1039:
increases, eventually reaching zero at some maximum velocity. The reverse holds true for when the muscle is stretched – force increases above isometric maximum, until finally reaching an absolute maximum. This intrinsic property of active muscle tissue plays a role in the active damping of joints that are actuated by simultaneously active opposing muscles. In such cases, the force-velocity profile enhances the force produced by the lengthening muscle at the expense of the shortening muscle. This favoring of whichever muscle returns the joint to equilibrium effectively increases the damping of the joint. Moreover, the strength of the damping increases with muscle force. The motor system can thus actively control joint damping via the simultaneous contraction (co-contraction) of opposing muscle groups.
1543:
174:
without any corresponding changes in muscle length, the muscle contraction is described as isometric. If the muscle length changes while muscle tension remains the same, then the muscle contraction is isotonic. In an isotonic contraction, the muscle length can either shorten to produce a concentric contraction or lengthen to produce an eccentric contraction. In natural movements that underlie locomotor activity, muscle contractions are multifaceted as they are able to produce changes in length and tension in a time-varying manner. Therefore, neither length nor tension is likely to remain constant when the muscle is active during locomotor activity.
613:
1270:
period, there is a rapid burst of energy use as measured by oxygen consumption. Within a few minutes of initiation, the calcium level markedly decreases, the 20 kDa myosin light chains' phosphorylation decreases, and energy use decreases; however, force in tonic smooth muscle is maintained. During contraction of muscle, rapidly cycling crossbridges form between activated actin and phosphorylated myosin, generating force. It is hypothesized that the maintenance of force results from dephosphorylated "latch-bridges" that slowly cycle and maintain force. A number of kinases such as
1030:
477:
1102:
723:
33:
1048:
1757:
436:
166:
895:
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end-plate potential. The voltage-gated ion channels of the sarcolemma next to the end plate open in response to the end plate potential. They are sodium and potassium specific and only allow one through. This wave of ion movements creates the action potential that spreads from the motor end plate in all directions. If action potentials stop arriving, then acetylcholine ceases to be released from the terminal bouton. The remaining acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is either degraded by active
909:
1116:
388:
1640:
1701:
1335:
1009:
1776:
response is contraction. Excitation–contraction coupling can be dysregulated in many diseases. Though excitation–contraction coupling has been known for over half a century, it is still an active area of biomedical research. The general scheme is that an action potential arrives to depolarize the cell membrane. By mechanisms specific to the muscle type, this depolarization results in an increase in cytosolic
678:
1395:(REEP5), functions to keep the normal morphology of junctional SR. Defects of junctional coupling can result from deficiencies of either of the two proteins. During the process of calcium-induced calcium release, RyR2s are activated by a calcium trigger, which is brought about by the flow of Ca through the L-type calcium channels. After this, cardiac muscle tends to exhibit
633:. The activated dihydropyridine receptors physically interact with ryanodine receptors to activate them via foot processes (involving conformational changes that allosterically activates the ryanodine receptors). As ryanodine receptors open, Ca is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the local junctional space and diffuses into the bulk cytoplasm to cause a
1668:
animal moves forward. As the front end of the earthworm becomes anchored and the circular muscles in the anterior segments become relaxed, a wave of longitudinal muscle contractions passes backwards, which pulls the rest of animal's trailing body forward. These alternating waves of circular and longitudinal contractions is called
500:. It is the site in which a motor neuron transmits a signal to a muscle fiber to initiate muscle contraction. The sequence of events that results in the depolarization of the muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction begins when an action potential is initiated in the cell body of a motor neuron, which is then propagated by
1017:
the action of the muscle itself or by an outside force), the maximum active tension generated decreases. This decrease is minimal for small deviations, but the tension drops off rapidly as the length deviates further from the ideal. Due to the presence of elastic proteins within a muscle cell (such as
1667:
by maintaining turgidity of the earthworm. When the circular muscles in the anterior segments contract, the anterior portion of animal's body begins to constrict radially, which pushes the incompressible coelomic fluid forward and increasing the length of the animal. As a result, the front end of the
1073:
Unlike single-unit smooth muscle cells, multiunit smooth muscle cells are found in the muscle of the eye and in the base of hair follicles. Multiunit smooth muscle cells contract by being separately stimulated by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. As such, they allow for fine control and gradual
1743:
because the number of contractions in these muscles do not correspond (or synchronize) with the number of action potentials. For example, a wing muscle of a tethered fly may receive action potentials at a frequency of 3 Hz but it is able to beat at a frequency of 120 Hz. The high frequency
1128:
The contractile activity of smooth muscle cells can be tonic (sustained) or phasic (transient) and is influenced by multiple inputs such as spontaneous electrical activity, neural and hormonal inputs, local changes in chemical composition, and stretch. This is in contrast to the contractile activity
1033:
Force–velocity relationship: right of the vertical axis concentric contractions (the muscle is shortening), left of the axis eccentric contractions (the muscle is lengthened under load); power developed by the muscle in red. Since power is equal to force times velocity, the muscle generates no power
668:
Mitochondria also participate in Ca reuptake, ultimately delivering their gathered Ca to SERCA for storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. A few of the relaxation mechanisms (NCX, Ca2+ pumps and Ca2+ leak channels) move Ca2+ completely out of the cells as well. As Ca concentration declines to resting
568:
reverses polarity and its voltage quickly jumps from the resting membrane potential of -90mV to as high as +75mV as sodium enters. The membrane potential then becomes hyperpolarized when potassium exits and is then adjusted back to the resting membrane potential. This rapid fluctuation is called the
345:
slide past each other, pulling the Z-lines together. During an eccentric contraction, the myofilaments slide past each other the opposite way, though the actual movement of the myosin heads during an eccentric contraction is not known. Exercise featuring a heavy eccentric load can actually support a
259:
the joint at the end of a movement or otherwise control the repositioning of a load. This can occur involuntarily (e.g., when attempting to move a weight too heavy for the muscle to lift) or voluntarily (e.g., when the muscle is 'smoothing out' a movement or resisting gravity such as during downhill
1346:
cells: autorhythmic and contractile. Autorhythmic cells do not contract, but instead set the pace of contraction for other cardiac muscle cells, which can be modulated by the autonomic nervous system. In contrast, contractile muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) constitute the majority of the heart muscle
961:
are sent to muscle fibers. Action potentials do not arrive at muscles synchronously, and, during a contraction, some fraction of the fibers in the muscle will be firing at any given time. In a typical circumstance, when humans are exerting their muscles as hard as they are consciously able, roughly
1016:
Length-tension relationship relates the strength of an isometric contraction to the length of the muscle at which the contraction occurs. Muscles operate with greatest active tension when close to an ideal length (often their resting length). When stretched or shortened beyond this (whether due to
986:
increases, more motor units are excited in addition to larger ones, with the largest motor units having as much as 50 times the contractile strength as the smaller ones. As more and larger motor units are activated, the force of muscle contraction becomes progressively stronger. A concept known as
350:
one to two days after training. Exercise that incorporates both eccentric and concentric muscular contractions (i.e., involving a strong contraction and a controlled lowering of the weight) can produce greater gains in strength than concentric contractions alone. While unaccustomed heavy eccentric
1538:
The cytoplasmic calcium binds to
Troponin C, moving the tropomyosin complex off the actin binding site allowing the myosin head to bind to the actin filament. From this point on, the contractile mechanism is essentially the same as for skeletal muscle (above). Briefly, using ATP hydrolysis, the
660:
When the desired motion is accomplished, relaxation can be achieved quickly through numerous pathways. Relaxation is quickly achieved through a Ca buffer with various cytoplasmic proteins binding to Ca with very high affinity. These cytoplasmic proteins allow for quick relaxation in fast twitch
173:
Muscle contractions can be described based on two variables: force and length. Force itself can be differentiated as either tension or load. Muscle tension is the force exerted by the muscle on an object whereas a load is the force exerted by an object on the muscle. When muscle tension changes
1269:
Termination of crossbridge cycling (and leaving the muscle in latch-state) occurs when myosin light chain phosphatase removes the phosphate groups from the myosin heads. Phosphorylation of the 20 kDa myosin light chains correlates well with the shortening velocity of smooth muscle. During this
1775:
