Models of communication

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to be fully communicated and only its most significant aspects are expressed. Selection also concerns the choice of the code and channel to be used. The availability of a channel differs from person to person and from situation to situation. For example, many people do not have access to mass media, like television, to send their message to a wide audience. Gerbner's emphasis on the relation between message and reality has been influential for subsequent models of communication. However, Gerbner's model still suffers from many of the limitations of the earlier models it is based on. An example is the focus on the linear transmission of information without an in-depth discussion of the role of feedback loops. Another issue concerns the question of how meaning is created.

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responsible for generating the message. This message is translated by the transmitter into a signal, which is then sent using a channel. The receiver has the opposite function of the transmitter: it translates the signal back into a message, which is made available to the destination. The Shannon–Weaver model was initially formulated in analogy to how telephone calls work but is intended as a general model of all forms of communication. In the case of a landline phone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter translating the message into an electric signal. The wire acts as the channel. The person taking the call is the destination, and their telephone is the receiver.

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park or a table in a room. Private cues are only available to one person, like a coin in one's pocket or an itch on one's wrist. Behavioral cues are under the control of the communicators and constitute the main vehicles of communication. They include verbal behavior, like discussing a business proposal, and non-verbal behavior, like raising one's eyebrows or sitting down in a chair. Barnlund's model has been influential, both for its innovations and for its criticisms of earlier models. Some objections to it include that it is not equally useful for all forms of communication and that it does not explain how exactly meaning is produced.

383:: the sender sends a message and then has to wait for the receiver to react. Another example is a question/answer session where one person asks a question and then waits for another person to answer. Interaction models usually put more emphasis on the interactive process and less on the technical problem of how the message is conveyed at each step. For this reason, more prominence is given to the context that shapes the exchange of messages. This includes the physical context, like the distance between the speakers, and the psychological context, which includes mental and emotional factors like stress and anxiety. 775:

Significant discrepancies between them, such as divergent opinions on X, cause a strain in the relation. In such cases, communication aims to reduce the strain and restore balance through the exchange of information about the object. For example, if A and B are friends and X is someone both know, then equilibrium means that they have the same attitude towards X. However, there is a disequilibrium or strain if A likes X but B does not. This creates a tendency for A and B to exchange information about X until they arrive at a shared attitude. The more important X is to A and B, the more urgent this tendency is.

1021:. It is intended as a response to and an improvement over linear and circular models by stressing the dynamic nature of communication and how it changes the participants. Dance sees the fault of linear models as their attempt to understand communication as a linear flow of messages from a sender to a receiver. According to him, this fault is avoided by circular models, which include a feedback loop through which messages are exchanged back and forth. Dance criticizes the circular approach by holding that it "suggests that communication comes back, full circle, to exactly the same point from which it started". 901: 754: 838: 500: 707: 367: 664: 822: 6656: 936: 7001: 479:, in contrast, is communication with oneself. An example is a person thinking to themself that they should bring in the laundry from outside because it is about to rain. Most models of communication focus on interpersonal communication by assuming that sender and receiver are distinct persons. They often explore how the sender encodes a message, how this message is transmitted and possibly distorted, and how the receiver decodes and interprets the message. 396: 424:

that one should not interrupt people or that greetings should be returned. Relational contexts are more specific in that they concern the previous relationship and shared history of the communicators. This includes factors like whether the participants are friends, neighbors, co-workers, or rivals. The cultural context encompasses the social identities of the communicators, such as race, gender, nationality, sexual orientation, and social class.

412:, to give some form of feedback. This way, they can signal whether they agree with the message while the speaker is talking. This feedback may in turn influence the speaker's message while it is being produced. On the other hand, transactional models stress that meaning is created in the process of communication and does not exist prior to it. This is often combined with the claim that communication creates social realities like relationships, 516:

manipulative model of animal communication. It argues that the central aspect of communication does not consist in the exchange of information but in causing changes to the behavior of other organisms. This influence provides primarily a benefit to the sender and does not need to involve the transmission of messages. In this way, the sender "exploits another animal's ... muscle power". A slightly different approach focuses more on the

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Communication starts in the horizontal dimension with an event perceived by the sender. The next step happens in the vertical dimension, where the percept is translated into a signal containing the message. The message has two key aspects: content and form. The content is the information about the event. The last step belongs again to the horizontal dimension: the audience perceives and interprets the message about the event.

326: 159:. They try to provide a simple explanation of the process by highlighting its most basic characteristics and components. As simplified pictures, they only present the aspects that, according to the model's designer, are most central to communcation. Communication can be defined as the transmission of ideas. General models of communication try to describe all of its forms, including 334:

destination. Most early models were transmission models. Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of various forms of communication, such as regular face-to-face conversation. By focusing only on the sender, they leave out the audience's perspective. For example, listening usually does not just happen, but is an active process involving

621:. But as it developed as a science, it started to rely more and more on its own models and concepts. Beginning in the 1940s and the following decades, many new models of communication were developed. Most of the early models were linear transmission models. For many purposes, they were replaced by non-linear models such as interaction, transaction, and convergence models. 567:

example, the teacher's role includes sharing and explaining information while the student's role involves learning and asking clarifying questions. Relational models also describe how communication affects the relationship between the communicators. For example, the communication between patient and hospital staff affects whether the patient feels cared for or

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a total of ten essential components: (1) someone (2) perceives an event (3) and reacts (4) in a situation (5) through some means. This is done with the goal of (6) making available materials (7) in some form (8) and context (9) conveying content (10) of some consequence. Each of these components corresponds to a different area of study. For example,

64:. Despite their usefulness, many models are criticized based on the claim that they are too simple because they leave out essential aspects. The components and their interactions are usually presented in the form of a diagram. Some basic components and interactions reappear in many of the models. They include the idea that a sender 92:. Linear transmission models understand communication as a one-way process in which a sender transmits an idea to a receiver. Interaction models include a feedback loop through which the receiver responds after getting the message. Transaction models see sending and responding as simultaneous activities. They hold that 552:, hold that communication can be reduced to the transfer of ideas, information, or feelings from a sender to a receiver. In them, the message is like a magic bullet that is shot by active senders at passive and defenseless receivers. They are closely related to linear transmission models and contrast with 491:

response can itself produce new stimuli and act as a form of feedback loop for continued intrapersonal communication. Some models of communication try to provide a perspective that includes both interpersonal and intrapersonal communication in order to show how these two phenomena influence each other.

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ink on paper. The destination has to decode and interpret the message in order to reconstruct the original idea. The processes of encoding and decoding correspond to the roles of transmitter and receiver in the Shannon–Weaver model. According to Schramm, these processes are influenced by the fields of

688:. Many theorists treat it as a universal model applying to any form of communication. It is widely cited as a model of communication but some theorists, like Zachary S. Sapienza et al, have raised doubts about this characterization and see it instead as a questioning device, a formula, or a construct. 1028:

is a more adequate representation of the process of communication since it implies that there is always a forward movement. It shows how the content and structure of earlier communicative acts influence the content and structure of later communicative acts. In this regard, communication has a lasting

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For Gerbner, messages are not packages that exist prior to communication. Instead, the message is created in the process of encoding and is affected by the code and the channel. Gerbner assumes that the goal of communication is to inform another person about something they are unaware of. He includes

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The discipline of communication studies and the models of communication proposed in it are not restricted to human communication. They include discussions of communication among other species, like non-human animals and plants. Models of non-human communication usually stress the practical aspects of

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carrying information. These stimuli are processed and interpreted in various ways, for example, by classifying them and by ascribing symbolic meaning to them. Later steps include thinking about them, organizing information, and then encoding the ideas conceived this way in a behavioral response. This

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by Larry L. Barker and Gordon Wiseman. The left side of the diagram shows the start of the process: external and internal stimuli (red and violet arrows) are perceived. This triggers various cognitive processes (green areas) involved in the interpretation of the stimuli. These processes result in the

