Transition from Ming to Qing

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abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing. When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger. But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province of

4421: 5593: 7112: 2316: 3914:. As they advanced toward Xi'an they were flanked by recent Ming defectors under Meng Qiaofang, and overrun with Bannermen. He Zhen's rebels were mainly bandits, and they continued operating out of small stockades in the forested, mountainous regions with 10 to 15 rebel families in every stockade, usually centered around a temple. They generally enjoyed popular support, and would retreat to the higher mountain safehouses upon receiving locals' notice of any military movements in the area. Groups of stockades congregated around a "King", who would grant commissions of Colonel or Major to other stockade leaders. They were finally pacified by forces led by 5904: 7432: 5016: 2749:. The Manchus had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the very large number of Han Chinese soldiers absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection. The Qing showed that the Manchus valued military skills in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. From 1618 to 1631 Manchus received Han Chinese defectors and their descendants became Han Bannermen and those killed in battle were commemorated as martyrs in biographies. 3558: 351: 6351:. Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements—though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and "slipped back" (Wakeman's phrase) to the ships which had brought them. Koxinga's forces were pursued to 403: 5109:

regional military commanders rather than a centralized fashion. This brought him at loggerheads with the Longwu Emperor. Famine also struck after drought and crops failed all along the southeastern coastal region, while Qing attacks on the Yangzi river delta had cut access to raw silk. In response, the Longwu emperor wanted to reconquer Huguang and Jiangxi provinces which were major producers of rice to help boost the southern Ming, but Zheng Zhilong refused to expand out of Fujian for fear of losing control of the regime.

11263: 7817: 392: 3495:, and a strong factional rivalry between Northern and Southern scholars ensued. Ming dynasty officials in the finance, appointments and military departments largely joined the new dynasty and formed the core of the Qing civil service, but not the staff of rites, music and literature (the Qing may not have prioritised these either). These defectors were responsible for easing the transition of government without major setbacks. A large proportion of military officials and civilian officials in the 319: 240: 7100: 6066: 1694:. Other factors include repeated military expeditions to the north, inflationary pressures caused by spending too much from the imperial treasury, natural disasters and epidemics of disease. Contributing further to the chaos was a peasant rebellion throughout the country in 1644 and a series of weak emperors. Ming power would hold out in what is now southern China for years, though eventually would be overtaken by the Qing forces. Other authors have linked the fall of the Ming with 1147: 1058: 1047: 1036: 983: 972: 933: 897: 886: 875: 864: 848: 822: 728: 687: 664: 261: 222: 3355: 339: 303: 4448:, sometimes entire families. Those who did not collaborate or commit suicide would have to join with bandits to resist the new regime. With the news of the fall of the capital back in 1644 and skyrocketing food prices, poor peasants had revolted against the local elite and indentured servitude, calling that "master and servant should address each other as brothers". They ransacked the villas and forced the wealthy to flee to the cities. Although the 6899: 7147:) together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united under the Qing state. To show that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhongwai yijia" (中外一家, "central areas and outer areas as one realm") or "neiwai yijia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior of great-walls as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the 1823: 1773: 6521: 6218: 7293:, and plague-infected corpses were the only food available to survivors. A massive drought in 1636 hit Huangpi amidst a series of natural disasters. Plague, locusts and famine spread all over. The plains and villages were hit by bandits and rebels, because starving refugees, orphans who had lost parents to disease as well as fired postal couriers and soldiers whose salary had been cut off turned into rebels in 1642 all over China. 3518:'s inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han Chinese bannermen. Later, some exceptions were made, allowing Han Chinese civilians who held government or commercial jobs to also reside in the inner city. The civilian government was flooded by Han Chinese Bannermen. The Six Boards President and other major positions were filled with Han Chinese Bannermen chosen by the Qing. 3866:) which organised households into "mutual responsibility" groups of 10 and 100, and appointing leaders who were responsible for arresting fugitives. It was also used, initially at least, to stop the populace from moving in restive zones, and to stop arms and horse trading. From 1648 to 1649 civilian arms and horses were seized outright, but afterwards these were allowed for approved households in mutual responsibility units. 1834: 5031: 3351:, to defect to his side in exchange for a high noble rank and title. Wu Sangui dallied for days before he decided to accept the rank and defect to Li Zicheng. Wu Sangui was on his way to formally capitulate and defect to Li Zicheng, but by that time Li Zicheng thought Wu Sangui's silence meant he had rejected the offer and ordered Wu Sangui's father to be beheaded. This caused Wu Sangui to defect to the Qing. 2895:

by an army that had only a fraction of Manchus, being multi-ethnic, with Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners. The political barrier was between the commoners made out of non-bannermen Han Chinese and the "conquest elite", made out of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, and Mongols and Manchu. Ethnicity was not the determining factor. Han Chinese (Nikan) bannermen used banners of black color and

380: 6049:". Virtually all posts were filled by professional military officers of the Han Chinese Banners rather than Manchus or Han Chinese civilians. Han Chinese bannermen were the main force that subdued southern China. This made the Qing extremely dependent on the private armies of the autonomous Han Chinese banner nobles. The reliance on Han Chinese was made obvious in 1660 when the emperor ruled in favour of 7446: 36: 89: 2691: 7254:). However, the Qing encouraged settlements over larger portions of the empire since these regions offered the best opportunities to improve one's livelihood by clearing and farming large tracts. Economic growth in the middle and upper Yangtze regions complemented growth in the lower Yangtze, as more people began to move out of already crowded regions and into new lands of opportunity. 3335:, to agree with the decision and shoulder the responsibility of the decision. Wei Zaode refused to answer, so the Chongzhen Emperor rejected Li Zicheng's terms. Li Zicheng marched into the capital as Ming officials surrendered and defected. Li Zicheng still did not intend to kill the Chongzhen Emperor and the Ming Crown Prince, intending to recognise them as nobles of the new 6053:, a Han Chinese provincial censor who delivered a report criticizing Manchu military corruption, destroying the Manchu claim that Han Chinese officials should not be involved in military matters. This change was a reflection of the actual military importance of Han Chinese in the dynasty, as well as the determination of the Qing rulers not to allow the Manchu and Han Chinese 250: 3454: 4384:, but now that he fled without a fight and listened to traitors his small army could not act as a guard for the emperor. Huang Degong then said "I am willing to devote my life to you" after the emperor said he could not rely on him as a minister resentfully. Then a group of Qing Han Chinese and Banner soldiers showed up to Huang Degong's camp in 3339:. Li Zicheng lamented the death of the Chongzhen Emperor after discovering he committed suicide, saying that he had come to share power and rule together with him. Li Zicheng distrusted the Ming officials who defected to his side when the Ming fell, viewing them as the reason for the Ming demise. After declaring his own Shun dynasty in 2303:. The defeat of Ligdan Khan in 1634, in addition to winning the allegiance of the Southern Mongol hordes, brought a vast supply of horses to the Qing, while denying the same supply to the Ming. The Qing also captured the Great Seal of the Mongol Khans, giving them the opportunity to portray themselves as heirs of the 6034:. Infighting broke out between the forces of Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang. The Ming emperor, fearful that Sun intended to make himself emperor, asked Li Dingguo to liberate him. After Sun's forces were routed, he and his surviving troops defected to Hong Chengchou's Qing armies, giving the Qing their opening to strike. 2047:, were all handed over to the Later Jin by traitors and defectors. Fushun's commander surrendered after a single attack when promised that his troops and their families would not be enslaved or forced to change any of their customs (including hairstyle), but rather given high office. Shenyang fell with the aid of 6422:

dutifully complied with the prescribed procedures for Ming officials by regularly presenting reports and paying tribute to the absent Ming Emperor. His originally stated intentions for conquering Taiwan from the Dutch also included the desire to protect Chinese settlers in Taiwan from maltreatment by