In 1952, the term excitation–contraction coupling was coined to describe the physiological process of converting an electrical stimulus to a mechanical response. This process is fundamental to muscle physiology, whereby the electrical stimulus is usually an action potential and the mechanical
363:
Eccentric contractions normally occur as a braking force in opposition to a concentric contraction to protect joints from damage. During virtually any routine movement, eccentric contractions assist in keeping motions smooth, but can also slow rapid movements such as a punch or throw. Part of
1038:
Force–velocity relationship relates the speed at which a muscle changes its length (usually regulated by external forces, such as load or other muscles) to the amount of force that it generates. Force declines in a hyperbolic fashion relative to the isometric force as the shortening velocity
1325:
release the neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine, which bind to adrenergic receptors that are also metabotropic. The exact effects on the smooth muscle depend on the specific characteristics of the receptor activated—both parasympathetic input and sympathetic input can be either
742:, thereby allowing myosin to bind to another actin molecule. Once attached, the ATP is hydrolyzed by myosin, which uses the released energy to move into the "cocked position" whereby it binds weakly to a part of the actin binding site. The remainder of the actin binding site is blocked by
792:. Myosin then releases ADP but still remains tightly bound to actin. At the end of the power stroke, ADP is released from the myosin head, leaving myosin attached to actin in a rigor state until another ATP binds to myosin. A lack of ATP would result in the rigor state characteristic of
783:
complex causes tropomyosin to slide over and unblock the remainder of the actin binding site. Unblocking the rest of the actin binding sites allows the two myosin heads to close and myosin to bind strongly to actin. The myosin head then releases the inorganic phosphate and initiates a
103:. A single motor neuron is able to innervate multiple muscle fibers, thereby causing the fibers to contract at the same time. Once innervated, the protein filaments within each skeletal muscle fiber slide past each other to produce a contraction, which is explained by the
254:
In eccentric contraction, the tension generated while isometric is insufficient to overcome the external load on the muscle and the muscle fibers lengthen as they contract. Rather than working to pull a joint in the direction of the muscle contraction, the muscle acts to
1659:, circular and longitudinal muscles cells form the body wall of these animals and are responsible for their movement. In an earthworm that is moving through a soil, for example, contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles occur reciprocally while the
620:
Excitation–contraction coupling (ECC) occurs when depolarization of skeletal muscles (usually through neural innervation) results in a muscle action potential. This action potential spreads across the muscle's surface and into the muscle fiber's network of
1021:) and extracellular matrix, as the muscle is stretched beyond a given length, there is an entirely passive tension, which opposes lengthening. Combined, there is a strong resistance to lengthening an active muscle far beyond the peak of active tension.
59:, muscle contraction does not necessarily mean muscle shortening because muscle tension can be produced without changes in muscle length, such as when holding something heavy in the same position. The termination of muscle contraction is followed by
709:
in 1954. Physiologically, this contraction is not uniform across the sarcomere; the central position of the thick filaments becomes unstable and can shift during contraction but this is countered by the actions of the elastic myofilament of
1244:. Unlike skeletal muscle cells, smooth muscle cells lack troponin, even though they contain the thin filament protein tropomyosin and other notable proteins – caldesmon and calponin. Thus, smooth muscle contractions are initiated by the
934:. A twitch is a single contraction and relaxation cycle produced by an action potential within the muscle fiber itself. The time between a stimulus to the motor nerve and the subsequent contraction of the innervated muscle is called the
1355:
In both skeletal and cardiac muscle excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling, depolarization conduction and Ca release processes occur. However, though the proteins involved are similar, they are distinct in structure and regulation. The
938:, which usually takes about 10 ms and is caused by the time taken for nerve action potential to propagate, the time for chemical transmission at the neuromuscular junction, then the subsequent steps in excitation-contraction coupling.
669:
levels, Ca2+ releases from
Troponin C, disallowing cross bridge-cycling, causing the force to decline and relaxation to occur. Once relaxation has fully occurred, the muscle is able to contract again, thus fully resetting the cycle.
609:), while the RyRs reside across the SR membrane. The close apposition of a transverse tubule and two SR regions containing RyRs is described as a triad and is predominantly where excitation–contraction coupling takes place.
836:
is no longer present on the thin filament, the tropomyosin changes conformation back to its previous state so as to block the binding sites again. The myosin ceases binding to the thin filament, and the muscle relaxes. The
1704:
Asynchronous muscles power flight in most insect species. a: Wings b: Wing joint c: Dorsoventral muscles power the upstroke d: Dorsolongitudinal muscles (DLM) power the downstroke. The DLMs are oriented out of the page.
318:) is nevertheless consumed, although less than would be consumed during a concentric contraction of the same force. For example, one expends more energy going up a flight of stairs than going down the same flight.
216:
In concentric contraction, muscle tension is sufficient to overcome the load, and the muscle shortens as it contracts. This occurs when the force generated by the muscle exceeds the load opposing its contraction.
130:(meaning that they are initiated by the smooth or heart muscle cells themselves instead of being stimulated by an outside event such as nerve stimulation), although they can be modulated by stimuli from the
1625:
concentration allows the troponin complex to dissociate from the actin filament thereby ending contraction. The heart relaxes, allowing the ventricles to fill with blood and begin the cardiac cycle again.
1519:
sparks gives a cell-wide increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration. The increase in cytosolic calcium following the flow of calcium through the cell membrane and sarcoplasmic reticulum is moderated by
467:
through a feedback loop with the grey matter. Other actions such as locomotion, breathing, and chewing have a reflex aspect to them: the contractions can be initiated either consciously or unconsciously.
1034:
at either isometric force (due to zero velocity) or maximal velocity (due to zero force). The optimal shortening velocity for power generation is approximately one-third of maximum shortening velocity.
1129:
of skeletal muscle cells, which relies on a single neural input. Some types of smooth muscle cells are able to generate their own action potentials spontaneously, which usually occur following a
1739:
because they contain myofibrils that are thick and conspicuous. A remarkable feature of these muscles is that they do not require stimulation for each muscle contraction. Hence, they are called
145:, muscle contractions are multifaceted as they are able to produce changes in length and tension in a time-varying manner. Therefore, neither length nor tension is likely to remain the same in
1688:, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles. In
987:
the size principle, allows for a gradation of muscle force during weak contraction to occur in small steps, which then become progressively larger when greater amounts of force are required.
4000:
941:
If another muscle action potential were to be produced before the complete relaxation of a muscle twitch, then the next twitch will simply sum onto the previous twitch, thereby producing a
157:
if muscle tension remains the same throughout the contraction. If the muscle length shortens, the contraction is concentric; if the muscle length lengthens, the contraction is eccentric.
2852:
Enoka, Roger M.; Pearson, Keir G. (2013). "The motor unit and muscle action". In Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James H.; Jessell, Thomas M.; Siegelbaum, Steven A.; Hudspeth, A. J. (eds.).
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224:. This occurs throughout the length of the muscle, generating a force at the origin and insertion, causing the muscle to shorten and changing the angle of the joint. In relation to the
3270:
Guo, Ang; Zhang, Xiaoying; Iyer, Venkat Ramesh; Chen, Biyi; Zhang, Caimei; Kutschke, William J.; Weiss, Robert M.; Franzini-Armstrong, Clara; Song, Long-Sheng (19 August 2014).
1066:. Single-unit smooth muscle cells can be found in the gut and blood vessels. Because these cells are linked together by gap junctions, they are able to contract as a functional
693:
to contract. It is a cycle of repetitive events that cause a thin filament to slide over a thick filament and generate tension in the muscle. It was independently developed by
2499:
Saladin, Kenneth S., Stephen J. Sullivan, and
Christina A. Gan. Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print.
990:
Finally, if the frequency of muscle action potentials increases such that the muscle contraction reaches its peak force and plateaus at this level, then the contraction is a
3337:
Wei, Sheng; Guo, Ang; Chen, Biyi; Kutschke, William; Xie, Yu-Ping; Zimmerman, Kathy; Weiss, Robert M.; Anderson, Mark E.; Cheng, Heping; Song, Long-Sheng (20 August 2010).
3987:
Saladin, Kenneth S., Stephen J. Sullivan, and
Christina A. Gan. (2015). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
1787:
The mechanism for muscle contraction evaded scientists for years and requires continued research and updating. The sliding filament theory was independently developed by
346:
greater weight (muscles are approximately 40% stronger during eccentric contractions than during concentric contractions) and also results in greater muscular damage and
208:, the tension in the muscle remains constant despite a change in muscle length. This occurs when a muscle's force of contraction matches the total load on the muscle.