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For interaction models, the participants in communication alternate the positions of sender and receiver. So upon receiving a message, a new message is generated and returned to the original sender as a form of feedback. In this regard, communication is a two-way process. This adds more complexity to

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despite its complexity. Communication theorist Robert Craig sees the difference in the fact that models primarily represent communication while theories additionally explain it. According to Frank Dance, there is no one fully comprehensive model of communication since each one highlights only certain

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of the receiver. To do so, the source has to express their purpose by encoding it into a message. This message is sent through a channel to the receiver, who has to decode it in order to understand it and react to it. Communication is successful if the reaction of the receiver matches the purpose of

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in 1960 and was influenced by earlier models, such as the Shannon–Weaver model and Schramm's model. It is usually referred to as the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model because of its four main components (source, message, channel, and receiver). Each of these components is characterized by

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in 1954 as a response to and an improvement over linear transmission models of communication, such as Lasswell's model and the Shannon–Weaver model. The main difference in this regard is that Schramm does not see the audience as passive recipients. Instead, he understands them as active participants

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in the message to the receiver, how these symbols carry meaning, and how to ensure that the message has the intended effect on the receiver. Shannon and Weaver focus their attention on the technical level by discussing how noise can interfere with the signal. This makes it difficult for the receiver

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Transaction models usually put more emphasis on contexts and how they shape the exchange of information. They are sometimes divided into social, relational, and cultural contexts. Social contexts include explicit and implicit rules about what form of message and feedback is acceptable. An example is

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Barnlund's model is based on the idea that communication consists of decoding cues by ascribing meaning to them and encoding appropriate responses to them. Barnlund distinguishes between public, private, and behavioral cues. Public cues are accessible to anyone in the situation, such as a tree in a

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used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. The SMCR model has inspired subsequent theorists. However, it is often criticized based on its simplicity because it does not discuss feedback loops and because it does not give enough emphasis on noise and other barriers to

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All these steps are creative processes that select some features to be included. For example, the event is never perceived in its entirety. Instead, the communicator has to select and interpret its most salient features. The same happens when encoding the message: the percept is usually too complex

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The relation between message and reality is of central importance to Gerbner. For this reason, his model includes two dimensions. The horizontal dimension corresponds to the relation between communicator and event. The vertical dimension corresponds to the relation between communicator and message.

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For Schramm, communication is based on the relation between a source and a destination and consists in sharing ideas or information. For this to happen, the source has to encode their idea in symbolic form as a message. This message is sent to the destination using a channel, such as sound waves or

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Newcomb's model was first published by Theodore H. Newcomb in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts". It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic

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is used for any model that includes the phases of encoding and decoding in its description of communication. Such models stress that to send information, a code is necessary. A code is a sign system used to express ideas and interpret messages. Encoding-decoding models are sometimes contrasted with

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For interaction models, these steps happen one after the other: first, one message is sent and received, later another message is returned as feedback, etc. Such feedback loops make it possible for the sender to assess whether their message was received and had the intended effect or whether it was

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are specialized models that do not aim to give a universal account of communication. Another contrast is between linear and non-linear models. Most early models of communication are linear models. They present communication as a unidirectional process in which messages flow from the communicator to

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noise: environmental noise distorts the signal on its way to the receiver, whereas semantic noise occurs during encoding or decoding, for example, when an ambiguous word in the message is not interpreted by the receiver as it was meant by the sender. Feedback means that the receiver responds to the

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Barnlund's model is an influential transactional model of communication first published in 1970. Its goal is to avoid the inaccuracies of earlier models and account for communication in all its complexity. This includes dismissing the idea that communication is defined as the transmission of ideas

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between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic. The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each

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between communicators. For example, Wilbur Schramm holds that this relationship informs the expectations the participants bring to the exchange and the roles they play in it. These roles influence how the communicators try to contribute to the communicative goal. In the context of instruction, for

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Models of communication serve various functions. Their simplified presentation helps students and researchers identify the main steps of communication and apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases. The unified picture they provide makes it easier to describe and explain the observed

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and social context of the communicators. Generally speaking, the more source and receiver are alike in regard to these factors, the more likely successful communication is. Communication may fail, for example, if the receiver lacks the decoding skills necessary to understand the message or if the

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sender's idea. Other sources of error are external noise or mistakes in the phases of decoding and encoding. Schramm holds that successful communication is about realizing an intended effect. He discusses the conditions for this to be possible. They include making sure that one has the receiver's

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them of an opinion or a course of action. The same message may have very different effects depending on the audience and the occasion. For this reason, the speaker should take these factors into account and compose their message accordingly. Many of the basic elements of the Aristotelian model of

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aspect of communication and holds that both sender and receiver benefit from the exchange. Models of plant communication usually understand communication in terms of biochemical changes and responses. According to Richard Karban, this process starts with a cue that is emitted by a sender and then

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Craig, this implies that communication is a basic social phenomenon that cannot be explained through psychological, cultural, economic, or other factors. Instead, communication is to be seen as the cause of other social processes and not as their result. Constitutive models are closely related to

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hold that meaning is "reflexively constructed, maintained, or negotiated in the act of communicating". This means that communication is not just the exchange of pre-established bundles of information but a creative process, unlike the outlook found in many transmission models. According to Robert

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The Shannon–Weaver model is another early and influential model of communication. It is a linear transmission model that was published in 1948 and describes communication as the interaction of five basic components: a source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and a destination. The source is

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as the paradigmatic form. They usually involve some type of interaction between two or more parties in which messages are exchanged. The process as a whole is very complex, which is why models of communication only present the most salient features by showing how the main components operate and

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of each participant. A field of experience includes past life experiences and affects what the participant understands and is familiar with. Communication fails if the message is outside the receiver's field of experience. In this case, the receiver is unable to decode it and connect it to the

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Some models of animal communication are similar to models of human communication in that they understand the process as an exchange of information. This exchange helps the communicators to reduce uncertainty and to act in a way that is beneficial to them. A further approach is discussed in the

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Linear transmission models describe communication as a one-way process. In it, a sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver. The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process. Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached its intended

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by keeping the different orientations in balance. In Newcomb's words, communication enables "two or more individuals to maintain simultaneous orientation to each other and towards objects of the external environment". The orientations of A and B are subject to change and influence each other.

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Lasswell's model is often criticized due to its simplicity. An example is that it does not include an explicit discussion of vital factors such as noise and feedback loops. It also does not talk about the influence of physical, emotional, social, and cultural contexts. These shortcomings have

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in 1948 and uses five questions to identify and describe the main aspects of communication: "Who?", "Says What?", "In What Channel?", "To Whom?", and "With What Effect?". They correspond to five basic components involved in the communicative process: the sender, the message, the channel, the

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receiver, and the effect. For a newspaper headline, those five components are the reporter, the content of the headline, the newspaper itself, the reader, and the reader's response to the headline. Lasswell assigns a field of inquiry to each component, corresponding to control analysis,

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Berlo's main interest in discussing the components and their aspects is to analyze their impact on successful communication. Source and receiver are usually persons but can also be groups or institutions. On this level, Berlo identifies four features: communication skills, attitudes,

877:. It is a linear transmission model. It is based on the Shannon–Weaver model and Lasswell's model but expands them in various ways. It aims to provide a general account of all forms of communication. One of its innovations is that it starts not with a message or an idea but with an 307:

Models of communication are classified in many ways and the proposed classifications often overlap. Some models are general in the sense that they aim to describe all forms of communication. Others are specialized: they only apply to specific fields or areas. For example, models of

346:, sending an email, posting a blog, or sharing something on social media. Some theorists, like Uma Narula, talk of "action models" instead of linear transmission models to stress how they only focus on the actions of the sender. Linear transmission models include Aristotle's, 802:

B). Another addition is the inclusion of feedback (fBA) from the receiver to the sender. Westley and MacLean also propose a further expansion to account for mass communication. For this purpose, they include an additional component, C, that has the role of a

745:. However, it has been criticized because it simplifies some parts of the communicative process. For example, it presents communication as a one-way process and not as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth between both participants. 317:. Non-linear models, on the other hand, are multi-directional: messages are sent back and forth between participants. According to Uma Narula, linear models describe single acts of communication while non-linear models describe the whole process. 87:

Models of communication are classified depending on their intended applications and on how they conceptualize the process. General models apply to all forms of communication while specialized models restrict themselves to specific forms, like

684:, and effect analysis. The model is usually seen as a linear transmission model and was initially formulated specifically for mass communication, like radio, television, and newspapers. Nonetheless, it has been used in other fields, like 575:. For convergence models, the goal of communication is convergence: to reach a mutual understanding. Feedback plays a central role in this regard: effective feedback helps achieve this goal while ineffective feedback leads to divergence. 762:

or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person. The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the

283:. The process of encoding translates the message into a signal that can be conveyed using a channel. The channel is the sensory route on which the signal travels. For example, expressing one's thoughts in a speech encodes them as 403:

Transaction models depart from interaction models in two ways. On the one hand, they understand sending and responding as simultaneous processes. This can be used to describe how listeners use non-verbal communication, like

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models, which discuss communication with oneself. Models of non-human communication describe communication among other species. Further types include encoding-decoding models, hypodermic models, and relational models.

268:". Their exact meanings vary slightly from model to model and sometimes different terms are used for the same ideas. Simple models only rely on a few of these concepts while more complex models include many of them. 834:

that respond by sending their own message as a form of feedback. Feedback forms part of many types of communication and makes it easier for the participants to identify and resolve possible misunderstandings.

605:. However, the field of communication studies only developed in the 20th century into a separate research discipline. In its early stages, it often borrowed models and concepts from other disciplines, such as 692:

prompted some theorists to expand Lasswell's model. For example, Richard Braddock published an extension in 1958 including two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?".

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message by conveying some information back to the original sender. Context consists in the circumstances of the communication. It is a very wide term that can apply to the physical environment and the

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in the preceding decades. His new approach gives special emphasis to the relation between the participants. The relation determines the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants.

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about how communicative processes will unfold and show how these processes can be measured. One of their goals is to show how to improve communication, for example, by avoiding distortions through

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to refer to this selection. It reflects the style of the source as a communicator. The channel is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted. Berlo analyzes it mainly based on the

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categorize and address problems relevant to models of communication at three basic levels: technical, semantic, and effectiveness problems. They correspond to the issues of how to transmit the

989:. The content is the idea or information expressed in the message. Choosing an appropriate content and the right code to express it matters for successful communication. Berlo uses the term 757:

The basic components of Newcomb's model are two communicators (A and B) and a topic (X). The arrows symbolize the orientations the communicators have toward each other and toward the topic.

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Newcomb understands communication as a "learned response to strain" caused by discrepancies between orientations. The social function of communication is to maintain equilibrium in the

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differences in the process of communication. Some posit, for example, that men and women have different communication styles and aim to achieve different goals through communication.

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in the sense that it does not have a beginning or an end: people decode cues and encode responses all the time, even when no one else is present. For Barnlund, communication is also

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encodes a message and uses a channel to transmit it to a receiver. Noise may distort the message along the way. The receiver then decodes the message and gives some form of feedback.

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from a sender to a receiver. For Barnlund, communication "is the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages". He holds that the world and its objects lack

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them and assign meaning to them by engaging in the processes of decoding and encoding. In doing so, people try to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding.

1187: 897:". In this case, "someone" corresponds to the man and the perceived event is the burning house. Other components include his voice (means) and the fire (conveyed content). 1095:: it is not possible to control all these factors to exactly repeat a previous exchange. This is not even the case when the same communicators exchange the same messages. 444:

models, which see communication as the basic process responsible for how people understand, represent, and experience reality. According to social constructionists, like

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Sapienza, Zachary S.; Iyer, Narayanan; Veenstra, Aaron S. (3 September 2015). "Reading Lasswell's Model of Communication Backward: Three Scholarly Misconceptions".

3713: 961:, and social-cultural system. Communication skills are primarily the ability of the source to encode messages and the ability of the receiver to decode them. The 482:

However, some models are specifically formulated for intrapersonal communication. Many of them focus on the idea that intrapersonal communication starts with the

3457: 3050: 2919: 1492: 2561: 1045:. Dance's model has been criticized based on the claim that it focuses only on some aspects of communication but does not provide a tool for detailed analysis. 641:. His model is primarily concerned with public speaking and is made up of five elements: the speaker, the message, the audience, the occasion, and the effect. 1255: 355: 981:

For the message, the main factors are code, content, and treatment, each of which can be analyzed in terms of its structure and its elements. The code is the

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various aspects and the main focus of the model is a detailed discussion of each of them. For Berlo, all forms of communication are attempts to influence the

5920: 1853: 1780: 287:, which are transmitted using air as a channel. Decoding is the reverse process of encoding: it happens when the signal is translated back into a message. 1071:

Barnlund's model rests on a set of basic assumptions. For Barnlund, any activity that creates meaning is a form of communication. He sees communication as

147:, were proposed to overcome the limitations of interaction models. They constitute the origin of further developments in the form of constitutive models. 1412: 908:

is the communicator who formulates a message about this event. The message is then perceived and interpreted by the audience, labeled in the diagram as

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by seeing communication as a means of growth, learning, and improvement. The basic idea behind Dance's helical model of communication is also found in

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Barnlund, Dean C. (5 July 2013). "A Transactional Model of Communication". In Akin, Johnnye; Goldberg, Alvin; Myers, Gail; Stewart, Joseph (eds.).

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Sereno, Kenneth K.; Mortensen, C. David (1970). "Communication Theory: Decoding-Encoding". In Sereno, Kenneth K.; Mortensen, C. David (eds.).

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only developed into a separate research discipline in the middle of the 20th century. All early models were linear transmission models, like

1706: 420:. This also affects the communicators themselves on various levels, such as their thoughts and feelings as well as their social identities. 1234: 798:) and has to compose the message (X') to communicate to the receiver (B). B's direct perception is limited to only a few of these topics (X 3973: 3757: 3503: 3381: 2629: 841:

One requirement of successful communication is that the message is located in the overlap of the fields of experience of the participants.

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because meaning is not fixed but depends on the human practice of interpretation, which is itself subject to change. Communication is

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Noise is any influence that interferes with the message reaching its destination. Some theorists distinguish environmental noise and

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effect on the communicators and evolves continuously as a process. The upward widening movement of the helix represents a form of

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is concerned with the second component. In Gerbner's example, "a man notices a house burning across the street and shouts 'Fire!

4083: 3301: 3269: 3231: 2336: 855:, that the message is understandable, and that the audience is able and motivated to react to the message in the intended way. 5721: 4671:

Craig, Robert (30 January 2013). "Constructing Theories in Communication Research". In Cobley, Paul; Schulz, Peter J. (eds.).

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interact. They usually do so in the form of a simplified visualization and ignore some aspects for the sake of simplicity.

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since many components are involved and many factors influence how it unfolds. Because of its complexity, communication is

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to reconstruct the source's intention found in the original message. They try to solve this problem by making the message

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is the positive or negative stance that source and receiver have toward themselves, each other, and the discussed topic.

816: 56:. Their function is to give a compact overview of the complex process of communication. This helps researchers formulate 5867: 5302:

Li, Hong Ling (September 2007). "From Shannon-Weaver to Boisot: A Review on the Research of Knowledge Transfer Model".

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Aristotle and Information Theory: A Comparison of the Influence of Causal Assumptions on two Theories of Communication

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Bowman, J. P.; Targowski, A. S. (1 October 1987). "Modeling the Communication Process: The Map is Not the Territory".