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Bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which unified China for the Qing. The Qing takeover was done by the multi-ethnic Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners which made up the Qing military. In 1644, Ming China was invaded

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later told his officials how "it was really very comical" reading captured Ming military reports, because most were fabricated stories of victory. Meanwhile, rebel "bandits" continued advancing. After the fall of Songshan, amid the urging of his brother and sons (formerly also Ming generals) to join

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in Japan quietly supported the Zheng clan's pro-Ming forces by quietly granting them access to mercenaries, weapons and other strategic materials. Zheng Zhilong drafted a plan entitled "Grand Strategy for ordering the country", in which he argued for the Southern Ming to reconquer territory through

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In order to pacify the population, the Qing authorities placed care to appoint good local officials. These were mainly ex-Ming non-Bannermen local magistrates who collaborated; virtually all county-level posts were filled by non-banner Han Chinese, who outnumbered Bannermen officials 12-to-1. There

1802:

are sometimes described as a nomadic people, when in fact they were not nomads, but a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery. Their main military formation was infantry wielding bows and arrows, swords, and pikes, while cavalry

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executed his family causing him to defect to the Qing. Admiral Shi later led the Qing navy to victory over Koxinga's descendants. Koxinga implemented extremely strict harsh discipline on his soldiers which caused many of them to defect to the Qing. Failure to listen to orders and failing in battle

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did not behave as if they had lost, and were not abiding by the terms of the agreement. Joseon merchants and markets continued to trade with Ming and actively aided Ming subjects by providing them with grain and rations. Hong Taiji rebuked them, saying that the food of Joseon should only be fed to

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sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves and Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives. Young

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areas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Han Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term

5884:. They resisted an intense Banner assault with their long rifles, but Tan Qi abandoned Sun in July 1652, leading to Sun's defeat and death. A bandit gang, the "Pole bandits", who were plundering the local population, were also defeated shortly afterward by the betrayal of one of their two chiefs. 3425:

After Wu formally surrendered to the Qing in the morning of 27 May, his elite troops charged the rebel army repeatedly, but were unable to break the enemy lines. Dorgon waited until both sides were weakened before ordering his cavalry to gallop around Wu's right wing to charge Li's left flank. Li

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had brought economic hardship and starvation to Jin subjects. Joseon was also forced to transfer suzerainty of the Warka tribe to Jin. Furthermore, a tribute of 100 horses, 100 tiger and leopard skins, 400 bolts of cotton, and 15,000 pieces of cloth was to be extracted and gifted to the Jin Khan.

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were also allowed to keep their personal armies. The warlord Shen Zhixiang, who had unlawfully taken over command of his deceased uncle Shen Shikui's troops as his private army, was unable to attain recognition from the Ming court. He then proceeded to lead his forces to switch allegiance to the

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in 1659 amid a massacre of 100,000 people, and the next year was spent putting down the rest of the rebels. As the city fell Nayan bowed in the direction of the emperor and declared "Your minister has exerted himself to the utmost. I have nothing else to report to Your Highness." He then burned

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groups of martial artist acolytes calling themselves the "Supreme Heaven's Clear and Pure Good Friends" and the "Society of Good Friends" respectively rose up in rebellion in 1645 against the new regime. These were suppressed by slaughtering anyone suspected of membership in such popular sects.

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in 1631, the most capable army officers of the Ming became faithful followers of the new dynasty who would take over the preparation and planning of much of the war. From this episode onward, the transition ceased to be an inter-nation conflict between Chinese and Manchus but rather a civil war

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The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering

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It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing takeover. They made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Chinese Bannermen dominated governor-general posts in the time of the

2763:, gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically used by the Han Chinese Banners. The Manchus established an artillery corps made out of Han Chinese soldiers in 1641. The use of artillery by Han Bannermen may have led to them being known as "heavy" soldiers (ujen cooha). The " 3969:. Milayin and Ding Guodong negotiated a truce in which they would become Qing commanders in April 1649, but less than four weeks later they rose up in revolt again. Milayan was swiftly killed when he attempted to break out of the Qing encirclement, while Ding Guodong holed up for a siege in 7589:

is cited to say that "a person's body and hair, being gifts from one's parents, are not to be damaged: this is the beginning of filial piety" (身體髮膚，受之父母，不敢毀傷，孝之始也). Prior to the Qing dynasty, adult Han Chinese men customarily did not cut their hair, but instead wore it in the form of a

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to defend the city against the Qing. These Ming loyalist non-Han Chinese "barbarian" fierce tribal warriors were slaughtered by the Han Chinese citizens of Nanjing after the Han Chinese people of Nanjing had peacefully defected and turned the city to Qing rule when the Southern Ming

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if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, and it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Prince

2107:(clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systemize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast. 3832:

Other texts translated into Manchu by Dahai included the Ming penal code. The Manchus placed great significance on Chinese texts relating to military affairs and governance, and further Chinese texts of history, law and military theory were translated into Manchu during the rule of

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directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair "was tantamount to the loss of their manhood." Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair-cutting command "broke the momentum of the Qing ."

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conquered by the Qing like the Nanais. The Amur peoples already wore the queue on the back of their heads but did not shave the front until the Qing subjected them and ordered them to shave. The Qing married off Manchu princesses to Amur chiefs who submitted to their rule. The

7599:"The hair-cutting order, more than any other act, engendered the Kiangnan resistance of 1645. The rulers' effort to make Manchus and Han one unified 'body' initially had the effect of unifying upper- and lower-class natives in central and south China against the interlopers." 3636:, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproves the claim that "fear of water" on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation to move inland and declare the sea ban. Most of the coastal population of 4457:, resisted compromise, but most gentry and urban elites proceeded to collaborate with the Qing in order to acquire their help to suppress the revolt or other threats such as bandits. However, with the introduction of the queue order, anti-Qing resistance exploded once more. 5623:

regime, cooperating with them against the bandits who now grew into sizeable rebel armies complete with guns and cannons, and whose leaders had declared themselves "kings". These were held off by the local gentry, who organised the local population into a defence force.

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education, and Ming-style government ministries. When Zhang Chun, a Ming commander, was captured but refused to defect, Hong Taiji personally served him with food to show his sincerity (Zhang still refused but was kept in a temple until his death). With the surrender of

6876:. Địch was murdered by his assistant Hoàng Tiến in 1688, who then revolted against the Nguyễn lord but was put down. In 1679, Trần Thượng Xuyên submitted to the Nguyễn lord and became a Nguyễn general and the Chinese community was allowed to settle in Đông Phố (modern 3997: 4651:, who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance. Although 7156: 3421:

for the Qing. Therefore, when Dorgon received Wu's letter, he was already about to lead an expedition to attack northern China and had no intention to restore the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept.