2400:"A randomised clinical trial of the efficacy of drop squats or leg extension/leg curl exercises to treat clinically diagnosed jumper's knee in athletes: pilot study"
962:
one-third of the fibers in each of those muscles will fire at once, though this ratio can be affected by various physiological and psychological factors (including
552:
between the motor neuron terminal and the neuromuscular junction of the skeletal muscle fiber. Acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and binds to and activates
1240:(kDa) myosin light chains on amino acid residue-serine 19, enabling the molecular interaction of myosin and actin, and initiating contraction and activating the
115:. In skeletal muscles, muscle tension is at its greatest when the muscle is stretched to an intermediate length as described by the length-tension relationship.
1692:, the obliquely striated muscles can maintain tension over long periods without using too much energy. Bivalves use these muscles to keep their shells closed.
3868:
642:
2447:
Tassinary; Cacioppo (2000). "The
Skeletomotor system: surface electromyography". In Cacioppo, John T.; Tassinary, Luois G.; Berntson, Gary G. (eds.).
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3997:
1524:, which bind a large proportion of intracellular calcium. As a result, a large increase in total calcium leads to a relatively small rise in free
3642:
Crespo LM, Grantham CJ, Cannell MB (June 1990). "Kinetics, stoichiometry and role of the Na-Ca exchange mechanism in isolated cardiac myocytes".
3498:
Cheng H, Lederer WJ, Cannell MB (October 1993). "Calcium sparks: elementary events underlying excitation-contraction coupling in heart muscle".
2800:"The positional stability of thick filaments in activated skeletal muscle depends on sarcomere length: evidence for the role of titin filaments"
1768:
discovered that the muscles of dead frogs' legs twitched when struck by an electrical spark. This was one of the first forays into the study of
268:
more than training with concentric contractions alone. However, exercise-induced muscle damage is also greater during lengthening contractions.
1441:. Although this Ca influx only count for about 10% of the Ca needed for activation, it is relatively larger than that of skeletal muscle. This
734:
is a myosin projection, consisting of two myosin heads, that extends from the thick filaments. Each myosin head has two binding sites: one for
4238:
881:
ions from the troponin. Thus, the tropomyosin-troponin complex again covers the binding sites on the actin filaments and contraction ceases.
665:(SERCA) actively pumps Ca back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, resulting in a permanent relaxation until the next action potential arrives.
2747:
Huxley H, Hanson J (1954). "Changes in the cross-striations of muscle during contraction and stretch and their structural interpretation".
3441:
Yao, Lei; Xie, Duanyang; Geng, Li; Shi, Dan; Huang, Jian; Wu, Yufei; Lv, Fei; Liang, Dandan; Li, Li; Liu, Yi; Li, Jun (3 February 2018).
1554:(SERCA) pump back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum ready for the next cycle to begin. Calcium is also ejected from the cell mainly by the
427:
because of their striped appearance under a microscope, which is due to the highly organized alternating pattern of A bands and I bands.
188:
An isometric contraction of a muscle generates tension without changing length. An example can be found when the muscles of the hand and
66:
For the contractions to happen, the muscle cells must rely on the change in action of two types of filaments: thin and thick filaments.
1376:(main RyR isoform in cardiac muscle) are not physically coupled in cardiac muscle, but face with each other by a junctional coupling.
4036:
2693:
Huxley AF, Niedergerke R (1954). "Structural
Changes in Muscle During Contraction: Interference Microscopy of Living Muscle Fibres".
3272:"Overexpression of junctophilin-2 does not enhance baseline function but attenuates heart failure development after cardiac stress"
1577:
does not have to leave the cell entirely. At high heart rates, phospholamban is phosphorylated and deactivated thus taking most
1406:
Excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac muscle cells occurs when an action potential is initiated by pacemaker cells in the
329:
exercise) as compared to concentric loading. When eccentric contractions are used in weight training, they are normally called
714:. This fine myofilament maintains uniform tension across the sarcomere by pulling the thick filament into a central position.
3781:
3705:
3126:"Tonic and phasic smooth muscle contraction is not regulated by the PKCα - CPI-17 pathway in swine stomach antrum and fundus"
2886:
2861:
2674:
2456:
2133:
2079:
2043:
1999:
1971:
1946:
1566:, serves as a brake for SERCA. At low heart rates, phospholamban is active and slows down the activity of the ATPase so that
1780:
that is called a calcium transient. This increase in calcium activates calcium-sensitive contractile proteins that then use
589:
to contract. In skeletal muscles, excitation–contraction coupling relies on a direct coupling between two key proteins, the
2149:
Faulkner, JA (2003). "Terminology for contractions of muscles during shortening, while isometric, and during lengthening".
141:
Muscle contraction can also be described in terms of two variables: length and tension. In natural movements that underlie
17:
1321:, or G-protein coupled receptors that initiate a second messenger cascade. Conversely, postganglionic nerve fibers of the
240:
would change the angle of the joint in the opposite direction, straightening the arm and moving the hand towards the leg.
870:
ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum creates a deficiency in the fluid around the myofibrils. This causes the removal of
796:. Once another ATP binds to myosin, the myosin head will again detach from actin and another cross-bridge cycle occurs.
731:
447:
contractions occur as a result of signals originating in the brain. The brain sends electrochemical signals through the
153:
if the muscle tension changes but the muscle length remains the same. In contrast, a muscle contraction is described as
2481:
1314:
379:(also known as jumper's knee or patellar tendonosis) have been shown to benefit from high-load eccentric contractions.
3443:"REEP5 (Receptor Accessory Protein 5) Acts as a Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Membrane Sculptor to Modulate Cardiac Function"
1301:
Although smooth muscle contractions are myogenic, the rate and strength of their contractions can be modulated by the
368:
during baseball involves reducing eccentric braking allowing a greater power to be developed throughout the movement.
4231:
4200:
3618:
598:
553:
630:
1266:
binding to the troponin complex that regulates myosin binding sites on actin like in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
2881:. Academic Press Series in Biomedical Engineering (1st ed.). New York, NY: Academic Press. pp. 239–248.
371:
Eccentric contractions are being researched for their ability to speed rehabilitation of weak or injured tendons.
4407:
4113:
1823:
1490:
1380:
1070:. Single-unit smooth muscle cells contract myogenically, which can be modulated by the autonomic nervous system.
80:. Together, these two filaments form myofibrils - the basic functional organelles in the skeletal muscle system.
4334:
1310:
88:
2365:"Effectiveness of physical therapy for Achilles tendinopathy: An evidence based review of eccentric exercises"
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582:
4118:
4029:
2222:
Colliander EB, Tesch PA (1990). "Effects of eccentric and concentric muscle actions in resistance training".
523:
347:
1379:
Unlike skeletal muscle, E-C coupling in cardiac muscle is thought to depend primarily on a mechanism called
4392:
4224:
1438:
1419:
788:
which generates a force of 2 pN. The power stroke moves the actin filament inwards, thereby shortening the
4009:
974:
of the tendon—the force generated by a 95% contraction of all fibers is sufficient to damage the body. In
4123:
4108:
1306:
983:
196:
of the hand do not move, but muscles generate sufficient force to prevent the object from being dropped.
1772:, a field that still studies the electrical patterns and signals in tissues such as nerves and muscles.
4183:
2973:
Shwedyk, E.; Balasubramanian, R.; Scott, R. N. (1977). "A nonstationary model for the
Electromyogram".
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1322:
625:, depolarizing the inner portion of the muscle fiber. This activates dihydropyridine receptors in the
612:
391:
In vertebrate animals, there are three types of muscle tissues: 1) skeletal, 2) smooth, and 3) cardiac
2110:. Vol. 578 (4th ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. pp. 37–56.
2035:
1233:
1059:
730:
Cross-bridge cycling is a sequence of molecular events that underlies the sliding filament theory. A
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4397:
4022:
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2259:"Redox biology of exercise: an integrative and comparative consideration of some overlooked issues"
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are involved in eccentric contractions, but their mechanism is poorly understood in comparison to
2919:"A brief contraction has complex effects on summation of twitch pairs in human adductor pollicis"
1863:
1063:
1051:
Swellings called varicosities belonging to an autonomic neuron innervate the smooth muscle cells.
