian Empire
2226:
2225:
2224:Ancient history
2216:
2215:
2186:
2185:
2162:
2155:
2144:
2138:
2101:
2081:
2076:
2071:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1933:
1884:decisive battle
1821:
1755:
1738:
1670:Amr ibn al-A'as
1631:
1507:Islamic prophet
1475:
1382:stretched from
1277:
1269:Main articles:
1267:
1207:Byzantine Syria
1175:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1016:Gulf of Corinth
538:Early conflicts
531:
526:
524:
522:
492:
487:
405:Northern Persia
388:Sassanid Persia
305:
300:
298:
296:
262:
242:
229:
204:
129:
125:
95:
81:
73:: at that time
44:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4287:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4249:630s conflicts
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4217:
4216:
4207:
4198:
4186:
4185:External links
4183:
4182:
4181:
4142:Kramers, J. H.
4138:Gibb, H. A. R.
4126:
4113:
4095:
4081:
4075:
4057:
4051:
4024:van Donzel, E.
4011:
4006:978-0521411721
4005:
3987:
3978:
3972:
3954:
3948:
3921:van Donzel, E.
3908:
3902:
3887:
3882:
3865:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3835:
3791:
3774:
3748:
3746:, p. 410.
3736:
3727:
3718:
3709:
3707:, p. 382.
3697:
3685:
3670:
3668:, p. 174.
3655:
3633:
3616:
3609:
3591:
3582:
3580:Waqidi: p. 62.
3573:
3564:
3557:
3537:
3528:
3521:
3501:
3492:
3466:
3463:. p. 283.
3451:
3439:
3424:
3422:, p. 142.
3412:
3403:
3388:
3376:
3364:
3345:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3311:, and eastern
3283:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3270:
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3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3189:
3186:
3166:Jund Qinnasrin
3135:
3132:
3116:Constantinople
3061:
3058:
3020:
3017:
3011:. In 639–640,
3005:Iyad ibn Ghanm
2965:, mainly from
2948:Iyad ibn Ghanm
2940:Main article:
2937:
2934:
2930:Cilician gates
2918:Constantinople
2892:, and finally
2833:
2830:
2795:Main article:
2792:
2789:
2710:Main article:
2707:
2704:
2700:besieged Emesa
2643:
2640:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2509:
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2429:
2428:
2425:
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2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2385:Jund al-Urdunn
2375:
2373:
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2359:
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2175:
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2166:
2157:
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2149:
2137:
2134:
2130:Battle of Fahl
2100:
2097:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1962:
1961:
1954:
1947:
1939:
1932:
1929:
1921:Byzantine army
1868:siege of Bosra
1820:
1819:Southern Syria
1817:
1759:Christian Arab
1754:
1751:
1737:
1734:
1724:Byzantine army
1720:
1719:
1709:
1699:
1685:
1630:
1627:
1619:Persian Empire
1592:was appointed
1560:Usama ibn Zayd
1522:Arab Christian
1493:, east of the
1474:
1471:
1332:Palaestina III
1310:) was renamed
1266:
1263:
1187:فَتْحُ الشَّام
1170:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1157:
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1059:John Kourkouas
1049:
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909:Leo Apostyppes
905:
900:
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856:Southern Italy
848:
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832:
827:
822:
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786:
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751:Constantinople
743:
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670:
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629:
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619:
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612:Maraj-al-Debaj
609:
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602:Sanita-al-Uqab
599:
597:Marj al-Saffar
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584:
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459:Makurian Nubia
450:
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444:
439:
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423:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
384:
383:
381:Southern Italy
374:
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367:Constantinople
364:
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142:
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118:
110:
109:
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104:
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91:
90:
89:Muslim victory
87:
83:
82:
69:
67:
63:
62:
59:
51:
50:
36:
35:
28:
27:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4286:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
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4164:
4159:
4155:
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4147:
4143:
4139:
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4131:
4127:
4116:
4114:9780791407332
4110:
4106:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4038:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3998:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3975:
3969:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3895:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3883:0-7661-3984-0
3879:
3875:
3871:
3866:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3800:
3795:
3787:
3786:
3778:
3772:
3768:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3753:
3745:
3744:Meinecke 1995
3740:
3731:
3722:
3713:
3706:
3705:Vaglieri 1960
3701:
3694:
3689:
3682:
3677:
3675:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3637:
3630:
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3620:
3612:
3606:
3602:
3595:
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3577:
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3560:
3554:
3550:
3549:
3541:
3532:
3524:
3518:
3514:
3513:
3505:
3499:Waqidi: p. 4.