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were in fact so many collaborators that the Qing court had to cut down on their numbers. The court also placed great attention to clamping down on administrative corruption through intensified inspections, and implemented a system of bureaucratic review (

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frontier often mixed with non-Han tribesmen and were largely acculturated to their ways. The Jurchen Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who went over to them, and Han Chinese soldiers from Liaodong often adopted and used Manchu names. Indeed

4476:. The punishment for non-compliance was death. In the queue order edict, Dorgon specifically emphasized the fact that Manchus and the Qing emperor himself all wore the queue and shaved their foreheads so that by following the queue order and shaving, 12691: 5979:. Now the Mu family were still in power in Yunnan and remained loyal to the Ming. However, due to discontent against their rule, local revolts broke out against them. Mu joined with the few remaining Ming officials and Sun Kewang to restore order. 3484:

pretenders would suffer from infighting due to their weak claims on the throne. A large émigré elite of northerners in the south would also have increased the probability of an aggressive policy of reconquest to regain their northern homelands.

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gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han Chinese official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. Feng Quan willingly adopted the Manchu queue hairstyle before it was enforced on the Han Chinese population and he also learned the

1849:, Ming army units had become dominated by officers who would spend long periods of 10 or 12 years in command instead of the usual practice of constant rotation, and the Central Military Command had lost much of its control over regional armies. 3597:, composed of Han Chinese (Ming) military forces who defected to the Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was these troops who provided day-to-day military governance in China, and supplied the forces used in the front-line fighting. 7014:

The emperors, in order to legitimize their rule, encouraged Qing officials and literary figures to organize and appropriate the legacy of Chinese literature, producing anthologies and critical works. They also patronized the development of

4492:. This policy of symbolic submission to the new dynasty helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe. However, for Han Chinese officials and literati, the new hairstyle was "a humiliating act of degradation" (because it breached a common 4226:

had already fled. The city surrendered without a fight on 16 June 1645 after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population. Within less than a month, the Qing had captured the fleeing Ming emperor (he died in

7052:(中國 Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After extinguishing the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state (including present day 4998:

Anti-Qing forces including Great Shun and Zhang Xianzhong loyalists remained active in the mountainous regions between Chongqing and Hubei. Forces led by Li Laiheng, a nephew of Li Zicheng, established a base in the Maolu Mountain of

4975:, who moved to crush banditry, called for supplies to be shipped in and recultivated the land to relieve the famine-like conditions. After he was attacked and defeated by Li Zhanchun and Yu Dahai in 1647 in a land-riverine battle at 3326:

and confirm Li Zicheng's noble rank of Prince. Li Zicheng did not intend to overthrow the Ming Emperor or kill him. The Ming Emperor, however, fearful that accepting such political expediency would ruin his reputation tried to get

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of the Ming dynasty that Li Zicheng would fight the Qing dynasty and eradicate all other rebels on behalf of the Ming, if the Ming dynasty would recognize Li Zicheng's control over his Shaanxi-Shanxi fief, pay him 1 million

1615:. Nurhaci's demand that the Ming pay tribute to him to redress the Seven Grievances was effectively a declaration of war, as the Ming were not willing to pay money to a former vassal. Shortly afterwards, Nurhaci rebelled against 7245:

in China during the entire period. Some scholars estimate that the Chinese economy did not regain the level reached in the late Ming until the mid-Qing dynasty. According to economic historian Robert Allen, family income in the

6169:, who went on the offensive against the Ming loyalists. Under the guise of a 'spirit water' ritual during the king's enthronement, most of the men in the Ming imperial retinue were ambushed and killed. The Burmese contacted the 4452:

regime managed to restore order, the discontent persisted and coalesced as the Black Dragon Society, which immediately resumed their revolt once the Qing crushed the Southern Ming forces. Some of the gentry, associated with the

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During much of his early life Nurhaci considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power. Upon the advice of an Erdeni, most likely a Chinese transfrontiersman, he proclaimed the

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quickly moved to suppress him, and launched a surprise attack which defeated him. Qian was hunted down and captured by March 1648. Only one year later did Koxinga launch an offensive, too late to join up with existing forces.

4555:. The region's bandits were infamous for kidnapping rich people and threatening to blind or bury them alive unless ransom was paid, while distributing food and money to the poor. Now their river craft were converted into an 2455:) urged him to declare himself as Emperor of China. On 14 May 1636, he accepted this advice, changing the name of his regime from Jin to Qing, and enthroning himself as Emperor of China in an elaborate Confucian ceremony. 13332:

Xiao, Lingbo; Fang, Xiuqi; Zheng, Jingyun; Zhao, Wanyi (20 April 2015). "Famine, migration and war: Comparison of climate change impacts and social responses in North China between the late Ming and late Qing dynasties".

1603:, was originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial Ming power, but he broke his relationship with the Ming with the establishment of the Later Jin dynasty in 1616 after he 3305:

The Qing made a proposal to Li Zicheng's Shun forces on 6 March 1644 that they should ally and divide northern China between the Shun and Qing, sending a delegation to propose a joint attack on the Ming to take over the

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when he heard that the city had fallen, whereupon he returned to the Shanhai Pass. Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the pass but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 May and 10 May. Then on 18 May,

2602:. Meanwhile, the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives, and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince 1853:, or Supreme Commanders, were appointed throughout the empire to oversee the fiscal and military affairs in the area of their jurisdiction. In the frontier areas these became increasingly autonomous, and especially in 7363:

who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese-origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han Chinese surnames and are marked as of Han Chinese origin on

2774:

Ming officers who defected to the Qing were allowed to retain their previous military rank. The Qing received the defection of Shen Zhixiang in 1638. Among the other Han Chinese officers who defected to the Qing were

7570:"From the Manchus' perspective, the command to cut one's hair or lose one's head not only brought rulers and subjects together into a single physical resemblance; it also provided them with a perfect loyalty test." 4484:

notion that the people were like the sons of the emperor who was like the father, so the father and sons could not look different and to decrease differences in physical appearance between Manchus and Han Chinese.

3480:'s refusal to move southward when his capital had been under rebel threat. This allowed the Qing dynasty to capture an entire corps of qualified civil servants to administer the country, and also ensured that the 4741:, mainly local fishermen and smugglers, which posed a problem for Qing forces who lacked competent sailors. These linked up gentry resistance all over the region, dealing severe losses on Qing forces of governor 4152:

city and its people were unharmed by the Qing and only the Ming palace suffered destruction. The damage inflicted to the Ming palace was largely done by the Han Chinese locals of Nanjing, and not the Qing army.

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princess in marriage and a noble title. The princess was one of Nurhaci's granddaughters. In April 1625, Nurhaci designated Shenyang the new capital city, which would hold that status until the Qing conquest of

16324: 5647:. The Qing was forced to send in "heavy troops" (artillery), as well as extra reinforcements. The Qing succeeded in subduing the rebellion in 1649, but with heavy losses. Further south, in the forests between 5057:, but lived in Zhejiang where he came into contact with Chinese Catholic scholars who, claiming that Europe was an ideal society and that all nations shared one morality, argued that Chinese culture was too 2015:

of the Ula, chieftains would attempt to reassert their independence and war would break out, but the Jianzhou Jurchens would defeat and assimilate all the tribes eventually (Hada 1601, Hoifa 1607, Ula 1613,

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river delta's urban regions, the coastal southeast and the northwest were all hit by massive famine as the grain producing regions lost productivity. Massive deflation blew up as silver bullion remained in

6152:

between 1660 and 1661. They opened fire with cannon on the Burmese army of 150,000 men with war elephants. The Burmese broke after a rear attack from Bai. The loyalists built boats and bridges to cross the

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gunners, and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. In Guangzhou, massacres of Ming loyalists and civilians in 1650 were carried out by Qing forces under the command of northern

4663:

Bannermen. Ming defector Li Chengdong's Han Chinese soldiers, who were mostly former revolted refugees, peasants and bandits from the north called the Han Chinese anti-queue resisters and Ming loyalists in

1681:

The fall of the Ming dynasty was largely caused by a combination of factors. Scholars have argued that the fall of the Ming dynasty may have been partially caused by the droughts and famines caused by the

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from 1640 to 1642, killing 50% of the population, forcing the impoverished to eat cocoons and silkworms, and forcing the rich to eat rice gruel. In multiple counties only three out of ten survived when

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naval raiding force and joined forces with their former gentry enemies. The gentry united these elements into the "White Headed Army" since they wore white turbans. East of the lake, loyalist gentry in

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led other loyalists to believe that he had abandoned them and they proceeded to enthrone the Shaowu emperor. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Shaowu court mainly consisted of local

3443:

The conquest of the Empire, after the Manchus had securely seated themselves in Peking, had to be undertaken largely with Chinese troops, "stiffened" a little with a Manchu regiment here and there

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territorial lands were absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) realm in a Manchu language memorial. They expounded the ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the

7193:, in which some 800,000 people, (although this number is now considered an exaggeration) including women and children, were massacred. The Qing carried out massacres in cities which resisted like 6209:

for an alliance, before finally dying of disease in August 1662. His final words were to tell his son to never surrender to the Qing (his son still did surrender, with the remainder of the army).

4536:

had been mostly unsuccessful until the queue order was passed, when they experienced a surge in popular support and succeeded in killing the local collaborationist magistrate. However the army of

4111:'s northern frontiers. The betrayal of these commanders handed over the entire northwestern zone of the Southern Ming, helping the Qing forces to link up. Ming loyalist Ma Shiying had brought to 4278:

after Nanjing peacefully surrendered, corralling the women into the city and whipping them hard with their hair containing a tag showing the price of the ransom, which was cheap at only 3 to 4

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left the city. The people also yelled "These are the son and daughter-in-law of the traitorous minister Ma Shiying!" when they paraded the daughter-in-law and son of Ma Shiying after storming

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province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasionally successful military campaigns in

4843:, splitting his troops into four divisions that were ordered to act independently if something were to happen to him. Before leaving, he ordered a massacre of the population of his capital 2630:. In the beginning of the Qing dynasty the Qing government supported Han Chinese defectors weddings to Manchu girls. Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there was no law against this. 3298:

requested the urgent help of any military commandant in the empire. On 24 April, Li Zicheng breached the walls of Beijing, and the emperor hanged himself the next day on a hill behind the

17293: 16388: 7375:

to fuel massacres against Manchus. Manchu bannermen and their families were massacred in several banner garrisons across China during the revolution, one of the massacres taking place in

7273:, disease, famine, starvation and bandits ravaged the population of China. A disease killed half of the population in cities across China from 1640 to 1642 and three out of ten people in 4877:

at Mount Fenghuang, after being betrayed by one of his officers. Refusing to believe the scout's report, he rode out to see for himself and was killed by an arrow. This was witnessed by

1880:

in 1621 against the Ming, requiring suppression, which was completed in 1629. In the early 1640s, mass rebellions led by many rebel leaders broke out in northwestern China's province of

3906:

fought against Li's forces after 1644 they quickly joined the Qing side. Meanwhile, Ming loyalist forces numbering 70,000 well-equipped troops were coalescing in the mountains south of

5805:

and crushed them with ease in December 1649. Ding Guodong was killed. The population was appeased by strengthening judicial protections and, at the suggestion of supervisory secretary

4175:, the Qing implemented peaceful takeovers for districts and cities who surrendered without any violent resistance, leaving the local Ming officials who defected in charge and the Qing 1240: 764: 6201:

to start the Qing expansion. Bai Wenxuan surrendered and was inducted into the Han Chinese banners. Li Dingguo, wrongly informed that the emperor had escaped, attempted to march for

3628:, forcing people to evacuate the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources: this led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In fact, in 6633:

The rebellion was defeated mainly due to the refusal of most Han Chinese commanders to turn against the Qing dynasty. Particularly repulsive to many was the blatant opportunism of

3730:

won consecutive engagements against Shun forces in Shanxi and Shaanxi, forcing Li Zicheng to leave his Xi'an headquarters in February 1645. Pursued by Ajige, Li retreated down the

3430:, the Shun troops looted Beijing for several days until Li Zicheng left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry, one day after he had defiantly proclaimed himself 3125:

emperor insisted on concentrating all efforts at fighting the rebel armies instead, likening the Qing to be a mere "skin rash" while the rebels were a "visceral disease". In 1641,

11312:

Social Life of the Chinese: With Some Account of Their Religious, Governmental, Educational, and Business Customs and Opinions. With Special But Not Exclusive Reference to Fuhchau

7302:

China's population growth led to devastating death tolls due to famine from cold weather, drought and floods. Soil and anything that was consumable was eaten by people in 1637 in

6383:, inviting and allowing them back into Qing ranks without punishment even after they initially betrayed the Qing and defected, and this policy was able to secure mass defections. 16944: 4164:, over his battle strategy in 1645, telling him that the Southern Ming would have defeated the Qing if only the Southern Ming assaulted the Qing military before they forded the 7237:

caused the deaths of more than 200,000 people in Beijing in the year 1643 alone. Coastal China was also devastated by the Qing coastal evacuation order while fighting with the

2513:, to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk), the name they used to refer to Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information from the 1810:-style agriculture well before the Qing conquest of the Ming, and there was an established tradition of Han Chinese-Manchu mixing before 1644. The Han Chinese soldiers on the 11658: 6041:

were not able to conquer southern China by their own accord; they only did so by delegating to Han Chinese. During the fighting to extinguish Ming loyalism in the south, the

4995:. These groups started fighting among each other, which helped the Qing secure the northern and western parts of the province by 1652, and the rest of the province by 1658. 2759:

leniently. Hong Taiji understood that the Ming would not be easily defeated unless Han Chinese troops wielding musket and cannon were included in the army. Indeed, among the

5710:

might be attempting to restrict his authority and rebelled, switching allegiance back to the Ming. Dorgon travelled to personally intervene against the rebels. The generals

4577: 6686:, made out of defected Ming soldiers. In the Three Feudatories rebellion, Han Chinese bannermen who stayed on the Qing side and died in battle were categorized as martyrs. 6057:

class to dominate the government. Through this compromise, the bureaucracy versus military conflict that had helped to cause the downfall of the Ming dynasty was resolved.

4839:

who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan in October 1646. Hearing that a Qing army led by a major general was approaching, Zhang Xianzhong fled toward

4305:, almost the entire army of Zuo Liangyu defected to the Qing. This provided the Qing with a critical new pool of military leaders and troops. These were also officers from 3710:

back in February 1644. In October of that year Dorgon sent several armies to root out Li Zicheng from his Shaanxi stronghold, after repressing revolts against Qing rule in

16222: 4897:, but found it in a state of desolation he had not expected. Unable to find food in the countryside, his soldiers looted the area, killing resisters, and even resorted to 4647:

also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by northern Chinese Ming defector

4401: 16983: 5336:

province, taking the reign title Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646. Short of official costumes, the court had to purchase robes from local theater troops. On 24 December,

6050: 15465: 15012:

Zhang Hongsheng (2002). "Gong Dingzi and the Courtesan Gu Mei: Their Romance and the Revival of the Song Lyric in the Ming-Qing Transition". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).