686:
321:
Muscles undergoing heavy eccentric loading suffer greater damage when overloaded (such as during
221:
104:
3850:
The
Science of Common Things: A Familiar Explanation of the First Principles of Physical Science
3067:"Muscle co-contraction modulates damping and joint stability in a three-link biomechanical limb"
2514:"Ryanodine receptors: structure, expression, molecular details, and function in calcium release"
2512:
Lanner, Johanna T.; Georgiou, Dimitra K.; Joshi, Aditya D.; Hamilton, Susan L. (November 2010).
1803:. Their findings were published as two consecutive papers published in the 22 May 1954 issue of
1422:(the latter are not seen in all cardiac cell types) and the depolarisation causes extracellular
283:, the elbow starts the movement straight and then bends as the hand moves towards the shoulder.
275:, the elbow starts the movement while bent and then straightens as the hand moves away from the
3984:
Krans, J. L. (2010) The
Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction. Nature Education 3(9):66
3235:
Fabiato, A. (1983). "Calcium-induced calcium release from the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum".
1853:
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590:
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485:
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constitutes the majority of muscle mass in the body and is responsible for locomotor activity.
315:
280:
237:
69:
The major constituent of thin filaments is a chain formed by helical coiling of two strands of
605:, (DHPRs). DHPRs are located on the sarcolemma (which includes the surface sarcolemma and the
1990:
Biewener, Andrew A. (2003). "Muscles and skeletons: The building blocks of animal movement".
1411:
1318:
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272:
2315:"Heavy-load eccentric calf muscle training for the treatment of chronic Achilles tendinosis"
2028:
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Cross-bridge cycling is able to continue as long as there are sufficient amounts of ATP and
3651:
3565:
3507:
3283:
3137:
2756:
2702:
1868:
1735:
that constitute the flight muscles in these animals. These flight muscles are often called
1732:
1664:
1368:(main RyR isoform in skeletal muscle) to regulate Ca release in skeletal muscle, while the
1236:. The calcium-calmodulin-myosin light-chain kinase complex phosphorylates myosin on the 20
957:, the force exerted by the skeletal muscle is controlled by varying the frequency at which
931:
654:
594:
573:
or reabsorbed by the synaptic knob and none is left to replace the degraded acetylcholine.
501:
296:
232:
would cause the arm to bend at the elbow as the hand moved from the leg to the shoulder (a
205:
154:
127:
2627:
1383:, which is based on the junctional structure between T-tubule and sarcoplasmic reticulum.
8:
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751:
376:
372:
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2760:
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681:
Sliding filament theory: A sarcomere in relaxed (above) and contracted (below) positions
556:
on the neuromuscular junction. Activation of the nicotinic receptor opens its intrinsic
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2235:
2174:
1994:. Oxford Animal Biology Series. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–45.
1361:
1087:
963:
626:
606:
509:
476:
322:
249:
183:
150:
3577:
3411:
3018:"The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres"
978:, if the central nervous system sends a weak signal to contract a muscle, the smaller
738:(ATP) and another for actin. The binding of ATP to a myosin head detaches myosin from
4284:
4264:
4160:
3963:
3906:
3826:
3818:
3777:
3741:
3701:
3667:
3624:
3614:
3591:
3523:
3480:
3462:
3423:
3415:
3376:
3358:
3319:
3301:
3252:
3214:
3206:
3165:
3106:
3088:
3047:
2990:
2952:
2940:
2882:
2857:
2829:
2772:
2718:
2670:
2647:
2608:
2590:
2551:
2533:
2477:
2452:
2429:
2337:
2280:
2239:
2195:
2166:
2129:
2075:
2039:
1995:
1967:
1942:
1589:
1521:
1486:
1029:
971:
541:
527:
326:
265:
261:
220:
During a concentric contraction, a muscle is stimulated to contract according to the
142:
112:
48:
2472:
Levitan, Irwin; Kaczmarek, Leonard (19 August 2015). "Intercellular communication".
2349:
2178:
2162:
1546:
Key proteins involved in cardiac calcium cycling and excitation-contraction coupling
1067:
4269:
4205:
4188:
4165:
3953:
3937:
3896:
3810:
3753:
3733:
3679:
3659:
3581:
3573:
3515:
3470:
3454:
3407:
3366:
3350:
3309:
3291:
3244:
3196:
3155:
3145:
3096:
3078:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3002:
2982:
2930:
2819:
2811:
2784:
2764:
2730:
2710:
2639:
2598:
2582:
2541:
2525:
2419:
2411:
2376:
2329:
2314:
2270:
2231:
2158:
1805:
1792:
1788:
1279:
1237:
1206:
ions that are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The elevation of cytosolic
958:
822:
722:
698:
694:
505:
489:
3696:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David E.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Muscle and movement".
3354:
3248:
2902:
Khurana, Indu (2006). "Characteristics of muscle excitability and contractility".
1474:
is detected by RyR2 in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which releases
564:
channel, causing sodium to rush in and potassium to trickle out. As a result, the
4150:
4096:
4069:
4045:
4004:
3863:
3150:
2333:
2257:
Nikolaidis MG, Kyparos A, Spanou C, Paschalis V, Theodorou AA, Vrabas IS (2012).
1756:
1710:
1407:
1400:
1101:
1047:
650:
444:
424:
404:
303:
146:
32:
3798:
2799:
2529:
2124:
Kumar, Shrawan (2008). "Introduction and terminology". In Kumar, Shrawan (ed.).
165:
63:, which is a return of the muscle fibers to their low tension-generating state.
4155:
4064:
3276:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1769:
1559:
1494:
1343:
638:
549:
448:
423:
makes up the heart, which pumps blood. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are called
420:
123:
92:
2586:
1660:
641:
and causes a cell-wide increase in calcium giving rise to the upstroke of the
4386:
4306:
4074:
4059:
3822:
3724:
Gardner, C.R. (1976). "The neuronal control of locomotion in the earthworm".
3466:
3419:
3362:
3305:
3210:
3092:
3083:
2986:
2651:
2643:
2594:
2537:
2106:
Bullock, John; Boyle, Joseph; Wang, Michael B. (2001). "Muscle contraction".
2026:
Aidley, David J. (1998). "Mechanics and energetics of muscular contraction".
1848:
1765:
1563:
1415:
1241:
1091:
1055:
927:
894:
637:. The action potential creates a near synchronous activation of thousands of
634:
545:
435:
412:
408:
400:
135:
119:
100:
74:
37:
3814:
3628:
3519:
3458:
3296:
1387:(JPH2) is essential to maintain this structure, as well as the integrity of
4274:
3967:
3941:
3910:
3830:
3776:(2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 15–37.
3484:
3427:
3395:
3394:
Takeshima, H.; Komazaki, S.; Nishi, M.; Iino, M.; Kangawa, K. (July 2000).
3380:
3323:
3218:
3201:
3184:
3169:
3110:
2944:
2815:
2776:
2722:
2612:
2570:
2555:
2513:
2433:
2284:
2170:
1878:
967:
926:
The strength of skeletal muscle contractions can be broadly separated into
793:
497:
493:
452:
352:
256:
3671:
3595:
3527:
3256:
3051:
2833:
2380:
2341:
2243:
1809:
under the common theme "Structural Changes in Muscle During Contraction".
1614:
concentration in response to a large change in total calcium. The falling
982:, being more excitable than the larger ones, are stimulated first. As the
4311:
4134:
4091:
3745:
3339:"T-tubule remodeling during transition from hypertrophy to heart failure"
2994:
2476:(4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 153–328.
2415:
1858:
1800:
1796:
1669:
1639:
1539:
myosin head pulls the actin filament toward the centre of the sarcomere.
1115:
908:
743:
706:
702:
464:
334:
233:
225:
52:
4216:
2688:
2686:
970:). This 'low' level of contraction is a protective mechanism to prevent
264:
involving both eccentric and concentric contractions appear to increase
4367:
3949:
3396:"Junctophilins: a novel family of junctional membrane complex proteins"
2275:
2258:
1700:
1652:
1282:
are believed to participate in the sustained phase of contraction, and
1271:
1229:
1170:
ions are also required for crossbridge cycling in smooth muscle cells.
1137:. These action potentials are generated by the influx of extracellular
979:
769:
646:
565:
396:
84:
56:
3700:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. pp. 681–698.