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Berlo's model includes a detailed discussion of the four main components of communication and their different aspects.

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and interpretation. However, some forms of communication can be accurately described by them, such as many types of

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Schramm's model of communication is one of the earliest interaction models of communication. It was published by

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In the 1970s, Schramm proposed modifications to his original model to take into account the discoveries made in

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is communication between two distinct persons, like when greeting someone on the street or making a phone call.

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the model since the participants are both senders and receivers and they alternate between these two positions.

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The sender is responsible for creating the message and sending it to the receiver. Some theorists use the terms

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One of the earliest models of communication was given by Aristotle. He speaks of communication in his treatise

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aspects and distorts others. For this reason, he suggests that a family of different models should be adopted.

3805: 3547: 3148: 2978: 1396: 538:. For the latter, the receiver is not only interested in the information sent but tries to infer the sender's 7040: 7025: 6720: 6005:"Berlo's Communication Process Model as Applied to the Behavioral Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregor" 3789: 3614: 3250: 2669: 2645: 2613: 1547: 1083:

because there is no clear division between sender and receiver as found in linear transmission models. It is

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perceived by a receiver. The receiver processes this information to translate it into some kind of response.

237: 69: 3646: 3482: 3317: 2833: 1636: 644:

According to Aristotle's communication model, the speaker wishes to have an effect on the audience, such as

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Boundary Spanners of Humanity: Three Logics of Communications and Public Diplomacy for Global Collaboration

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Planning, Implementing, and Evaluating Targeted Communication Programs: A Manual for Business Communicators

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Farley, Mary J. (September 1992). "Thought and Talk: The Intrapersonal Component of Human Communication".

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Baldwin, John R.; Coleman, Robin R. Means; González, Alberto; Shenoy-Packer, Suchitra (3 February 2014).

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stands for the understanding of the topic and the social-cultural system includes background beliefs and

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Lasswell, Harold (1948). "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society". In Bryson, L. (ed.).

6503: 6300:

Weaver, Warren (1 September 1998). "Recent Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Communication".

2474: 3034: 2888: 2886: 2884: 786:

An influential expansion of Newcomb's model is due to Westley and MacLean. They introduce the idea of

6836: 6705: 6670: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4065: 413: 2447: 1346: 76:. The receiver needs to decode the message to understand the initial idea and provides some form of 6598: 6528: 6483: 3447: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3439: 2881: 787: 701: 556:, which ascribe an active role to the receiver in the process of communication and meaning-making. 379:

distorted by noise. For example, interaction models can be used to describe a conversation through

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Dance's helical model understands communication in analogy to an upward-moving and widening helix.

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communication, ie., what effects it has on behavior. An example is that communication provides an

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models stress that communication is a basic phenomenon responsible for how people understand and

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Foundations of Educational Technology: Integrative Approaches and Interdisciplinary Perspectives

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Lederman, Linda Costigan (2002). "Intrapersonal communication". In Schement, Jorge Reina (ed.).

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Barker, Larry L.; Wiseman, Gordon (1 September 1966). "A Model of Intrapersonal Communication".

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Some theorists, like Paul Cobley and Peter J. Schulz, distinguish models of communication from

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Animal Cognition in Nature: The Convergence of Psychology and Biology in Laboratory and Field

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Craig, Robert T. Communication Theory as a Field (1999). "Communication Theory as a Field".

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1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1061: 1006: 837: 630: 196: 192: 180: 160: 93: 45: 825:

Schramm's model of communication differs from earlier models by including a feedback loop.

195:. This is based on the idea that theories of communication try to provide a more abstract 8: 6921: 6896: 5304:

2007 International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing

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due to the diverse effects it has on the communicators that cannot be undone. It is also

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The Shannon–Weaver model has been influential in the fields of communication theory and

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Lasswell's model is an early and influential model of communication. It was proposed by

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Visual presentation of Lasswell's model of communication as a linear transmission model.

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Fatal Words and Friendly Faces: Interpersonal Communication in the Twenty-first Century

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forms. In the widest sense, communication is not restricted to humans but happens also

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Tengan, Callistus; Aigbavboa, Clinton; Thwala, Wellington Didibhuku (27 April 2021).

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Communication for Development in the Third World: Theory and Practice for Empowerment

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Ruben, Brent D. (2001). "Models Of Communication". In Schement, Jorge Reina (ed.).

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Communicative Behaviour of a Language Learner: Exploring Willingness to Communicate

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Berlo's model is a linear transmission model of communication. It was published by

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instead. The message itself can be verbal or non-verbal and contains some form of

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Additional classifications of communication models have been suggested. The term

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The Role of Language and Symbols in Promotional Strategies and Marketing Schemes

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An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community

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McQuail, Denis (2008). "Models of communication". In Donsbach, Wolfgang (ed.).

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Lawson, Celeste; Gill, Robert; Feekery, Angela; Witsel, Mieke (12 June 2019).

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Wilbur Schramm and Noam Chomsky Meet Harold Innis: Media, Power, and Democracy

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models describe communicative exchanges with other people. They contrast with

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is created in this process and does not exist prior to it. Constitutive and

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Vieira, Patrícia; Gagliano, Monica; Ryan, John Charles (24 December 2015).

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Hill, Anne; Watson, James; Rivers, Danny; Joyce, Mark (16 November 2007).

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Balda, Russell P.; Pepperberg, Irene M.; Kamil, A. C. (9 September 1998).

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Straubhaar, Joseph; LaRose, Robert; Davenport, Lucinda (1 January 2015).

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Gerbner's model of communication starts with the perception of an event.

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Strategic Place Branding Methodologies and Theory for Tourist Attraction

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and between species. However, models of communication normally focus on

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Classroom Communication and Diversity: Enhancing Instructional Practice

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generation and transmission of new stimuli, which are again perceived.

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Many basic concepts reappear in the different models, like "sender", "

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on their own. They are only meaningful to the extent that people

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phenomena. Models of communication can guide the formulation of

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of the communicators as well as the general social situation.

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Models of communication are representations of the process of

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that is strong enough to accurately represent the underlying

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other and whether they have the same attitude towards X.

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and one of the first models of communication is due to

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information in the form of a message and sends it to a

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Source–message–channel–receiver model of communication

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filtering the original message for the mass audience.

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communication are still found in contemporary models.

119:

The problem of communication was already discussed in

6131: 5585:

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source has a demeaning attitude toward the receiver.

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Many models of communication include the idea that a

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Westley and MacLean's expansion of Newcomb's model.