11079: 6466:, who strongly objected to cession of Taiwan to the Dutch, offered to launch his own expedition instead. The Dutch looted relics and killed monks after attacking a 3773:

Other sectarian millenarian movements in Shanxi province broke out in rebellion in 1646–1648. Court fears of insurrection led them to crackdown on the sects led by

12627: 7120: 5061:

and called for appreciation and imitation of foreign nations, and cooperation with them, whether Europeans or Manchus. This group therefore supported Manchu rule.

4338: 5433:, who was also discontented at being appointed a regional commander after conquering Jiangxi province, helped the Yongli regime to retake most of southern China. 2369:. Hong Taiji responded by arresting and imprisoning Amin, who later died in prison. He then implemented, on the urging of his Han Chinese advisors, Chinese-style 15022: 6973:

are attracting modern academic interest. Some of the most important first generation of Qing thinkers were Ming loyalists, at least in their hearts, including

6077: 6045:

came to rely increasingly on Han Chinese bannermen, some second or even third generation, to fill governor and governor-general posts as a kind of "provincial

4858:. Fearing Zhang's murderous tendencies, and with his Sichuanese troops unwilling to carry out Zhang's massacres on their fellow provincials, Zhang's commander 4330: 4326: 1233: 15448: 5659:

provinces, 20 Ming loyalist brigades of 1,000 men each were amassing. This force was known as the "Elm Garden Army", equipped with Western cannons. Commander

57: 6462:. However, the Qing grew suspicious of Dutch ambitions to maintain a colony in Taiwan and to push for trading privileges, so the alliance collapsed. Admiral 6311:

ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the

2812: 2024:

united with the forces of the Ming dynasty to combat the rise of Nurhaci but Gintaisi was defeated and died in 1619. The fur-trapping Warka peoples near the

12969: 12953: 6849: 16317: 12704: 5182:, the Longwu court left their Fujian base in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them. Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in 4513: 2229:

By this time news of the invasion had reached the Ming court, which immediately dispatched a relief contingent to Joseon, slowing the Jurchen advance into

6319:, throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the 3750:

until he was killed in September 1645, either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry.

2899:

was guarded by Han Chinese soldiers. Other banners became a minority compared to the Han Chinese (Nikan) Black Banner detachments during Nurhaci's reign.

16988: 16824: 9049: 6615:. Slaves revolted in Beijing as it was widely believed that the Qing would fall. The Kangxi Emperor called it the most harrowing experience in his life. 6117: 5877: 5536: 4972: 4874: 3941:. These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion, and were not aiming to create an 2353:

were forbidden to trespass. Hong Taiji curtailed the power of the Manchu princes by relying on Han Chinese officials. He personally welcomed surrendered

12979: 12963: 6841: 5104:", as his son is known to Westerners; it is a distortion of the title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺). Upon Zheng Zhilong's request, the 15485: 12905: 7068:

and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant

5688: 15212: 13534: 6299:

was preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up the

5218: 4468:

issued "the most untimely promulgation of his career": he ordered all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a

2755:

recognized that Ming defectors were needed in order to defeat the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector general

1713:

However, the victory was far from complete as it required almost 40 more years before all of China was securely united under Qing rule. In 1661, the

1226: 12857: 7174:, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國 Zhongguo) were like the Torghuts, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the 6237:

regime, and he therefore managed to become legitimized as a Ming loyalist fighter. He organised a marine resistance unit and established links with

4628:

fell after being deceived into opening the gates by Qing forces covering up their shaved heads. A group of loyalists fled to join the resistance in

16663: 14813:(1975b). "Localism and Loyalism During the Ch'ing Conquest of Kiangnan: The Tragedy of Chiang-yin". In Frederic Wakeman Jr.; Carolyn Grant (eds.). 7221:

had spurred Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng to revolt and brutality by the rebels was widespread across northern China. This period saw innumerable

6273: 5841: 5719: 5465: 5233:, but Zhoushan fell to the Qing in 1651 after being betrayed by Huang Binqing's former officers. Zhang Mingzhen, with all his family, fled to join 5214: 2808: 12313:

Wills, John E. Jr. (2006). "The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime". In Rubinstein, Murray A. (ed.).

6414:

to name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule of

3797:. The first works translated were all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic. They were the 16403: 12671: 5636: 5222: 4342: 4309:, or had previously served there, who in the 1630s had been withdrawn to fight rebels in the interior provinces. The most important of these was 3946: 3903: 2856: 2852: 2832: 938: 733: 669: 12873: 6917:

suggests that Shitao used a poem inscribed on this "Self-Portrait Supervising the Planting of Pines" (1674) to allude to the restoration of the

6026:

province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take

5943:

province. The Ming emperor, in urgent need of reinforcements, requested the aid of the Xi dynasty's followers. Zhang Xianzhong's former deputy,

5786:

in 1649, but was driven off. He continued marauding the province until he was killed in February 1655 when his headquarters was discovered by a

4404:. Huang Degong rejected their demand to turn over the Hongguang Emperor but Zhang Tianlu then shot an arrow into Huang's throat and killed him. 4031:, which had been the auxiliary capital of the Ming dynasty. Agreeing that the Ming needed an imperial figure to rally support in the south, the 3417:, urged the Manchu prince to seize the opportunity of the fall of Beijing to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim the 14008:

Fong, Grace S. (2001). "Writing from a Side Room of Her Own: The Literary Vocation of Concubines in Ming-Qing China". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).

9360:

Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization

6608: 6568: 6428: 6242: 5798: 5767: 5418: 5391: 5203: 5172: 5168: 4890: 4859: 4734: 4687:, although former-Ming subjects were initially compensated with silver for complying to the Queue Order, the defected southern Chinese general 4648: 4609: 4525: 4389: 4373: 4318: 4088: 4084: 3934: 3774: 2848: 2840: 2776: 790: 7281:, entire parts of the countryside in the middle of China were abandoned. Theft and begging by hungry peasants became widespread in cities and 16808: 16779: 16398: 15854: 15692: 15094: 14060: 7331:

and stopped grain and payments for famine relief from reaching famine victims. The rebellions broke out because of these famines. Famine hit

6644: 6141: 5865: 5775: 5711: 5695: 5221:, between Zhejiang and Fujian. By July 1649 their base of operations shifted northward to Jiantiaosuo. After killing a rival naval commander 4988: 4940: 4672:) threatening them, telling them "southern barbarian, hand over your valuables", raping, torturing and massacring. When the Qing imposed the 4621: 4533: 4529: 3727: 1122: 1041: 1001: 996: 7189:, and the subsequent expansion by the Qing was one of the most devastating wars in Chinese history. Examples of the devastation include the 7151:

concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called Qing subjects "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)". In the Manchu official

1950:

and Hada. When the other tribes attacked him to check his power in 1591, he succeeded in defeating them and seized many of their warhorses.

16480: 6982: 5944: 5660: 5628: 5046: 4916: 4904: 4405: 3937:(丁國棟). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the fallen Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital 3554:

as provincial governors and governors-general, with not a single Manchu governor until 1658, and not a single governor-general until 1668.