1588:
from the cytoplasm back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Once again,
629:, which are in close proximity to ryanodine receptors in the adjacent
504:
along its axon toward the neuromuscular junction. Once it reaches the
3797:
Josephson, R. K.; Malamud, J. G.; Stokes, D. R. (15 September 2000).
3663:
2935:
2856:(5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 768–789.
2768:
2714:
2683:
1873:
1760:
Electrodes touch a frog, and the legs twitch into the upward position
1745:
810:
in the cytoplasm. Termination of cross-bridge cycling can occur when
789:
586:
561:
1937:
Widmaier, Eric P.; Raff, Hersel; Strang, Kevin T. (2010). "Muscle".
387:
4256:
2034:(4th ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1838:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1648:
1388:
622:
548:
to fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing acetylcholine into the
460:
419:, and other areas in the body that produce sustained contractions.
276:
4014:
2742:
2740:
2571:"The excitation-contraction coupling mechanism in skeletal muscle"
149:
that contract during locomotion. Contractions can be described as
1777:
1656:
1562:. Some calcium is also taken up by the mitochondria. An enzyme,
1334:
616:
Picture showing the different interactions within the ECC pathway
365:
311:
292:
189:
96:
2877:
Feher, Joseph (2012). "Chapter 3.4: Skeletal muscle mechanics".
2312:
2256:
1744:
beating is made possible because the muscles are connected to a
1008:
581:
Excitation–contraction coupling (ECC) is the process by which a
4248:
4130:
4081:
2737:
1728:
1418:. The action potential travels along the surface membrane into
746:. With the ATP hydrolyzed, the cocked myosin head now contains
690:
557:
338:
284:
229:
77:
2569:
Calderón, Juan C.; Bolaños, Pura; Caputo, Carlo (March 2014).
1966:(7th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson. pp. 377–416.
1941:(12th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. pp. 250–291.
1603:
concentration, permitting a relatively small decrease in free
108:
3611:
Excitation-contraction coupling and cardiac contractile force
3554:
i during excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac myocytes"
2398:
Cannell LJ, Taunton JE, Clement DB, Smith C, Khan KM (2001).
2300:
Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications
1883:
1833:
1748:
system, which is driven to a natural frequency of vibration.
1643:
A simplified image showing earthworm movement via peristalsis
1551:
1392:
1275:
1018:
739:
711:
662:
456:
342:
288:
193:
70:
3065:
Heitmann, Stewart; Ferns, Norm; Breakpsear, Michael (2011).
1550:
Following systole, intracellular calcium is taken up by the
884:
677:
4279:
2972:
2511:
2495:
2493:
2313:
Alfredson, H; Pietilä, T; Jonsson, P; Lorentzon, R (1998).
1716:
1489:
physiological response. This positive feedback is known as
1433:
to enter the cell via L-type calcium channels and possibly
1396:
1384:
1373:
1365:
1313:
release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which binds to
859:
ion concentration in the sarcoplasm. The active pumping of
3869:
A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Vol 1
3393:
2451:(Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2397:
1939:
Vander's Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function
1364:(RyRs) are distinct isoforms. Besides, DHPR contacts with
1081:
355:, moderate training may confer protection against injury.
73:, and thick filaments dominantly consist of chains of the
3726:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
2917:
Smith, Ian C.; Adam, Helen; Herzog, Walter (April 2020).
1724:
1720:
2490:
2128:(1st ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 113.
3613:(2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
3064:
1672:, which underlies the creeping movement of earthworms.
1508:
sparks). The spatial and temporal summation of ~30,000
1121:
Sliding filaments in contracted and uncontracted states
111:, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of
3885:"Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Muscular Response"
3796:
3123:
2667:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1452:
influx causes a small local increase in intracellular
333:. During a concentric contraction, contractile muscle
3876:
3641:
2568:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1317:(mAChRs) on smooth muscle cells. These receptors are
358:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
1634:
3772:Alexander, R. McNeill (2003). "Muscle, the motor".
3540:
3497:
2074:(1st ed.). New York, NY: Thieme. p. 113.
1326:excitatory (contractile) or inhibitory (relaxing).
657:, producing force and, in some situations, motion.
3336:
3015:
2027:
1936:
1901:
1350:
653:. This bond allows the actin filaments to perform
576:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3695:
3541:Cannell MB, Cheng H, Lederer WJ (November 1994).
2692:
2507:
2505:
2446:
2088:
1558:(NCX) and, to a lesser extent, a plasma membrane
1255:-activated phosphorylation of myosin rather than
848:ions leave the troponin molecule to maintain the
138:are similar to those in skeletal muscle tissues.
107:. The contraction produced can be described as a
4384:
3926:"Past, Present and Future Experiments on Muscle"
3269:
3183:Martonosi, Anthony N.; Pikula, Slawomir (2003).
2797:
2471:
2297:
2105:
2070:Sircar, Sabyasachi (2008). "Muscle elasticity".
1360:(DHPRs) are encoded by different genes, and the
302:Though the muscle is doing a negative amount of
27:Activation of tension-generating sites in muscle
3930:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences
3719:
3717:
3182:
2916:
2221:
1985:
1983:
1955:
1024:
593:(SR) calcium release channel identified as the
3852:. New York: Ivison & Phinney. p. 290.
3760:
3691:
3689:
3124:Zhang, Y; Hermanson, ME; Eddinger, TJ (2013).
2879:Quantitative Human Physiology: An Introduction
2502:
2298:Brooks, G.A; Fahey, T.D.; White, T.P. (1996).
997:
463:, the signal to contract can originate in the
4232:
4030:
3440:
3185:"The network of calcium regulation in muscle"
2847:
2845:
2843:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
1675:
1184:in smooth muscle cells are the extracellular
4010:Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction
3714:
2851:
2746:
2658:
2465:
2362:
2250:
2119:
2117:
1980:
1962:Silverthorn, Dee Unglaub (2016). "Muscles".
1414:and conducted to all cells in the heart via
645:. The Ca released into the cytosol binds to
118:Unlike skeletal muscle, the contractions of
3917:
3686:
3234:
2975:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
2791:
2142:
1961:
920:Three types of skeletal muscle contractions
825:back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When
459:several muscle fibers. In the case of some
4239:
4225:
4037:
4023:
3230:
3228:
2870:
2840:
2628:"SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION"
2518:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2210:
2052:
2008:
1195:entering through calcium channels and the
672:
663:sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase
4246:
3957:
3900:
3862:
3856:
3846:"How galvanic electricity was discovered"
3771:
3585:
3474:
3447:Journal of the American Heart Association
3370:
3313:
3295:
3200:
3159:
3149:
3100:
3082:
3041:
2934:
2906:(1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 101–2.
2823:
2798:Horowits R, Podolsky RJ (November 1987).
2602:
2545:
2423:
2274:
2114:
945:. Summation can be achieved in two ways:
885:Gradation of skeletal muscle contractions
471:
279:. During an eccentric contraction of the
211:
134:. The mechanisms of contraction in these
3016:Gordon AM, Huxley AF, Julian FJ (1966).
2148:
1989:
1964:Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach
1755:
1699:
1638:
1541:
1333:
1046:
1028:
1007:
721:
676:
611:
475:
434:
386:
310:the muscle), chemical energy (of fat or
243:
177:
164:
31:
3723:
3225:
2901:
2664:
2322:The American Journal of Sports Medicine
1695:
1082:Mechanisms of smooth muscle contraction
522:influx into the terminal by way of the
271:During an eccentric contraction of the
199:
14:
4385:
3923:
3882:
3117:
2474:The Neuron: Cell and Molecular Biology
2190:
2188:
2069:
2025:
4220:
4018:
3843:
3009:
2910:
2876:
2123:
772:on the actin filaments. The troponin-
717:
364:training for rapid movements such as
3608:
2625:
1012:Muscle length versus isometric force
599:voltage-gated L-type calcium channel
480:Structure of neuromuscular junction.
4044:
2185:
1437:(NCX) during the early part of the
1159:. Like skeletal muscles, cytosolic
1058:can be divided into two subgroups:
236:). A concentric contraction of the
24:
3998:Animation: Myofilament Contraction
3978:
3738:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1976.tb01119.x
2626:Webb, R. Clinton (December 2003).