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(1960). 4457:10.1515/9783110878752.43 4418:Journal of Communication 4270:Powell & Powell 2010 2444:Cobley & Schulz 2013 2174:, p. 381, cited in 2172:Krebs & Dawkins 1995 1832:Morel & Spector 2022 1627:Cobley & Schulz 2013 1595:Manuela & Clara 2018 1343:Cobley & Schulz 2013 1001: 924: 788:asymmetry of information 165:non-verbal communication 50:non-verbal communication 6594:Nonverbal communication 6584:Models of communication 6415:Zaharna, R. S. (2022). 6099:Taylor, Hal R. (1962). 5312:10.1109/WICOM.2007.1332 5144:. Libraries Unlimited. 5102:. SAGE. pp. 57–8. 5006:. 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Walter de Gruyter. 2333:, p. 17-9, 34-8. 1009: 938: 903: 860:communication studies 840: 824: 781: 756: 709: 666: 550:magic bullet theories 502: 463: 398: 369: 328: 125:communication studies 44:try to describe both 40:. Most communication 24: 7041:Communication theory 7026:Conceptual modelling 6681:Communication theory 6676:Communication design 5672:Psychological Review 5645:Narula, Uma (2006). 5364:. SAGE. p. 38. 5123:. 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Other models. 1012: 941: 914: 843: 827: 784: 759: 743:information theory 712: 696:Shannon and Weaver 680:, media analysis, 669: 573:convergence models 536:inferential models 505: 470: 410:facial expressions 401: 372: 331: 310:mass communication 90:mass communication 31: 7013: 7012: 6407:978-1-133-71157-5 6386:978-3-11-019898-0 6357:978-0-07-338507-5 6250:978-0-8058-1128-5 6229:978-1-4985-1060-8 5953:978-0-89930-208-9 5932:978-0-19-953300-8 5392:978-1-139-48736-8 5214:978-0-7295-3857-2 5088:978-0-335-23517-9 4992:978-0-7425-6396-4 4929:978-3-031-09206-0 4621:978-1-135-85703-5 4448:Language Behavior 4408:978-3-642-12162-3 4366:978-0-08-052723-9 2275:inferential model 2000:, p. 481–484 1828:, constructionism 1361:, pp. 46–47. 682:audience analysis 619:political science 579:Difference models 560:Relational models 546:Hypodermic models 399:Transaction model 381:instant messaging 370:Interaction model 123:but the field of 80:. In both cases, 7048: 7003: 7002: 6658: 6609:Public relations 6504:Biocommunication 6461: 6454: 6447: 6438: 6437: 6432: 6411: 6390: 6369: 6340: 6338: 6317: 6296: 6275: 6254: 6233: 6212: 6191: 6170: 6149: 6128: 6095: 6074: 6053: 6032: 5999: 5978: 5957: 5936: 5915: 5894: 5873: 5852: 5823: 5802: 5781: 5758: 5737: 5716: 5695: 5684:10.1037/h0063098 5662: 5641: 5620: 5599: 5578: 5557: 5536: 5515: 5494: 5473: 5452: 5446: 5438: 5417: 5396: 5375: 5354: 5333: 5298: 5277: 5256: 5237: 5218: 5197: 5176: 5155: 5134: 5113: 5092: 5071: 5050: 5017: 4996: 4975: 4954: 4933: 4912: 4891: 4870: 4841: 4820: 4799: 4778: 4757: 4738: 4717: 4688: 4667: 4646: 4625: 4604: 4583: 4554: 4533: 4512: 4491: 4470: 4441: 4412: 4391: 4370: 4349: 4328: 4307: 4277: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4248:, p. 57-60. 4243: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4179: 4168: 4167:, p. 47-53. 4162: 4156: 4146: 4133: 4127: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4096: 4081: 4075: 4060: 4050: 4041: 4031: 4022: 4012: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3977: 3971: 3961: 3955: 3945: 3939: 3929: 3923: 3913: 3907: 3900:Januszewski 2001 3897: 3888: 3878: 3872: 3862: 3845: 3835: 3826: 3816: 3803: 3793: 3787: 3777: 3771: 3761: 3755: 3745: 3734: 3724: 3711: 3701: 3695: 3685: 3679: 3669: 3663: 3653: 3644: 3634: 3628: 3618: 3612: 3611:, p. 176-8. 3606: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3587:, p. 173-6. 3582: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3554: 3545: 3535: 3522: 3512: 3501: 3491: 3480: 3470: 3455: 3449: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3398: 3388: 3379: 3369: 3363: 3353: 3347: 3337: 3331: 3321: 3315: 3305: 3299: 3289: 3283: 3273: 3267: 3257: 3248: 3238: 3229: 3219: 3213: 3203: 3197: 3187: 3181: 3171: 3165: 3155: 3146: 3136: 3130: 3129:, p. 21–34. 3124: 3115: 3105: 3099: 3089: 3083: 3073: 3067: 3057: 3048: 3038: 3032: 3022: 3016: 3006: 2997: 2987: 2976: 2966: 2955: 2945: 2936: 2926: 2917: 2907: 2896: 2890: 2879: 2869: 2863: 2853: 2847: 2837: 2831: 2824:Januszewski 2001 2821: 2812: 2802: 2796: 2786: 2780: 2770: 2764: 2754: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2701: 2695: 2694:, p. 88–93. 2689: 2683: 2673: 2667: 2666:, p. 245–9. 2661: 2655: 2649: 2643: 2633: 2627: 2617: 2611: 2601: 2590: 2584: 2575: 2565: 2559: 2549: 2543: 2537: 2522: 2512: 2503: 2493: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2462: 2451: 2441: 2435: 2425: 2419: 2409: 2403: 2393: 2387: 2377: 2371: 2361: 2355: 2345: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2312: 2306: 2300: 2294: 2284: 2278: 2268: 2262: 2252: 2246: 2236: 2230: 2220: 2214: 2204: 2198: 2188: 2182: 2169: 2163: 2153: 2147: 2105: 2099: 2093: 2084: 2077:Hill et al. 2007 2074: 2068: 2058: 2052: 2016: 2010: 1973: 1967: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1939: 1933: 1927: 1917: 1911: 1901: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1816: 1810: 1800: 1794: 1784: 1778: 1768: 1762: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1727: 1717: 1704: 1698: 1689: 1679: 1666: 1656: 1650: 1640: 1634: 1624: 1618: 1608: 1602: 1592: 1586: 1576: 1570: 1560: 1545: 1535: 1522: 1512: 1506: 1496: 1490: 1480: 1474: 1464: 1458: 1448: 1442: 1432: 1426: 1416: 1410: 1400: 1394: 1384: 1378: 1368: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1340: 1331: 1321: 1300: 1290: 1253: 1243: 1232: 1226: 1220: 1210: 1201: 1191: 1185: 1175: 1164: 1158: 1152: 1142: 1127: 1117: 1035:education theory 896: 678:content analysis 554:reception models 426:Barnlund's model 336:listening skills 256:", "decoding", " 145:Barnlund's model 129:Lasswell's model 7056: 7055: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7046: 7045: 7016: 7015: 7014: 7009: 6991: 6780: 6659: 6650: 6497: 6495: 6488: 6470: 6465: 6435: 6429: 6408: 6387: 6358: 6314: 6293: 6272: 6251: 6230: 6209: 6188: 6167: 6146: 6092: 6071: 6050: 5975: 5954: 5933: 5912: 5891: 5870: 5820: 5799: 5778: 5755: 5734: 5713: 5659: 5638: 5617: 5596: 5575: 5554: 5533: 5512: 5491: 5470: 5440: 5439: 5435: 5414: 5393: 5372: 5351: 5322: 5295: 5274: 5253: 5234: 5215: 5194: 5173: 5152: 5131: 5110: 5089: 5068: 5014: 4993: 4972: 4951: 4930: 4909: 4888: 4838: 4817: 4796: 4775: 4754: 4735: 4685: 4664: 4643: 4622: 4551: 4530: 4509: 4488: 4467: 4409: 4388: 4367: 4346: 4325: 4304: 4285: 4280: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4244: 4240: 4232: 4228: 4224:, p. 52-3. 4220: 4216: 4212:, p. 51-2. 4208: 4204: 4200:, p. 48-9. 