3496:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3462:
3455:
3449:, p. 67.
3448:
3443:
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3431:
3429:
3421:
3416:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3393:
3386:
3380:
3371:
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3362:
3358:
3355:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3327:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3284:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3177:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3120:assassination
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3098:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3074:Caliph Uthman
3066:
3057:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3025:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2986:
2984:
2980:
2979:Qa’qa ibn Amr
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2949:
2943:
2933:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2916:and left for
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2867:
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2798:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2764:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2751:Yazdegerd III
2748:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2718:
2713:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
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2654:
2650:
2639:
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2622:
2618:
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2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2557:Mediterranean
2554:
2550:
2538:
2533:
2531:
2526:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2452:All-Palestine
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2431:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2381:Jund Filastin
2378:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2291:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2220:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2105:
2096:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1960:
1955:
1953:
1948:
1946:
1941:
1940:
1937:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1896:Lake Tiberias
1893:
1887:
1885:
1875:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1809:Syrian Desert
1806:
1802:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1753:Initial phase
1747:
1742:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1693:
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1679:
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1652:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1600:. Soon after
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1548:
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1534:
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1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
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1468:
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1459:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1439:
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1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1290:. During the
1289:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1262:
1260:
1259:Rashidun army
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1227:Bilad al-Sham
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1193:
1184:
1180:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1138:Campaigns of
1137:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1120:Campaigns of
1119:
1118:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1092:Nikephoros II
1090:Campaigns of
1089:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1067:Sayf al-Dawla
1065:Campaigns of
1064:
1063:
1060:
1057:Campaigns of
1056:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
973:
972:
971:
970:Naval warfare
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:Campaigns of
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
910:
907:Campaigns of
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
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859:
858:
857:
853:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
792:
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790:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
755:
754:
753:
752:
748:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
717:
716:
715:
714:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
678:
677:
676:
675:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
569:
568:
567:
566:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
540:
539:
534:
529:
519:
514:
512:
507:
505:
500:
499:
496:
484:
483:Frankish Gaul
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
468:
464:
460:
457:
456:
455:
454:
453:Other regions
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
429:
428:
427:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
392:
391:
390:
389:
382:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
335:
334:
333:
332:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
315:
314:
308:
303:
293:
288:
286:
281:
279:
274:
273:
270:
258:
255:
252:
249:
247:
245:
239:
236:
234:
232:
226:
223:
221:
220:
216:
214:
213:
209:
208:
206:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
175:Uqba ibn Nafi
173:
171:
170:Amr ibn al-As
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
155:
151:
149:
148:
144:
143:
141:
140:
135:
132:
128:
124:
123:
119:
117:
116:
112:
111:
106:
98:
93:
92:
88:
85:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
65:
64:
60:
57:
56:
52:
48:
45:Scene of the
42:
37:
34:
29:
24:
19:
4211:
4202:
4191:
4168:
4161:
4118:. Retrieved
4103:
4089:
4065:
4042:
4041:Volume VIII:
4035:
3995:
3982:
3962:
3939:
3932:
3892:
3869:
3857:. Retrieved
3851:
3828:16 September
3826:. Retrieved
3805:
3801:as cited in
3794:
3784:
3777:
3759:
3739:
3730:
3721:
3712:
3700:
3693:Allenby 2003
3688:
3645:
3636:
3619:
3594:
3585:
3576:
3567:
3547:
3540:
3531:
3511:
3504:
3495:
3460:
3454:
3442:
3415:
3406:
3379:
3348:
3339:
3330:
3287:
3191:
3179:
3173:
3145:
3143:
3101:
3094:
3071:
3054:
3030:
3002:
2987:
2959:
2870:
2843:
2806:
2778:
2771:
2767:
2759:
2742:Yazdgerd III
2734:Yazdgerd III
2731:
2727:
2723:
2686:. Emesa and
2681:
2661:mobile guard
2657:
2649:Beqaa Valley
2645:
2636:Temple Mount
2629:
2546:
2370:
2363:Islamic rule
2126:River Jordan
2110:
2093:
2089:Islamic army
2082:
1987:
1888:
1880:
1840:al-Qaryatayn
1822:
1794:
1771:
1756:
1729:
1721:
1714:: Objective
1704:: Objective
1690:: Objective
1672:: Objective
1640:
1612:
1605:
1584:
1554:in 632, the
1549:
1495:Jordan River
1476:
1460:
1440:
1423:Christianity
1400:
1348:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1311:
1292:Roman period
1278:
1202:
1178:
1176:
1127:Alexandretta
1051:
1050:
1031:Thessalonica
969:
968:
944:2nd Taormina
928:1st Taormina
898:3rd Syracuse
888:2nd Syracuse
863:1st Syracuse
850:
849:
830:Mauropotamos
788:
787:
763:Sebastopolis
745:
744:
713:North Africa
711:
710:
672:
671:
577:al-Qaryatayn
564:
563:
562:
537:
452:
451:
425:
424:
386:
385:
357:North Africa
337:
329:
328:
311:
243:
230:
217:
210:
152:
145:
120:
113:
108:Belligerents
31:Part of the
18:
4158:Pellat, Ch.
4150:Schacht, J.
4032:Lecomte, G.
3938:Volume VII:
3929:Pellat, Ch.
3666:Tabari 1992
3642:Al-Fasi, D.
3291:Modern-day
2653:Al-Sabboura
2267:Philistines
2196:Pre-Pottery
2161:History of
1417:tribe from
1349:During the
1271:Roman Syria
1265:Roman Syria
1237:, with the
1223:Arab Muslim
1198:Fatḥ al-šām
923:2nd Milazzo
918:1st Milazzo
903:Caltavuturo
845:Bathys Ryax
657:Iron Bridge
622:Marj ar-Rum
473:Transoxiana
420:Afghanistan
94:Territorial
4223:Categories
4206:Chapter 51
4120:18 October
4016:"Al-Rakka"
3859:16 October
3840:References
3813:. p.
3681:Akram 2006
3447:Kaegi 1992
3336:Sharon, M.
3233:Ghassanids
3126:under the
3086:Muawiyah I
2902:Kızılırmak
2673:Heliopolis
2655:region).
2549:Bet She'an
2505:Gaza Strip
2435:Modern era
2206:Ghassulian
2183:Prehistory
2140:See also:
1694:. Move on
1676:. Move on
1607:Ridda wars
1558:appointed
1550:After the
1533:Ghassanids
1520:and their
1514:the forces
1447:Sassanians
1379:Byzantines
1363:Khosrau II
1340:Ghassanids
1313:Palaestina
1306:, and the
1150:2nd Aleppo
1021:Cephalonia
933:Garigliano
835:Faruriyyah
805:Kopidnadon
691:Alexandria
681:Heliopolis
667:Germanicia
652:1st Aleppo
572:Marj Rahit
565:The Levant
256:Buccinator
195:Muawiyah I
127:Ghassanids
77:under the
61:634–638 CE
4274:Heraclius
4177:495469456
4167:Volume I:
4154:Lewis, B.
3960:(2007) .
3435:Buhl 1993
3323:Footnotes
3305:Palestine
3194:civil war
3170:garrisons
3154:Jund Hims
2994:Circesium
2967:Circesium
2810:Jerusalem
2740:. In 635
2613:Jerusalem
2607:. By 635
2501:West Bank
2348:Salutaris
2310:Antigonus
2262:Philistia
2236:Phoenicia
2163:Palestine
1860:Ghassanid
1824:Ain Tamer
1674:Palestine
1525:Ghassanid
1443:Heraclius
1415:Ghassanid
1396:Palestine
1375:Heraclius
1367:Palestine
1344:symmachos
1192:romanized
1097:5th Crete
1082:Andrassos
1041:4th Crete
1036:3rd Crete
991:2nd Crete
986:1st Crete
964:2nd Malta
893:1st Malta
701:Darishkur
662:2nd Emesa
642:Jerusalem
212:Heraclius
131:Tanukhids
4160:(eds.).