2236:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1990.tb08973.x
1552:sarco/endoplasmic reticulum ATPase
1315:muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
1296:
430:
359:Eccentric contractions in movement
228:, a concentric contraction of the
25:
4424:
4201:List of muscles of the human body
3991:
2030:The Physiology of Excitable Cells
1635:Circular and longitudinal muscles
1329:
1232:, which then binds and activates
554:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
403:: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
2632:Advances in Physiology Education
2369:Isokinetics and Exercise Science
2072:Principles of Medical Physiology
1680:Invertebrates such as annelids,
1463:. The increase of intracellular
1114:
1100:
1042:
907:
893:
544:containing the neurotransmitter
508:, the action potential causes a
492:formed by the contact between a
351:contractions can easily lead to
3837:
3803:Journal of Experimental Biology
3799:"Asynchronous muscle: a primer"
3790:
3774:Principles of Animal Locomotion
3635:
3602:
3534:
3491:
3434:
3387:
3330:
3263:
3176:
3058:
2966:
2895:
2619:
2562:
2440:
2391:
2356:
2306:
2291:
2163:10.1152/japplphysiol.00280.2003
1824:calcium-induced calcium release
1629:
1491:calcium-induced calcium release
1381:calcium-induced calcium release
1372:(DHPR on cardiac myocytes) and
1351:Excitation-contraction coupling
577:Excitation–contraction coupling
439:Organization of skeletal muscle
260:walking). Over the short-term,
3237:American Journal of Physiology
3034:10.1113/jphysiol.1966.sp007909
2904:Textbook Of Medical Physiology
1311:parasympathetic nervous system
1173:The two sources for cytosolic
661:muscles. Although slower, the
524:voltage-gated calcium channels
13:
1:
3578:10.1016/S0006-3495(94)80677-0
3543:"Spatial non-uniformities in
3412:10.1016/s1097-2765(00)00003-4
3355:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.212324
3249:10.1152/ajpcell.1983.245.1.C1
2151:Journal of Applied Physiology
1894:
382:
348:delayed onset muscle soreness
3924:Huxley, H. E. (April 2000).
3151:10.1371/journal.pone.0074608
2854:Principles of Neural Science
2449:Handbook of Psychophysiology
2334:10.1177/03635465980260030301
1393:receptor accessory protein 5
1025:Force-velocity relationships
689:describes a process used by
299:in concentric contractions.
169:Types of muscle contractions
89:skeletal muscle contractions
7:
2530:10.1101/cshperspect.a003996
2363:Satyendra L, Byl N (2006).
1812:
1307:Postganglionic nerve fibers
998:Length-tension relationship
585:in the muscle fiber causes
399:, there are three types of
314:, or temporarily stored in
10:
4429:
4184:Anatomical terms of muscle
3844:Wells, David Ames (1859).
3071:Frontiers in Neurorobotics
1819:Anatomical terms of motion
1784:to cause cell shortening.
1751:
1711:Insect wing § Muscles
1708:
1676:Obliquely striated muscles
1347:and are able to contract.
1323:sympathetic nervous system
1107:Smooth muscle contractions
1085:
1001:
247:
181:
4363:
4350:
4320:
4302:
4295:
4255:
4176:
4143:
4052:
2669:. New York: McGraw Hill.
2665:Saladin, Kenneth (2012).
2587:10.1007/s12551-013-0135-x
2302:. Mayfield Publishing Co.
1715:Advanced insects such as
1358:dihydropyridine receptors
1293:flux may be significant.
1234:myosin light-chain kinase
603:dihydropyridine receptors
583:muscular action potential
51:-generating sites within
3189:Acta Biochimica Polonica
3084:10.3389/fnbot.2011.00005
2987:10.1109/TBME.1977.326175
2644:10.1152/advan.00025.2003
1829:Cardiac action potential
1556:sodium-calcium exchanger
1435:sodium-calcium exchanger
1399:structures, rather than
1303:autonomic nervous system
976:multiple fiber summation
951:multiple fiber summation
443:Excluding reflexes, all
160:
132:autonomic nervous system
3815:10.1242/jeb.203.18.2713
3520:10.1126/science.8235594
3459:10.1161/JAHA.117.007205
3297:10.1073/pnas.1412729111
2923:Experimental Physiology
2196:"Types of contractions"
1864:In vitro muscle testing
1342:There are two types of
687:sliding filament theory
673:Sliding filament theory
222:sliding filament theory
105:sliding filament theory
4408:Musculoskeletal system
3942:10.1098/rstb.2000.0595
3202:10.18388/abp.2003_3711
2816:10.1083/jcb.105.5.2217
1761:
1706:
1644:
1592:moderate this fall in
1547:
1370:L-type calcium channel
1339:
1076:motor unit recruitment
1052:
1035:
1013:
984:strength of the signal
736:adenosine triphosphate
727:
682:
631:sarcoplasmic reticulum
617:
591:sarcoplasmic reticulum
571:acetylcholine esterase
486:neuromuscular junction
481:
472:Neuromuscular junction
440:
417:gastrointestinal tract
392:
306:, (work is being done
212:Concentric contraction
170:
41:
2381:10.3233/IES-2006-0223
1759:
1709:Further information:
1703:
1642:
1545:
1412:atrioventricular node
1337:
1086:Further information:
1074:responses, much like
1050:
1032:
1011:
1002:Further information:
914:Summation and tetanus
748:adenosine diphosphate
725:
680:
615:
479:
438:
390:
244:Eccentric contraction
178:Isometric contraction
168:
47:is the activation of
35:
3343:Circulation Research
2416:10.1136/bjsm.35.1.60
1741:asynchronous muscles
1733:asynchronous muscles
1696:Asynchronous muscles
1078:in skeletal muscle.
655:cross-bridge cycling
595:ryanodine receptor 1
502:saltatory conduction
297:cross-bridge cycling
206:isotonic contraction
200:Isotonic contraction
192:grip an object; the
18:Muscular contraction
4393:Exercise physiology
4355:End-plate potential
4340:Uterine contraction
4104:Fascial compartment
4003:21 May 2013 at the
3656:1990Natur.345..618C
3609:Bers, M.D. (2001).
3570:1994BpJ....67.1942C
3512:1993Sci...262..740C
3288:2014PNAS..11112240G
3282:(33): 12240–12245.
3142:2013PLoSO...874608Z
2761:1954Natur.173..973H
2707:1954Natur.173..971H
2575:Biophysical Reviews
2224:Acta Physiol. Scand
1889:Uterine contraction
1854:Hill's muscle model
1844:Exercise physiology
1391:. Another protein,
1362:ryanodine receptors
1135:slow wave potential
1131:pacemaker potential
1004:Hill's muscle model
964:Golgi tendon organs
955:frequency summation
947:frequency summation
377:patellar tendonitis
373:Achilles tendinitis
291:, and other z-line
4325:Muscle contraction
3883:Sandow, A (1952).
3698:Principles of Life
2276:10.1242/jeb.067470
2269:(Pt 10): 1615–25.
1762:
1707:
1645:
1548:
1493:and gives rise to
1340:
1088:Myogenic mechanism
1053:
1036:
1014:
728:
726:Cross-bridge cycle
718:Cross-bridge cycle
683:
627:terminal cisternae
618:
607:transverse tubules
482:
441:
397:vertebrate animals
393:
250:Eccentric training
184:Isometric exercise
171:
143:locomotor activity
45:Muscle contraction
42:
4380:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4214:
4213:
3936:(1396): 539–543.
3809:(18): 2713–2722.
3783:978-0-691-12634-0
3707:978-1-464-10947-8
2888:978-0-123-82163-8
2863:978-0-071-39011-8
2755:(4412): 973–976.
2701:(4412): 971–973.
2676:978-0-07-337825-1
2458:978-0-521-62634-7
2135:978-0-415-36953-4
2081:978-1-588-90572-7
2045:978-0-521-57421-1
2001:978-0-198-50022-3
1992:Animal Locomotion
1973:978-0-321-98122-6
1948:978-0-321-98122-6
1869:Lombard's paradox
1737:fibrillar muscles
1487:positive feedback
959:action potentials
930:, summation, and
643:calcium transient
542:synaptic vesicles
327:strength training
266:muscular strength
262:strength training
113:action potentials
61:muscle relaxation
16:(Redirected from
4420:
4300:
4299:
4241:
4234:
4227:
4218:
4217:
4206:Composite muscle
4039:
4032:
4025:
4016:
4015:
3972:
3971:
3961:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3904:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3872:, Nelson, London
3864:Whittaker, E. T.