4196: 4192: 4180: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4147: 4136: 4128: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4097: 4084: 4076: 4063: 4051: 4044: 4032: 4025: 4013: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3978: 3974: 3962: 3958: 3946: 3942: 3930: 3926: 3914: 3910: 3898: 3891: 3879: 3875: 3863: 3848: 3836: 3829: 3817: 3806: 3794: 3790: 3778: 3774: 3762: 3758: 3746: 3737: 3725: 3714: 3702: 3698: 3686: 3682: 3670: 3666: 3654: 3647: 3635: 3631: 3619: 3615: 3607: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3555: 3548: 3536: 3525: 3513: 3504: 3492: 3483: 3471: 3458: 3450: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3417: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3389: 3382: 3370: 3366: 3354: 3350: 3338: 3334: 3322: 3318: 3306: 3302: 3290: 3286: 3274: 3270: 3258: 3251: 3239: 3232: 3220: 3216: 3204: 3200: 3188: 3184: 3172: 3168: 3156: 3149: 3137: 3133: 3125: 3118: 3106: 3102: 3090: 3086: 3074: 3070: 3058: 3051: 3039: 3035: 3023: 3019: 3007: 3000: 2988: 2979: 2967: 2958: 2946: 2939: 2927: 2920: 2908: 2899: 2891: 2882: 2870: 2866: 2854: 2850: 2838: 2834: 2822: 2815: 2803: 2799: 2787: 2783: 2771: 2767: 2755: 2746: 2738: 2734: 2726: 2722: 2714: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2690: 2686: 2674: 2670: 2662: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2634: 2630: 2618: 2614: 2602: 2593: 2585: 2578: 2566: 2562: 2550: 2546: 2538: 2525: 2513: 2506: 2494: 2487: 2481:Rosenfield 2011 2479: 2475: 2463: 2454: 2450:, Introduction. 2442: 2438: 2426: 2422: 2410: 2406: 2394: 2390: 2378: 2374: 2364:Montgomery 1993 2362: 2358: 2346: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2313: 2309: 2301: 2297: 2285: 2281: 2269: 2265: 2253: 2249: 2237: 2233: 2221: 2217: 2205: 2201: 2189: 2185: 2170: 2166: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2106: 2102: 2094: 2087: 2075: 2071: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2024:, p. 173-7 2017: 2013: 2009: 1974: 1970: 1958: 1954: 1946: 1942: 1934: 1930: 1918: 1914: 1902: 1895: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1817: 1813: 1801: 1797: 1785: 1781: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1753: 1745: 1730: 1718: 1707: 1699: 1692: 1680: 1669: 1657: 1653: 1641: 1637: 1625: 1621: 1609: 1605: 1593: 1589: 1577: 1573: 1561: 1548: 1536: 1525: 1513: 1509: 1497: 1493: 1481: 1477: 1465: 1461: 1449: 1445: 1433: 1429: 1417: 1413: 1401: 1397: 1385: 1381: 1369: 1365: 1357: 1353: 1349:, Introduction. 1341: 1334: 1322: 1303: 1291: 1256: 1244: 1235: 1227: 1223: 1211: 1204: 1192: 1188: 1184:, Introduction. 1176: 1167: 1159: 1155: 1143: 1130: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1057: 1051: 1039:spiral approach 1004: 998:communication. 933: 927: 894: 868: 819: 813: 801: 797: 793: 764:social relation 751: 704: 698: 673:Harold Lasswell 661: 655: 627: 595: 527: 497: 458: 442:constructionist 434: 393: 385:Schramm's model 364: 323: 305: 303:Classifications 234: 153: 141:Schramm's model 98:constructionist 19: 12: 11: 5: 7054: 7044: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6781: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6751:Organizational 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6701:Cross-cultural 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6667: 6665: 6661: 6660: 6653: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6632: 6631: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6549:Intrapersonal 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6500: 6498: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6464: 6463: 6456: 6449: 6441: 6434: 6433: 6427: 6412: 6406: 6391: 6385: 6370: 6356: 6341: 6318: 6312: 6297: 6291: 6276: 6270: 6264:. Bloomsbury. 6255: 6249: 6234: 6228: 6213: 6207: 6192: 6186: 6171: 6165: 6150: 6144: 6129: 6096: 6090: 6075: 6069: 6054: 6048: 6033: 6015:(3): 389–394. 6000: 5990:(3): 379–423. 5979: 5973: 5958: 5952: 5937: 5931: 5916: 5910: 5895: 5889: 5874: 5869:978-0252001970 5868: 5853: 5835:(5): 599–622. 5824: 5818: 5803: 5797: 5782: 5776: 5759: 5753: 5738: 5732: 5717: 5711: 5696: 5678:(6): 393–404. 5663: 5657: 5642: 5636: 5621: 5615: 5600: 5594: 5579: 5573: 5558: 5552: 5537: 5531: 5516: 5510: 5495: 5489: 5474: 5468: 5453: 5433: 5418: 5412: 5397: 5391: 5376: 5370: 5355: 5349: 5334: 5320: 5299: 5293: 5278: 5272: 5257: 5251: 5238: 5232: 5219: 5213: 5198: 5192: 5177: 5171: 5156: 5150: 5135: 5129: 5114: 5108: 5093: 5087: 5072: 5066: 5051: 5033:(3): 171–199. 5018: 5012: 4997: 4991: 4976: 4970: 4955: 4949: 4934: 4928: 4913: 4907: 4892: 4886: 4871: 4853:(3): 481–484. 4842: 4836: 4821: 4815: 4800: 4794: 4779: 4773: 4758: 4752: 4739: 4733: 4718: 4700:(2): 119–161. 4689: 4683: 4668: 4662: 4647: 4641: 4635:. OUP Oxford. 4626: 4620: 4605: 4584: 4555: 4549: 4534: 4528: 4513: 4507: 4492: 4486: 4471: 4465: 4442: 4424:(3): 172–179. 4413: 4407: 4392: 4386: 4371: 4365: 4350: 4344: 4329: 4323: 4308: 4302: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4278: 4262: 4250: 4238: 4226: 4214: 4202: 4190: 4169: 4157: 4134: 4119: 4107: 4082: 4061: 4042: 4023: 4000: 3988: 3972: 3956: 3940: 3924: 3908: 3889: 3873: 3846: 3827: 3804: 3788: 3772: 3756: 3735: 3712: 3696: 3680: 3664: 3645: 3629: 3613: 3601: 3599:, p. 112. 3589: 3577: 3575:, p. 173. 3565: 3546: 3523: 3502: 3481: 3456: 3435: 3433:, p. 171. 3423: 3421:, p. 7-8. 3411: 3399: 3380: 3364: 3348: 3332: 3316: 3300: 3284: 3268: 3249: 3230: 3214: 3198: 3182: 3166: 3147: 3131: 3116: 3108:Steinberg 1995 3100: 3084: 3068: 3049: 3033: 3017: 2998: 2977: 2956: 2937: 2918: 2897: 2880: 2864: 2848: 2832: 2813: 2797: 2781: 2765: 2744: 2732: 2730:, p. 381. 2720: 2708: 2696: 2684: 2668: 2656: 2644: 2628: 2612: 2591: 2576: 2560: 2544: 2523: 2515:Steinberg 2007 2504: 2485: 2473: 2452: 2436: 2420: 2404: 2388: 2372: 2356: 2335: 2323: 2307: 2305:, p. 8-9. 2295: 2279: 2263: 2247: 2231: 2215: 2199: 2183: 2164: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2135: 2129:UMN staff 2013 2126: 2117: 2107: 2100: 2085: 2069: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2048:, p. 43-8 2043: 2034: 2025: 2018: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1985: 1975: 1968: 1952: 1950:, p. 164. 1940: 1936:UMN staff 2010 1928: 1912: 1893: 1891:, p. 173. 1881: 1879:, p. 174. 1869: 1866: 1865: 1856: 1847: 1838: 1829: 1818: 1811: 1795: 1779: 1763: 1751: 1728: 1705: 1690: 1667: 1651: 1635: 1619: 1603: 1587: 1571: 1546: 1523: 1507: 1491: 1475: 1459: 1443: 1427: 1411: 1403:Steinberg 2007 1395: 1379: 1363: 1351: 1332: 1301: 1293:UMN staff 2013 1254: 1233: 1221: 1202: 1194:UMN staff 2013 1186: 1165: 1153: 1128: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1053:Main article: 1050: 1047: 1003: 1000: 973:common in the 929:Main article: 926: 923: 871:George Gerbner 867: 864: 831:Wilbur Schramm 815:Main article: 812: 809: 799: 795: 791: 750: 747: 719:Claude Shannon 700:Main article: 697: 694: 657:Main article: 654: 651: 626: 623: 599:Ancient Greece 594: 591: 526: 523: 496: 493: 457: 454: 450:conceptualized 433: 430: 392: 389: 363: 360: 352:Shannon-Weaver 344:text messaging 322: 319: 304: 301: 233: 232:Basic concepts 230: 152: 149: 121:Ancient Greece 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7053: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7006: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6783: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6741:Media studies 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6731:International 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6716:Environmental 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6706:Developmental 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6686:Communicology 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6662: 6657: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6630: 6627: 6626: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6574:Media ecology 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6544:Interpersonal 6542: 6540: 6539:Intercultural 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6514:Communication 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6501: 6499: 6491: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6462: 6457: 6455: 6450: 6448: 6443: 6442: 6439: 6430: 6428:9780190930271 6424: 6420: 6419: 6413: 6409: 6403: 6399: 6398: 6392: 6388: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6353: 6349: 6348: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6319: 6315: 6313:9780252725463 6309: 6305: 6304: 6298: 6294: 6292:9781628921496 6288: 6284: 6283: 6277: 6273: 6271:9781849665636 6267: 6263: 6262: 6256: 6252: 6246: 6242: 6241: 6235: 6231: 6225: 6221: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6208:9781946135056 6204: 6200: 6199: 6193: 6189: 6187:9781946135070 6183: 6179: 6178: 6172: 6168: 6166:9781000164985 6162: 6158: 6157: 6151: 6147: 6145:9781000381412 6141: 6138:. Routledge. 