4132:(1960).
4101:(1992).
4087:(1956).
4063:(1989).
4034:(eds.).
3993:(1992).
3931:(eds.).
3849:(2006).
3767:Archived
3357:Archived
3212:See also
3128:Umayyads
3106:in 649,
2850:Anatolia
2679:stood.
2669:Damascus
2621:Ashkelon
2617:Caesarea
2553:Tiberias
2407:Crusader
2377:Rashidun
2306:Seleucus
2201:Tahunian
2152:a series
2150:Part of
1852:Damascus
1797:Al-Hirah
1767:Dead Sea
1692:Damascus
1661:and the
1602:Abu Bakr
1590:Abu Bakr
1586:Muhammad
1556:Muhammad
1510:Muhammad
1483:Muhammad
1392:Dead Sea
1359:Persians
1288:Lakhmids
1284:Sassanid
1247:Abu Bakr
1235:Muhammad
1140:Basil II
1001:Damietta
981:Keramaia
840:Lalakaon
783:Akroinon
747:Anatolia
735:Carthage
720:Sufetula
637:Laodicea
607:Damascus
587:Ajnadayn
426:Caucasus
415:Khorasan
147:Abu Bakr
66:Location
4043:Ned–Sam
3940:Mif–Naz
3913:"Muʾta"
3823:1004386
3301:Lebanon
3206:Umayyad
3097:Tripoli
2963:Jazirah
2914:Armenia
2910:Jazirah
2894:Latakia
2858:Antioch
2854:Armenia
2846:Chalcis
2688:Chalcis
2422:Ottoman
2412:Ayyubid
2402:Fatimid
2397:Abbasid
2392:Umayyad
2344:Secunda
2211:Jericho
2115:, near
1913:Antioch
1844:Hawarin
1836:Sukhnah
1566:in the
1529:Muslims
1516:of the
1456:Muslims
1403:Aramaic
1384:Antioch
1353:of the
1308:Galilee
1304:Samaria
1209:by the
1194::
1145:Orontes
1112:Antioch
1107:Cilicia
1026:Euripos
976:Phoenix
949:Rometta
878:Lentini
868:Messina
825:Amorium
795:Kamacha
740:Tabarka
725:Vescera
706:Bahnasa
632:Yarmouk
432:Armenia
352:Georgia
348:Armenia
324:Quraysh
259:Gregory
244:†
231:†
96:changes
4175:
4156:&
4111:
4073:
4049:
4030:&
4003:
3970:
3946:
3927:&
3900:
3880:
3821:
3627:
3607:
3555:
3519:
3486:
3313:Turkey
3297:Jordan
3293:Israel
3198:Uthman
3175:kharaj
3160:, and
3112:Rhodes
3110:, and
3104:Cyprus
3082:Levant
3050:Tartus
3046:Ararat
3034:Edessa
2926:Manbij
2906:Edessa
2890:Jablah
2886:Tartus
2826:Beirut
2818:caliph
2812:. The
2785:Persia
2763:Jabiya
2736:, the
2694:, and
2605:Beirut
2601:Byblos
2565:Amawas
2561:Nablus
2467:Israel
2417:Mamluk
2251:Israel
2231:Canaan
2154:on the
1832:Tadmur
1782:Jabiya
1763:Arabah
1706:Jordan
1698:route.