3860:
3854:
3853:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3769:
3758:
3757:
3721:
3712:
3711:
3693:
3684:
3683:
3664:10.1038/345618a0
3650:(6276): 618–21.
3639:
3633:
3632:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3589:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3478:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3374:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3317:
3299:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3232:
3223:
3222:
3204:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3163:
3153:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3104:
3086:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2938:
2936:10.1113/ep088401
2914:
2908:
2907:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2849:
2838:
2837:
2827:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2769:10.1038/173973a0
2744:
2735:
2734:
2715:10.1038/173971a0
2690:
2681:
2680:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2606:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2549:
2509:
2500:
2497:
2488:
2487:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2427:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2383:. Archived from
2360:
2354:
2353:
2319:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2278:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2219:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2192:
2183:
2182:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2121:
2112:
2111:
2103:
2086:
2085:
2067:
2050:
2049:
2033:
2023:
2006:
2005:
1987:
1978:
1977:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1934:
1793:Rolf Niedergerke
1789:Andrew F. Huxley
1624:
1623:
1622:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1280:protein kinase C
1265:
1264:
1263:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1217:results in more
1216:
1215:
1214:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1118:
1104:
911:
897:
880:
879:
878:
869:
868:
867:
858:
857:
856:
847:
846:
845:
835:
834:
833:
820:
819:
818:
809:
808:
807:
782:
781:
780:
767:
766:
765:
699:Rolf Niedergerke
537:
536:
535:
519:
518:
517:
490:chemical synapse
147:skeletal muscles
95:as they require
21:
4428:
4427:
4423:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4403:Skeletal muscle
4398:Muscular system
4383:
4382:
4381:
4372:
4359:
4346:
4316:
4291:
4251:
4245:
4215:
4210:
4172:
4139:
4070:Skeletal muscle
4048:
4046:Muscular system
4043:
4005:Wayback Machine
3994:
3981:
3979:Further reading
3976:
3975:
3922:
3918:
3889:Yale J Biol Med
3881:
3877:
3861:
3857:
3842:
3838:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3770:
3761:
3722:
3715:
3708:
3694:
3687:
3640:
3636:
3621:
3607:
3603:
3550:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3506:(5134): 740–4.
3496:
3492:
3439:
3435:
3392:
3388:
3335:
3331:
3268:
3264:
3233:
3226:
3181:
3177:
3122:
3118:
3063:
3059:
3014:
3010:
2971:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2915:
2911:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2850:
2841:
2796:
2792:
2745:
2738:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2663:
2659:
2624:
2620:
2567:
2563:
2524:(11): a003996.
2510:
2503:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2445:
2441:
2404:Br J Sports Med
2396:
2392:
2387:on 9 July 2012.
2361:
2357:
2317:
2311:
2307:
2296:
2292:
2255:
2251:
2220:
2211:
2201:
2199:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2126:Muscle strength
2122:
2115:
2104:
2089:
2082:
2068:
2053:
2046:
2024:
2009:
2002:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1935:
1902:
1897:
1815:
1754:
1713:
1698:
1678:
1637:
1632:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1590:calcium buffers
1584:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1522:calcium buffers
1515:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1408:sinoatrial node
1353:
1332:
1299:
1297:Neuromodulation
1289:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1224:
1222:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1166:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1094:
1084:
1045:
1027:
1006:
1000:
924:
923:
922:
921:
917:
916:
915:
912:
903:
902:
901:
898:
887:
877:
875:
874:
873:
871:
866:
864:
863:
862:
860:
855:
853:
852:
851:
849:
844:
842:
841:
840:
838:
832:
830:
829:
828:
826:
823:actively pumped
817:
815:
814:
813:
811:
806:
804:
803:
802:
800:
779:
777:
776:
775:
773:
764:
762:
761:
760:
758:
755:
720:
675:
651:actin filaments
597:(RYR1) and the
579:
534:
532:
531:
530:
528:
516:
514:
513:
512:
510:
506:terminal bouton
474:
445:skeletal muscle
433:
431:Skeletal muscle
425:striated muscle
405:Skeletal muscle
385:
361:
323:muscle building
304:mechanical work
252:
246:
214:
202:
186:
180:
163:
124:cardiac muscles
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4426:
4416:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4378:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4371:
4370:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4357:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4289:
4288:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4267:
4261:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4247:Physiology of
4244:
4243:
4236:
4229:
4221:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4197:
4196:
4191:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4156:Pennate muscle
4153:
4147:
4145:
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4101:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4065:Cardiac muscle
4056:
4054:
4050:
4049:
4042:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4007:
3993:
3992:External links
3990:
3989:
3988:
3985:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3916:
3895:(3): 176–201.
3875:
3855:
3836:
3789:
3782:
3759:
3713:
3706:
3685:
3634:
3619:
3601:
3564:(5): 1942–56.
3549:
3533:
3490:
3433:
3400:Molecular Cell
3386:
3349:(4): 520–531.
3329:
3262:
3224:
3175:
3116:
3057:
3008:
2981:(5): 417–424.
2965:
2929:(4): 676–689.
2909:
2894:
2887:
2869:
2862:
2839:
2810:(5): 2217–23.
2790:
2736:
2682:
2675:
2657:
2638:(4): 201–206.
2618:
2581:(1): 133–160.
2561:
2501:
2489:
2483:978-0199773893
2482:
2464:
2457:
2439:
2390:
2355:
2305:
2290:
2249:
2209:
2184:
2157:(2): 455–459.
2141:
2134:
2113:
2108:NMS Physiology
2087:
2080:
2051:
2044:
2007:
2000:
1979:
1972:
1954:
1947:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1814:
1811:
1770:bioelectricity
1753:
1750:
1697:
1694:
1677:
1674:
1661:coelomic fluid
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1620:
1609:
1598:
1583:
1572:
1560:calcium ATPase
1530:
1514:
1503:
1495:calcium sparks
1480:
1469:
1458:
1447:
1428:
1385:Junctophilin-2
1352:
1349:
1344:cardiac muscle
1338:Cardiac muscle
1331:
1330:Cardiac muscle
1328:
1298:
1295:
1288:
1261:
1250:
1223:
1212:
1201:
1190:
1179:
1165:
1154:
1143:
1120:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1083:
1080:
1056:Smooth muscles
1044:
1041:
1026:
1023:
999:
996:
919:
918:
913:
906:
905:
904:
899:
892:
891:
890:
889:
888:
886:
883:
876:
865:
854:
843:
831:
816:
805:
778:
763:
753:
719:
716:
674:
671:
639:calcium sparks
601:identified as
578:
575:
550:synaptic cleft
533:
515:
473:
470:
449:nervous system
432:
429:
421:Cardiac muscle
401:muscle tissues
384:
381:
360:
357:
281:triceps muscle
245:
242:
213:
210:
201:
198:
182:Main article:
179:
176:
162:
159:
136:muscle tissues
97:synaptic input
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4425:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4349:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4319:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4307:Hand strength
4305:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4242:
4237:
4235:
4230:
4228:
4223:
4222:
4219:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4175:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4158:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4136:
4132:
4129:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4102:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4080:
4076:
4075:Smooth muscle
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4060:Muscle tissue
4058:
4057:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4035:
4033:
4028:
4026:
4021:
4020:
4017:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3871:
3870:
3865:
3859:
3851:
3847:
3840:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3793:
3785:
3779:
3775:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3720:
3718:
3709:
3703:
3699:
3692:
3690:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3638:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3620:9780792371571
3616:
3612:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3537:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3494:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3437:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3266:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3229:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:(9): e74608.
3135:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3028:(1): 170–92.