3181: 2975:

Banners against Joseon. Chinese support was particularly evident in the army's artillery and naval contingents. The defected Ming mutineer

2824: 1104: 1099: 1052: 1017: 681: 6696: 2202:. The Jurchens met sharp resistance at the border towns but Joseon border garrisons were quickly defeated. The Jurchen army advanced into 16019: 15344: 6307:. Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in 5849: 5751: 5508: 4948: 4912: 4742: 4605: 4501: 3328: 2860: 2796: 1109: 1030: 14964:

Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao

7277:

died of plague and starvation. As the rural areas were hit by famine, peasants abandoned their homes by the millions, bandits took over

5986:'s leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652, 4761:, but this was a trap; he was captured and executed. Resistance still carried on as the gentry continued near-open protest. In 1645, in 3010:. The princess' name in Korean was Uisun and she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter. Dorgon married two Korean princesses at 14217: 9632: 8999: 8827: 8729: 6371:

could bring death sentences with no leniency from Koxinga. The Qing implemented a lenient policy towards defectors who defected to the

6230: 5857: 4944: 4738: 4601: 4409: 3915: 2872: 2804: 2788: 2780: 943: 16361: 7314:) from 1641 to 1642 hitting the region twice, leaving corpses from the disease all over Zhili and killing 9 out of 10 across northern 6764:

The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. The

3491:

started being organised almost immediately upon the Qing capture of Beijing. The early Qing government was dominated by scholars from

2519:

that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The

44: 16468: 16453: 15497: 14568:

Translation of the Ts'ing Wan K'e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature

14558:

Translation of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu literature

5731: 5680: 4831:

regime: the first expedition did not reach Sichuan because it was caught up against remnants; the second one, under the direction of

3926: 3691: 2868: 2864: 2800: 777: 4210:

of Yangzhou's entire population to terrorize other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing. On 1 June Qing armies crossed the

17288: 17283: 16155: 6157:

but these were burned by Burmese commandos. A long siege of Ava ensued but the Burmese increased their defenses after tricking the

5873: 5202:

with his fleet. When news arrived of the Longwu emperor's demise, the fortress of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi under the command of

4206:'s artillery: on 20 May Qing cannon wielded by the Han Chinese Bannermen (Ujen Coohai) breached the city wall and Dodo ordered the 3848: 3314: 2357:

commanders, eating side-by-side with them so as to build a rapport that was impossible with the Ming emperors. The Manchus, led by

10417: 2590:

was wedded to Sun Cheng'en, son of the Han Chinese Sun Sike. Other Aisin-Gioro women married the sons of the Han Chinese generals

2218:. When it became clear that defeat was inevitable, the Anju garrisons committed suicide by blowing up their gunpowder storehouse. 1764:

military establishment and other defectors, with the Manchu military playing a very minor role (see below for specific examples).

14212: 9627: 8994: 8822: 8724: 5806: 3847:. As well as the translations by Dahai, other Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by 3794: 3146: 9482: 6738:. Having lost this battle, Zheng Keshuang surrendered and was rewarded by the Kangxi Emperor with the title "Duke of Haicheng" ( 5663:

had declared a distant relative of the Ming imperial family as the "Tianzheng Emperor", and besieged and captured the cities of

3247:

in the 1640s. Historians estimated that up to one million people were killed in this self-proclaimed emperor's reign of terror.

1861:-like personal bonds of loyalty grew between officers, their subordinates and troops. This military caste gravitated toward the 17191: 16530: 15643: 15550: 4695:

by 1645. The Han Chinese Banners were repeatedly assigned to enforce the Queue Order, often resulting in massacres such as the

2349:, and adopted Chinese legal forms. He formed autonomous Han Chinese military colonies governed by Han Chinese officials, where 6989:, which emphasized careful textual study and critical thinking. Another important group in this transitional period were the " 3184:

refused to engage in battle, while fabricating reports of victory and extorting bribes to cover up for defeats. Prince-Regent

2276:

Mongols. Seven Khorchin nobles died at the hands of Khalkhas and Chahars in 1625. This started the Khorchin alliance with the

1733:

in southern China, starting in 1673, and then countered by launching a series of campaigns that expanded his empire. In 1662,

17298: 17222: 16463: 15538: 15386: 15147: 14951: 14932: 14913: 14890: 14869: 14847: 14713: 14545: 14501: 14459: 14435: 14404: 14346: 14288: 14190: 14145: 14049: 13998: 13973: 13909: 13822: 13758: 13737: 13716: 13695: 13675: 13175: 12937: 12921: 11891: 11864: 11678: 11458: 10535: 10451: 10165: 9368: 8144: 8067: 7952: 7924: 7765: 7234: 5476:

as the populace did not side with the loyalists, and Qing forces advanced again. Xu Yong was later present at the capture of

5436:

The Yongli emperor was encouraged by these developments and saw hope in a Ming reconquest, likening it to the revival of the

1471: 12801: 12783:]. Volume XII. Chinas religionen (in German). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). p. 11283: 6965:, which explored the moral decay of the Ming in order to explain its fall. Poets whose lives bridged the transition between 4991:

to organise the Ming forces in Sichuan who instead became yet another warlord, establishing himself as a "Prince of Chu" at

4931:

was supposed to be enthroned as the next ruler but he died on the journey. The remnants of the Ming force moved eastward to

16692: 16443: 16356: 16080: 15588: 15443: 6860:, where Địch served as chief of a small Chinese community. The Nguyễn court allowed these resistance forces to resettle in 4676:

in China, many Han Chinese defectors were appointed in the massacre of dissidents. Li Chengdong oversaw three massacres in

4412:, the brigade commanders under Huang Degong then defected to the Qing and gave general Liu Liangzuo the Hongguang Emperor. 3977:

by inviting Prince Sa'id Baba to rule in Suzhou. The Qing counterattack was interrupted by the Jiang Xiang mutiny (below).

3953:, a former Ming official who had surrendered to the Qing in 1631. The rebel leaders persuaded Zhu Shichuan, Ming Prince of 2637:, a Han Chinese bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons 2622: 17: 15023:"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" 13020: 5100:(also known as "Nicholas Iquan"). The childless emperor adopted Zheng's eldest son and granted him the imperial surname. " 3197:, also defected on 8 April 1642, handing them the city. With the fall of Songshan and Jinzhou, the Ming defense system in 16265: 16095: 15258: 15152: 14575: 12817: 12590: 10836: 7209:. Nanjing surrendered to the Qing without a violence as all officials surrendered and defected. Whole provinces, such as 6486:. Zheng Jing's navy executed 34 Dutch sailors and drowned 8 Dutch sailors after looting, ambushing and sinking the Dutch 5601: 4680:

that occurred within the same month; together which resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and left cities depopulated.

4190:

on 13 May 1645. The majority of the Qing army which marched on the city were Ming defectors and they far outnumbered the

2237:

then dispatched an envoy to negotiate a peace treaty, but by the time the messenger returned, Injo had already fled from

966: 14767:

On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition

14298:

Parsons, James B. (May 1957). "The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien-chung in Szechwan, 1644–46".

12915: 12867: 12638: 7722:

On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition

2175:

he also hoped to extract much-needed resources for his army and subjects, who had suffered in the war against the Ming.