1647:Medina
1598:Medina
1594:Caliph
1545:Medina
1491:Mu'tah
1485:. The
1463:Arabia
1432:Bostra
1428:Jordan
1388:Aleppo
1361:under
1219:Levant
1217:, the
1183:Arabic
1155:Apamea
1122:John I
1102:Aleppo
1072:Marash
1011:Kardia
1006:Ragusa
996:Thasos
911:&
873:Butera
852:Sicily
810:Krasos
778:Nicaea
749:&
696:Nikiou
592:Yaqusa
558:Dathin
543:Mu'tah
410:Sistan
400:Kerman
377:Sicily
362:Cyprus
313:Arabia
253:Thomas
250:Vardan
240:
227:
86:Result
71:Levant
49:, 2005
4136:. In
4018:. In
3915:. In
3309:Syria
3279:Notes
3181:jizya
3146:junds
3108:Crete
3038:Amida
3013:Raqqa
2975:Emesa
2862:Hazir
2755:Islam
2692:Hamah
2684:Emesa
2593:Sidon
2581:Yubna
2573:Haifa
2569:Jaffa
2447:Nakba
2255:Judah
2117:Zahlé
2113:Ablah
1917:Emesa
1915:from
1856:Bosra
1813:oasis
1805:Raqqa
1799:, in
1778:Bosra
1746:Petra
1716:Emesa
1696:Tabuk
1564:Balqa
1537:Bosra
1499:Karak
1419:Yemen
1411:Arabs
1407:Greek
1371:Egypt
1322:Sinai
1318:Negev
1300:Judea
1132:Syria
1077:Raban
820:Anzen
768:Tyana
730:Mamma
674:Egypt
647:Hazir
627:Emesa
582:Bosra
553:Firaz
548:Balqa
372:Crete
343:Egypt
338:Syria
319:Mecca
238:Vahan
4173:OCLC
4122:2021
4109:ISBN
4071:ISBN
4047:ISBN
4001:ISBN
3968:ISBN
3944:ISBN
3898:ISBN
3878:ISBN
3861:2021
3830:2010
3819:OCLC
3625:ISBN
3605:ISBN
3553:ISBN
3517:ISBN
3484:ISBN
3090:Kufa
3009:Urfa
2969:and
2912:and
2878:Azaz
2747:Iraq
2619:and
2603:and
2597:Arqa
2589:Tyre
2587:and
2585:Acre
2579:and
2577:Gaza
2122:Fahl
1842:and
1828:Arak
1801:Iraq
1780:and
1774:Elat
1678:Elat
1655:Umar
1643:Iraq
1512:and
1497:and
1451:Gaza
1405:and
1386:and
1369:and
1351:last
1273:and
1249:and
1177:The
1164:Azaz
1046:Tyre
883:Enna
854:and
617:Fahl
465:and
395:Fars
379:and
350:and
58:Date
4269:637
4264:636
4259:635
4254:634
4169:A–B
3202:Ali
3148:):
2990:Hīt
2971:Hīt
2822:Ali
1501:in
1398:.
1346:.
1334:or
467:2nd
463:1st
4225::
4165:.
4152:;
4148:;
4144:;
4140:;
4026:;
4022:;
3936:.
3923:;
3919:;
3876:,
3872:,
3817:.
3815:25
3751:^
3673:^
3658:^
3469:^
3427:^
3391:^
3367:^
3307:,
3303:,
3299:,
3295:,
3156:,
3152:,
3130:.
3076:,
3040:,
3036:,
3000:.
2888:,
2787:.
2638:.
2615:,
2609:CE
2599:,
2595:,
2575:,
2571:,
2567:,
2563:,
2503:;
2499:;
2494:;
2387:)
2383:,
2350:))
2346:,
2342:,
2334:,
2330:,
2326:,
2312:,
2308:,
2253:,
1838:,
1769:.
1625:.
1547:.
1438:.
1342:'
1320:,
1302:,
1261:.
1189:,
1185::
4179:.
4124:.
4079:.
4055:.
4039:.
4009:.
3976:.
3952:.
3906:.
3863:.
3832:.
3695:.
3631:.
3613:.
3561:.
3525:.
3490:.
3315:.
2536:e
2529:t
2522:v
2507:)
2490:(
2379:(
2338:(
2322:(
2316:)
2304:(
2257:)
2249:(
1958:e
1951:t
1944:v
1684:.
1181:(
517:e
510:t
503:v
469:)
461:(
291:e
284:t
277:v
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