6137: 6136: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6097: 6093: 6091:9781305533851 6087: 6083: 6082: 6076: 6072: 6070:9780702172618 6066: 6062: 6061: 6055: 6051: 6049:9780702136498 6045: 6041: 6040: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5980: 5976: 5974:9780060446239 5970: 5966: 5965: 5959: 5955: 5949: 5945: 5944: 5938: 5934: 5928: 5924: 5923: 5917: 5913: 5911:9781599049328 5907: 5903: 5902: 5896: 5892: 5890:9780252001970 5886: 5882: 5881: 5875: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5860: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5825: 5821: 5819:9781351294713 5815: 5811: 5810: 5804: 5800: 5798:9780028653860 5794: 5790: 5789: 5783: 5779: 5777:9783110813616 5773: 5769: 5765: 5760: 5756: 5754:9781135147532 5750: 5746: 5745: 5739: 5735: 5733:9781483375533 5729: 5725: 5724: 5718: 5714: 5712:9781478650584 5708: 5704: 5703: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5660: 5658:9788126905133 5654: 5650: 5649: 5643: 5639: 5637:9781000688252 5633: 5629: 5628: 5622: 5618: 5616:9780877782643 5612: 5608: 5607: 5601: 5597: 5595:9781452254104 5591: 5587: 5586: 5580: 5576: 5574:9789811531477 5570: 5566: 5565: 5559: 5555: 5553:9780761994763 5549: 5545: 5544: 5538: 5534: 5532:9781317900672 5528: 5525:. Routledge. 5524: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5511:9781405131995 5507: 5503: 5502: 5496: 5492: 5490:9781134954148 5486: 5482: 5481: 5475: 5471: 5469:9780877781844 5465: 5461: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5436: 5434:9781522557791 5430: 5426: 5425: 5419: 5415: 5413:9780873934992 5409: 5405: 5404: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5377: 5373: 5371:9781473909120 5367: 5363: 5362: 5356: 5352: 5350:9781412959377 5346: 5342: 5341: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5321:9781424413119 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5300: 5296: 5294:9780028653853 5290: 5286: 5285: 5279: 5275: 5273:9781108594417 5269: 5265: 5264: 5258: 5254: 5252:9780598970824 5248: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5233:9780632009879 5229: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5206: 5205: 5199: 5195: 5193:9783732904327 5189: 5185: 5184: 5178: 5174: 5172:9780226264844 5168: 5164: 5163: 5157: 5153: 5151:9781563087493 5147: 5143: 5142: 5136: 5132: 5130:9781412970105 5126: 5122: 5121: 5115: 5111: 5109:9780761970705 5105: 5101: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5084: 5080: 5079: 5073: 5069: 5067:9780739152584 5063: 5059: 5058: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5019: 5015: 5013:9783319593333 5009: 5005: 5004: 4998: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4983: 4977: 4973: 4971:9780415596497 4967: 4964:. Routledge. 4963: 4962: 4956: 4952: 4950:9781136870187 4946: 4942: 4941: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4921: 4920: 4914: 4910: 4908:9783031022937 4904: 4900: 4899: 4893: 4889: 4887:9780080567174 4883: 4879: 4878: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4837:9780819181473 4833: 4829: 4828: 4822: 4818: 4816:9780761817208 4812: 4808: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4795:9781442550551 4791: 4787: 4786: 4780: 4776: 4774:9780415876940 4770: 4766: 4765: 4759: 4755: 4753:9780765680983 4749: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4734:9780030635151 4730: 4726: 4725: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4684:9783110240450 4680: 4676: 4675: 4669: 4665: 4663:9783110240450 4659: 4655: 4654: 4648: 4644: 4642:9780199568758 4638: 4634: 4633: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4613: 4612: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4556: 4552: 4550:9781847874986 4546: 4542: 4541: 4535: 4531: 4529:9780030556869 4525: 4521: 4520: 4514: 4510: 4508:9780803973572 4504: 4500: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4487:9780415247528 4483: 4479: 4478: 4472: 4468: 4466:9783110878752 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4449: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4404: 4400: 4399: 4393: 4389: 4387:9781444332360 4383: 4379: 4378: 4372: 4368: 4362: 4358: 4357: 4351: 4347: 4345:9781498506823 4341: 4337: 4336: 4330: 4326: 4324:9781522505808 4320: 4316: 4315: 4309: 4305: 4303:9780977035793 4299: 4295: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4275: 4271: 4266: 4260:, p. 54. 4259: 4258:Barnlund 2013 4254: 4247: 4246:Barnlund 2013 4242: 4236:, p. 51. 4235: 4234:Barnlund 2013 4230: 4223: 4222:Barnlund 2013 4218: 4211: 4210:Barnlund 2013 4206: 4199: 4198:Barnlund 2013 4194: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4166: 4165:Barnlund 2013 4161: 4154: 4150: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4132:, p. 47. 4131: 4130:Barnlund 2013 4126: 4124: 4116: 4115:Barnlund 2013 4111: 4104: 4100: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4079: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4049: 4047: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4005: 3997: 3992: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3905: 3901: 3896: 3894: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3870: 3866: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3749: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3733:, SMCR Model. 3732: 3728: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3700: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3661: 3657: 3652: 3650: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3610: 3605: 3598: 3593: 3586: 3581: 3574: 3569: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3453: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3432: 3427: 3420: 3415: 3408: 3403: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3254: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3163: 3159: 3158:Schwartz 2010 3154: 3152: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3128: 3123: 3121: 3113: 3109: 3104: 3097: 3093: 3088: 3081: 3077: 3072: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2925: 2923: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2894: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2845: 2841: 2836: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2818: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2794: 2790: 2785: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2741: 2736: 2729: 2724: 2717: 2712: 2705: 2700: 2693: 2692:Braddock 1958 2688: 2681: 2677: 2676:Feicheng 2022 2672: 2665: 2660: 2653: 2652:Lasswell 1948 