1980:

defectors as well as Ming produced firearms. In 1618, Nurhaci openly renounced the Ming overlordship and proclaimed his

16908: 16277: 16150: 15974: 15555: 14993: 14972: 14822: 14800: 14774: 14755: 14734: 14673: 14649: 14628: 14607: 14480: 14166: 14084: 14028: 13954: 13930: 13801: 13637: 13618: 13597: 13132: 12792: 12573: 12511: 12217: 11070: 10574: 9930: 9780: 9548: 8892: 8609: 8553: 8510: 8467: 8381: 8354: 7982: 5124:, but the two loyalist regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. 4120: 4059:

who had been next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons, whose fates were still unknown. The Prince was

3409:

had left all the territory outside the Great Wall under Qing control. Two of Dorgon's most prominent Chinese advisors,

2011:

tribes, started recognizing the authority of Nurhaci by the beginning of the 17th century. In some cases, such as with

10262: 9006: 6662:

from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han Chinese elite against the

3038:

and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the

17197: 17038: 16913: 16270: 15847: 15087: 15061: 14522: 14373: 14236: 13780: 13512: 13435: 13214: 12714: 12322: 11095: 9153: 8935: 8795: 7729: 7662: 4721:. The Qing authorities were only able to maintain control through working with corrupt former Ming officials such as 3812: 13401: 12947: 12931: 12827: 12811: 8153: 6108:; many of the Ming retinue were killed or enslaved, and the remainder were housed in huts opposite the capital city 17008: 15723: 13026: 12883: 12495: 12479: 10959: 10627: 9939: 9896: 9848: 6651:, remained loyal to the Qing despite imprisonment and eventually death, and as one of leading military families of 6450:. The Dutch intended to take a colonial outpost in Taiwan. In October 1663, the joint fleet succeeded in capturing 4444:

scholars committed suicide by drowning, hanging, self-immolation, or hunger strike on the news of the death of the

3496: 3222: 1993: 13652:(2001). "Gender and Canonicity: Ming-Qing Women Poets in the Eyes of the Male Literati". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.). 13277: 10305: 9450: 9334: 8027: 7890: 7347:

bannermen were transferred en masse into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to

5425:

province, mutinied against the Qing and rejoined the Ming. The reversion of another dissatisfied Ming defector in

4083:

in April 1645. He set out from Xi'an on that very day. Greatly aided by the surrender of Southern Ming commanders

2843:. Aristocratic and military ranks, silver, horses and official positions were given to Han Chinese defectors like 17125: 16368: 16055: 15941: 15278: 13148: 12427: 12411: 10131: 9880: 7371:

Accounts of atrocities during the transition from the Ming to Qing were used by revolutionaries in the anti-Qing

7297: 6829: 6525: 6515: 4659:

Massacre which targeted the Ming loyalists, the majority of those who had participated in Jiangyin Massacre were

1726: 1466: 15187: 13385: 12686: 12666: 12250: 11235: 10820: 9864: 9198: 9182: 7544:

Dorgon's brother Dodo, who led the Qing army, received "the imperial command to conduct a southern expedition" (

6805: 4643:

was massacred by former Ming northern Chinese general Li Chengdong, respectively on 24 August and 22 September.

3499:

were given promotions after defecting. The top positions were mainly in the hands of Han Chinese Bannermen from

17253: 16709: 16575: 16343: 16090: 16029: 15999: 15989: 15238: 12889: 12527: 12347: 12266: 11335: 11319: 11219: 10931: 10868: 10801: 10246: 10230: 9581: 9145: 9090: 9025: 8944: 8927:

The historian's castrated slave: the textual eunuch and the creation of historical identity in the Ming history

8390: 7322:

from northwestern China. Due to the loss in people, crops were not farmed further exacerbating the famine. The

6945:), but the question arose as to whether Confucians should be loyal to the fallen Ming or to the new power, the 6845: 6780:

as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the

3609:

Bannermen were only deployed to respond to emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.

14985:

Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c.1620–1720

13478: 13462: 13058: 12985: 10852: 10501: 9246: 9230: 9214: 9106: 8618: 7676: 6674:

officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000

2287:

in 1628 and 1635. An expedition against the Chahar Mongols in 1632 was ordered to establish a trading post at

17263: 17143: 16918: 16774: 16458: 16448: 16433: 16428: 16260: 16210: 16190: 16130: 15964: 15770: 15492: 13369: 13309: 13293: 13261: 13245: 13042: 9498: 9318: 8476: 8418: 8169: 7469: 6758: 5916: 4801:

for an assault on Nanjing in September 1646, but the Qing collaborators discovered the plan and defeated it.

4774: 3843: 3731: 3385:

and started marching toward the capital. On 26 April, his armies had moved through the fortifications of the

2112: 288: 14202: 10785: 10190: 10174: 9514: 9302: 9080: 8901: 8233: 8217: 8201: 8185: 7420:

pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.

3546:. They governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing. The Qing deliberately avoided placing 3448:

E.H. Parker, The Financial Capacity of China; Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

16902: 16680: 16547: 16413: 16307: 15907: 15840: 15750: 15528: 15396: 15080: 13229: 9466: 9286: 8960: 7092:

later found themselves in positions of power and influence in Manchu administration and even had their own

4425: 2959:

to secure the coastal approaches to Korea, so that Ming could not send reinforcements. On 9 December 1636,

2138: 1793: 1627: 1502: 1451: 1299: 891: 294: 276: 13575: 8519: 6406:. Great care was taken to symbolise support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of the term 6112:, under a Burmese guard. In Yunnan, the banner troops had engaged in pillage and rape when moving through 4709:

estuary continued to harbour pirates and resistance forces, threatening to link up with the resistance in

2402:. Undersupplied and underpaid soldiers mutinied against the Ming dynasty. They subsequently sailed across 282: 16819: 16802: 16312: 16287: 16250: 16160: 16120: 15872: 15760: 15745: 15480: 15112: 14664: 7474: 7111: 2315: 1959: 1749:, a Ming loyalist state with the goal of reunifying China. However, Tungning was defeated in 1683 at the 14472:

Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928

17202: 16648: 15571: 15293: 15192: 14705: 14427: 14396: 7501: 7242: 7036: 6990: 6503: 3894:'s rebels in 1642. They were unable to resist Li Zicheng and many tusi chiefs were massacred. When the 3777:, which in turn caused a major rebellion. The rebels were pacified through generous grants of amnesty. 1784:. The Manchus and Qing dynasty started from northeastern China and spread throughout the rest of China. 869: 858: 407: 15329: 8459:

The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia

7878: 7250:, China's richest province, was actually below Ming levels in 1820 (but equal to that of contemporary 6853: 4168:

instead of tarrying. The Prince of Fu could find no words to respond when he tried to defend himself.

3398:

personally led 60,000 of his troops out of Beijing to attack Wu. At the same time, Wu Sangui wrote to

1525:). It ended with the consolidation of Qing rule, and the fall of the Ming and several other factions. 17212: 16931: 16860: 16653: 16185: 16110: 15979: 15897: 15740: 15576: 15502: 15273: 15263: 12385: 7491: 7459: 7032: 4432:'s July 1645 edict ordering all men to shave their forehead and tie their hair into a queue like the 4420: 4067:

on 19 June 1644 under the protection of Ma Shiying and his large war fleet. He would reign under the

2919: 2521: 2338: 2144: 1955: 1789: 1616: 1588: 1441: 1292: 977: 880: 13554: 9922:

Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming

4440:

Resistance in the region was originally muted. As the heartland of the scholarly class, hundreds of

3002:

was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince

2552:. Manchu Aisin-Gioro princesses were also married to Han Chinese officials' sons. The Manchu leader 2482:(Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidding them from public view, because they showed that the 17133: 16953: 16687: 16658: 16408: 15803: 15682: 15581: 15268: 15182: 7525: 7515: 7464: 6880:). Xuyên participated in various Nguyễn campaigns against Cambodia in 1689, 1699-1700 and in 1717. 6439: 4141: 2661:) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong. A daughter of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro Prince Yolo was wedded to 2099:

clans were artificially created from groups of unrelated people who would found a new Manchu clan (

1691: 1650:, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt and then proclaimed the 1368: 253: 15765: 11310: 9540:

Events that formed the modern world : from the European Renaissance through the War on Terror

9538: 6768:

and his five concubines committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as

6551:

loyalist forces in 1650 and organized a massacre of the city's population. His son was one of the

5833:

Muslims. By 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties.