3027:
3023:
3019:
3012:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2865:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2786:
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2198:. 31 May 2006
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1849:Fasciculation
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1766:Luigi Galvani
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1665:hydroskeleton
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1564:phospholamban
1561:
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1439:plateau phase
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1242:myosin ATPase
1239:
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1103:
1093:
1092:Myogenic tone
1089:
1079:
1077:
1071:
1069:
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1057:
1049:
1043:Smooth muscle
1040:
1031:
1022:
1020:
1010:
1005:
995:
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988:
985:
981:
977:
973:
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968:Renshaw cells
965:
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936:latent period
933:
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786:power stroke,
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768:ions bind to
756:
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695:Andrew Huxley
692:
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635:calcium spark
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546:acetylcholine
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413:blood vessels
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273:biceps muscle
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101:motor neurons
98:
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81:
79:
76:
75:motor-protein
72:
67:
64:
62:
58:
54:
50:
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39:
38:smooth muscle
36:Depiction of
34:
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4275:Eye movement
3933:
3929:
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3892:
3888:
3878:
3867:
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3806:
3802:
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3732:(1): 25–52.
3729:
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3647:
3643:
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3604:
3561:
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3536:
3503:
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3406:(1): 11–22.
3403:
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3240:
3236:
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3188:
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3129:
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3070:
3060:
3025:
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2968:
2956:. Retrieved
2926:
2922:
2912:
2903:
2897:
2878:
2872:
2853:
2807:
2804:J. Cell Biol
2803:
2793:
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2385:the original
2375:(1): 71–80.
2372:
2368:
2358:
2328:(3): 360–6.
2325:
2321:
2308:
2299:
2293:
2266:
2263:J. Exp. Biol
2262:
2252:
2227:
2223:
2200:. Retrieved
2154:
2150:
2144:
2125:
2107:
2071:
2029:
1991:
1963:
1957:
1938:
1879:Rigor mortis
1804:
1786:
1774:
1763:
1740:
1736:
1714:
1679:
1663:serves as a
1646:
1630:Invertebrate
1549:
1537:
1405:
1378:
1354:
1341:
1319:metabotropic
1300:
1268:
1172:
1127:
1072:
1054:
1037:
1015:
991:
989:
975:
954:
950:
946:
942:
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935:
925:
798:
794:rigor mortis
785:
732:cross-bridge
729:
684:
667:
659:
619:
580:
498:muscle fiber
494:motor neuron
483:
453:motor neuron
442:
394:
370:
362:
353:overtraining
335:myofilaments
330:
320:
307:
301:
270:
253:
219:
215:
203:
187:
172:
140:
117:
82:
68:
65:
60:
53:muscle cells
44:
43:
29:
4312:Muscle tone
4135:Aponeurosis
4087:Superficial
3195:(1): 1–30.
2410:(1): 60–4.
2230:(1): 31–9.
1859:Hypnic jerk
1801:Jean Hanson
1797:Hugh Huxley
1670:peristalsis
1228:binding to
1060:single-unit
980:motor units
744:tropomyosin
707:Jean Hanson
703:Hugh Huxley
465:spinal cord
234:biceps curl
85:vertebrates
40:contraction
4387:Categories
4368:Myogenesis
4285:Locomotion
4161:Unipennate
3558:Biophys. J
3022:J. Physiol
1895:References
1653:earthworms
1272:rho kinase
1238:kilodalton
1230:calmodulin
1148:, and not
770:troponin C
647:Troponin C
587:myofibrils
566:sarcolemma
457:innervates
383:Vertebrate
257:decelerate
248:See also:
93:neurogenic
57:physiology
4413:Neurology
4330:Isometric
4194:Insertion
4166:Bipennate
3823:0022-0949
3467:2047-9980
3420:1097-2765
3363:1524-4571
3306:1091-6490
3211:0001-527X
3093:1662-5218
2953:211100581
2652:1043-4046
2595:1867-2450
2538:1943-0264
2202:2 October
1874:Myoclonus
1764:In 1780,
1686:nematodes
1420:T-tubules
1068:syncytium
1064:multiunit
943:summation
790:sarcomere
623:T-tubules
562:potassium
331:negatives
151:isometric
4335:Isotonic
4270:Movement
4265:Exercise
4257:Exertion
4151:Fusiform
4097:Visceral
4001:Archived
3968:10836507
3911:13015950
3866:(1951),
3831:10952872
3629:47659382
3485:29431104
3428:10949023
3381:20576937
3324:25092313
3219:12673344
3170:24058600
3130:PLOS ONE
3111:22275897
2945:32052487
2777:13165698
2723:13165697
2613:28509964
2556:20961976
2434:11157465
2350:30259362
2285:22539728
2179:28649208
2171:12851415
1839:Dystonia
1813:See also
1746:resonant
1731:possess
1690:bivalves
1682:mollusks
1651:such as
1649:annelids
1389:T-tubule
972:avulsion
750:(ADP) +
461:reflexes
366:pitching
293:proteins
277:shoulder
155:isotonic
128:myogenic
4249:muscles
4114:Forearm
3959:1692762
3950:3066716
3902:2599245
3754:9983649
3680:4348240
3672:2348872
3652:Bibcode
3596:7858131
3587:1225569
3566:Bibcode
3528:8235594
3508:Bibcode
3500:Science
3476:5850239
3372:2927862
3315:4143026
3284:Bibcode
3257:6346892
3161:3776813
3138:Bibcode
3102:3257849
3052:5921536
3043:1357553
3003:1770255
2958:5 April
2834:3680378
2825:2114850
2785:4180166
2757:Bibcode
2731:4275495
2703:Bibcode
2604:5425715
2547:2964179
2425:1724276
2342:9617396
2244:2275403
2036:323–335
1795:and by
1778:calcium
1752:History
1729:beetles
1657:leeches
992:tetanus
932:tetanus
701:and by
691:muscles
649:by the
540:causes
451:to the
312:glucose
238:triceps
190:forearm
49:tension
4189:Origin
4131:Tendon
4082:Fascia
4053:Tissue
3966:
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3644:Nature
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1970:
1945:
1806:Nature
1727:, and
1684:, and
1401:triads
1278:, and
928:twitch
900:Twitch
757:. Two
558:sodium
538:influx
526:. The
496:and a
415:, the
411:forms
339:myosin
285:Desmin
230:biceps
194:joints
120:smooth
109:twitch
78:myosin
4296:Other
4177:Other
4144:Shape
4119:Thigh
3946:JSTOR
3750:S2CID
3676:S2CID
3453:(3).
3077:: 5.
2999:S2CID
2949:S2CID
2781:S2CID
2727:S2CID
2346:S2CID
2318:(PDF)
2175:S2CID
1884:Spasm
1834:Cramp
1721:flies
1717:wasps
1485:in a
1276:DAPK3
1133:or a
1019:titin
953:. In
740:actin
712:titin
488:is a
455:that
343:actin
289:titin
226:elbow
161:Types
99:from
71:actin
55:. In
4280:Gait
4092:Deep
3964:PMID
3907:PMID
3827:PMID
3819:ISSN
3778:ISBN
3742:PMID
3702:ISBN
3668:PMID
3625:OCLC
3615:ISBN
3592:PMID
3524:PMID
3481:PMID
3463:ISSN
3424:PMID
3416:ISSN
3377:PMID
3359:ISSN
3320:PMID
3302:ISSN
3253:PMID
3215:PMID
3207:ISSN
3166:PMID
3107:PMID
3089:ISSN
3048:PMID
2991:PMID
2960:2022
2941:PMID
2883:ISBN
2858:ISBN
2830:PMID
2773:PMID
2719:PMID
2671:ISBN
2648:ISSN
2609:PMID
2591:ISSN
2552:PMID
2534:ISSN
2478:ISBN
2453:ISBN
2430:PMID
2338:PMID
2281:PMID
2240:PMID
2204:2007
2167:PMID
2130:ISBN
2076:ISBN
2040:ISBN
1996:ISBN
1968:ISBN
1943:ISBN
1799:and
1791:and
1725:bees
1655:and
1397:diad
1374:RyR2
1366:RyR1
1090:and
1062:and
966:and
949:and
705:and
697:and
685:The
375:and
341:and
126:are
122:and
91:are
4124:Leg
4109:Arm
3954:PMC
3938:doi
3934:355
3897:PMC
3811:doi
3807:203
3734:doi
3660:doi
3648:345
3582:PMC
3574:doi
3516:doi
3504:262
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3455:doi
3408:doi
3367:PMC
3351:doi
3347:107
3310:PMC
3292:doi
3280:111
3245:doi
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3156:PMC
3146:doi
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3079:doi
3038:PMC
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2420:PMC
2412:doi
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2232:doi
2228:140
2159:doi
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1951:.
1497:(
754:i
752:P
560:/
20:)
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