2648: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2557: 2553: 2548: 2541: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2482: 2477: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2332: 2327: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2304: 2299: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2191:Ferretti 2022 2187: 2181: 2177: 2176:Ferretti 2022 2173: 2168: 2161: 2157: 2152: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2111:Ferretti 2022 2109: 2108: 2104: 2097: 2092: 2090: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2047: 2046:Barnlund 2013 2044: 2042: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2015: 2006:, p. 172 2005: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1993: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1977: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1961: 1956: 1949: 1944: 1937: 1932: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1909: 1905: 1904:Lederman 2002 1900: 1898: 1890: 1885: 1878: 1873: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1841:Trenholm 2020 1839: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1761:, p. 58. 1760: 1759:Barnlund 2013 1755: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1703:, p. 48. 1702: 1701:Barnlund 2013 1697: 1695: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1672: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1616: 1612: 1607: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1568: 1564: 1563:Kastberg 2019 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1376: 1372: 1367: 1360: 1355: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1337: 1329: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1310: 1308: 1306: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1277: 1275: 1273: 1271: 1269: 1267: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1230: 1225: 1218: 1214: 1209: 1207: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1162: 1157: 1150: 1146: 1141: 1139: 1137: 1135: 1133: 1125: 1121: 1120:Fujishin 2009 1116: 1112: 1100: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1056: 1046: 1044: 1043:Jerome Bruner 1040: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1008: 999: 996: 992: 988: 984: 979: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 954: 951: 946: 937: 932: 922: 918: 911: 907: 902: 898: 892: 888: 882: 880: 876: 872: 863: 861: 856: 854: 849: 839: 835: 832: 823: 818: 808: 806: 789: 780: 776: 773: 772:social system 768: 765: 755: 746: 744: 739: 737: 733: 728: 724: 723:Warren Weaver 720: 716: 708: 703: 693: 689: 687: 683: 679: 674: 665: 660: 650: 647: 642: 640: 636: 632: 622: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 590: 588: 584: 580: 576: 574: 570: 565: 561: 557: 555: 551: 547: 543: 541: 537: 532: 522: 519: 513: 511: 501: 492: 489: 485: 480: 478: 474: 466: 462: 453: 451: 447: 443: 438: 429: 427: 421: 419: 415: 411: 407: 397: 388: 386: 382: 376: 368: 359: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 327: 318: 316: 311: 300: 298: 293: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 269: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 229: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 205: 202: 198: 194: 189: 186: 182: 181:among animals 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 157:communication 148: 146: 142: 138: 137:Berlo's model 134: 130: 126: 122: 117: 114: 113:intrapersonal 110: 109:Interpersonal 106: 103: 99: 95: 91: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 38:communication 35: 28: 23: 16: 6583: 6524:Conversation 6509:Broadcasting 6417: 6396: 6375: 6346: 6326: 6302: 6281: 6260: 6239: 6218: 6197: 6176: 6155: 6134: 6108: 6104: 6080: 6059: 6038: 6012: 6008: 5987: 5983: 5963: 5942: 5921: 5900: 5879: 5858: 5832: 5828: 5808: 5787: 5767: 5743: 5722: 5701: 5675: 5671: 5647: 5626: 5605: 5584: 5563: 5542: 5521: 5500: 5479: 5458: 5423: 5402: 5381: 5360: 5339: 5303: 5283: 5262: 5242: 5223: 5203: 5182: 5161: 5140: 5119: 5098: 5077: 5056: 5030: 5026: 5002: 4981: 4960: 4939: 4918: 4897: 4876: 4850: 4847:AORN Journal 4846: 4826: 4805: 4784: 4763: 4743: 4723: 4697: 4693: 4673: 4652: 4631: 4610: 4595:(2): 88–93. 4592: 4588: 4566:(4): 21–34. 4563: 4559: 4539: 4518: 4497: 4476: 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8–10. 6105:STWP Review 3980:Narula 2006 3865:Taylor 1962 3819:Agunga 2006 3656:Mannan 2013 3557:Holmes 2005 3515:Narula 2006 3494:Berger 1995 3391:Narula 2006 3041:Narula 2006 2910:Narula 2006 2805:Weaver 1998 2773:Weaver 1998 2704:Weaver 1998 2664:Wenxiu 2015 2620:Berger 1995 2552:Narula 2006 2465:Narula 2006 2380:Narula 2006 2096:Karban 2015 2037:Vocate 1994 1998:Farley 1992 1948:Danesi 2009 1861:, pp. 1747:Blythe 2009 1659:Narula 2006 1611:Narula 2006 1579:Narula 2006 1515:Narula 2006 1441:, encoding. 1387:Narula 2006 1371:Narula 2006 1246:Narula 2006 1178:Narula 2006 1015:Frank Dance 995:five senses 983:sign system 945:David Berlo 736:distortions 569:dehumanized 518:cooperative 418:communities 391:Transaction 362:Interaction 281:information 277:destination 214:predictions 167:as well as 62:predictions 7020:Categories 6987:Wertheimer 6867:Horkheimer 6604:Propaganda 6559:Mass media 6554:Journalism 6494:Topics and 4272:, p. 4184:, p. 4182:Dwyer 2012 4151:, p. 4101:, p. 4055:, p. 4036:, p. 4017:, p. 3996:Dance 1967 3982:, p. 3966:, p. 3964:Berlo 1960 3950:, p. 3948:Berlo 1960 3934:, p. 3932:Berlo 1960 3918:, p. 3916:Stead 1972 3902:, p. 3883:, p. 3881:Berlo 1960 3867:, p. 3840:, p. 3838:Berlo 1960 3821:, p. 3798:, p. 3782:, p. 3780:Jandt 2010 3766:, p. 3764:Berlo 1960 3750:, p. 3729:, p. 3727:Pande 2020 3706:, p. 3690:, p. 3674:, p. 3672:Berlo 1960 3658:, p. 3639:, p. 3637:Berlo 1960 3623:, p. 3559:, p. 3540:, p. 3517:, p. 3496:, p. 3475:, p. 3473:Fiske 2011 3393:, p. 3374:, p. 3358:, p. 3344:3–5, 13–16 3342:, p. 3326:, p. 3310:, p. 3294:, p. 3292:Dwyer 2012 3278:, p. 3262:, p. 3260:Moore 1994 3243:, p. 3224:, p. 3222:Ruben 2017 3208:, p. 3192:, p. 3178:4, 7–9, 16 3176:, p. 3160:, p. 3141:, p. 3110:, p. 3094:, p. 3078:, p. 3062:, p. 3060:Fiske 2011 3043:, p. 3027:, p. 3011:, p. 2992:, p. 2990:Fiske 2010 2971:, p. 2950:, p. 2931:, p. 2929:Fiske 2011 2912:, p. 2874:, p. 2858:, p. 2842:, p. 2840:Marsh 1983 2826:, p. 2809:4–9, 18–19 2807:, p. 2791:, p. 2789:Fiske 2011 2775:, p. 2759:, p. 2757:Fiske 2011 2678:, p. 2638:, p. 2622:, p. 2606:, p. 2570:, p. 2568:Fiske 2011 2554:, p. 2517:, p. 2498:, p. 2467:, p. 2446:, p. 2430:, p. 2414:, p. 2398:, p. 2382:, p. 2366:, p. 2350:, p. 2317:, p. 2289:, p. 2257:, p. 2241:, p. 2225:, p. 2209:, p. 2193:, p. 2178:, p. 2158:, p. 2140:, p. 2138:Carey 2008 2122:, p. 2113:, p. 2079:, p. 2063:, p. 2039:, p. 2030:, p. 2028:Deetz 2011 1990:, p. 1981:, p. 1962:, p. 1922:, p. 1906:, p. 1843:, p. 1834:, p. 1824:, p. 1805:, p. 1789:, p. 1787:Fiske 2011 1773:, p. 1722:, p. 1684:, p. 1661:, p. 1645:, p. 1629:, p. 1613:, p. 1597:, p. 1581:, p. 1565:, p. 1540:, p. 1517:, p. 1501:, p. 1499:Fiske 2011 1489:, context. 1485:, p. 1469:, p. 1457:, channel. 1453:, p. 1437:, p. 1421:, p. 1405:, p. 1389:, p. 1373:, p. 1359:Craig 2013 1345:, p. 1326:, p. 1248:, p. 1229:Craig 1999 1215:, p. 1180:, p. 1145:Ruben 2001 1122:, p. 1103:References 1077:continuous 848:experience 805:gatekeeper 646:persuading 607:psychology 484:perception 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