2533:

that the Qing founders were Ming China's subjects was meant to avoid the accusation of rebellion.

16729: 16195: 16180: 16014: 15912: 15713: 15622: 15288: 15142: 13793:

The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo

13630:

Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan

13610:

Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan

7581: 6399: 6014:

in the next two years, Li Dingguo failed to retake important cities. In 1653, the Qing court put

5754:, a man who claimed to be related to the Ming Imperial family, declared himself Prince of Qin in 4770: 4137: 2913: 2613:

This policy, which began before the invasion of 1644, was continued after it. A 1648 decree from

2366: 1901: 1456: 902: 49: 14097:

Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-century China

8988: 6869: 5774:'s forces. In the chaos, many bandit groups expanded their raids. A local outlaw by the name of 5293:

subdued Hunan in 1646. After the fall of the Longwu regime, He Tengjiao swore allegiance to the

4882: 4488:

The queue order was proposed by a number of Han Chinese officials in order to curry favour with

4071:"Hongguang" (弘光). The Hongguang regime was ridden with factional bickering that facilitated the 3789:

in 1629, a number of Chinese works considered to be of critical importance were translated into

2417:

Hong Taiji was reluctant to become Emperor of China. However, Han Chinese officials Ning Wanwo (

17278: 17258: 17110: 16998: 16879: 16704: 15922: 15650: 15598: 15406: 15298: 13549: 13019:

Wang Shochu, Records of the Ten Day massacre in Yangzhou. Available in Chinese at Wikisource:

12608: 10275: 10141: 10005: 9208: 9192: 7496: 6773: 5739: 4889:

in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. In one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers,

3687: 3427: 3307: 1671: 1424: 557: 93: 14839:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China

14512: 14470: 14415: 13984: 13944: 13488: 13472: 13451: 13425: 13411: 13395: 13319: 13303: 13271: 13255: 13122: 13052: 13036: 12995: 12899: 12563: 12537: 12521: 12505: 12489: 12437: 12421: 12260: 12207: 11854: 11345: 11329: 11245: 11229: 11105: 11058: 10969: 10881: 10846: 10830: 10637: 10511: 10315: 10256: 10240: 9949: 9920: 9906: 9890: 9858: 9770: 9697: 9591: 9524: 9460: 9385: 9344: 9256: 9240: 9119: 9100: 9035: 9019: 8954: 8911: 8628: 8543: 8500: 8457: 8400: 8134: 8040: 7972: 7903: 7781:

Fan, Ka-wai (2010). "Climatic change and dynastic cycles in Chinese history: A review essay".

7708: 7689: 5726:, Shaanxi, contacted Jiang Xiang, rebelled and switched back to the Ming. They were joined by 4955:

commander of Sichuan, moved south towards Guizhou and unsuccessfully attempted to contact the

4600:. The loyalists splintered over strategy disagreements. The loyalist navy, trying to sail for 3313:

When Li Zicheng and his army reached Beijing, he had made an offer via the former Ming eunuch

17273: 17268: 17184: 17043: 17003: 16670: 16632: 16520: 16500: 16418: 16217: 16200: 16065: 16034: 15969: 15755: 15733: 15718: 15359: 15339: 15217: 15177: 15167: 14384: 13535:"Agricultural productivity and rural incomes in England and the Yangtze Delta, c.1620–c.1820" 13379: 13287: 13239: 13068: 12784: 12628:""Righteous Yang": Pirate, Rebel, and Hero on the Sino-Vietnamese Water Frontier, 1644– 1684" 12276: 11448: 11089: 10941: 10862: 10814: 10795: 10564: 10525: 10492: 10441: 10427: 9874: 9664: 9508: 9492: 9476: 9358: 9328: 9312: 9224: 9133: 8970: 8882: 8599: 8529: 8486: 8431: 8371: 8344: 8246: 8227: 8211: 8195: 8179: 8163: 8089: 8057: 7942: 7855: 7520: 7486: 7201:

but did not carry out violence in cities which surrendered and capitulated to Qing rule like

6962: 6938: 6316: 6303:

with a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threaten

3530:

emperors, as well as governor posts, largely excluding ordinary Han Chinese civilians. Three

3488: 3426:

Zicheng's troops were quickly routed and fled back toward Beijing. After their defeat at the

2586:) title. Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao. The 4th daughter of 355: 10200: 10184: 9296: 8816: 8346:

A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule

8108: 7654: 6788:

for her supposed assistance during the Qing expansion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" (

5947:, exterminated all his opponents in the Southern Ming court and kept the Ming emperor under 5615:

broke out in March 1647. Shandong had been plagued by brigandage before the collapse of the

3534:

Han Chinese Bannermen officers who played a major role in southern China from the Ming were

2081: 1626:

At the same time, the Ming dynasty was fighting for its survival against fiscal turmoil and

17115: 17082: 17048: 16993: 16873: 16855: 16565: 16495: 16302: 16085: 15786: 15354: 15253: 15132: 14817:. Berkeley: Center of Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 43–85. 14207: 13342: 12404: 9621: 9616: 8983: 8811: 8718: 8713: 7790: 7365: 6985:. Partly in reaction and to protest the laxity and excess of the late Ming, they turned to 3798: 3266:, the peasant rebellions ravaging northern China were approaching dangerously close to the 2935:'s brother was sent to deliver this tribute. However, in later letters to the Joseon king, 2486: 2342: 1546: 1316: 14967:. Tunguso Sibirica (in German). Vol. 2 (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 14247: 11059:"6 politics of the queue: agitation and resistance in the beginning and end of qing china" 5953:

imprisonment, all the while continuing to refer to Zhang Xianzhong as a deceased emperor.

5015: 8: 17168: 17018: 16958: 16890: 16570: 16423: 16378: 16125: 16004: 15984: 15892: 15636: 15475: 15418: 15371: 15303: 15157: 14419: 14388: 10566:

Bannermen Tales (Zidishu): Manchu Storytelling and Cultural Hybridity in the Qing Dynasty

7319: 7238: 6719: 6683: 6627: 6403: 6320: 5869: 4967:. Qing forces mainly left the province due to starvation and the remainder garrisoned at 4862:

defected to the Qing and guided them to Zhang. Liu was later granted the title of Baron.

3594: 3344: 3149:. The Koreans, however, were incapacitated by outbreaks of disease. The fortress city of 3118: 2358: 2215: 2179: 1969: 1918: 1742: 1604: 1446: 1373: 1363: 1280: 1171: 547: 396: 343: 187: 15207: 13346: 13104:"The Epidemics in Ming Beijing and the Responses from the Empire's Public Health System" 8016: 7794: 6173:

to negotiate handing the emperor over. Subsequently, 100,000 Qing soldiers crossed into

3910:, under former Ming commanders Sun Shoufa, He Zhen and Wu Dading, capturing the city of 17053: 16764: 16759: 16585: 16525: 16515: 16510: 16505: 16329: 16175: 15994: 15248: 15202: 15162: 15053: 15045: 14323: 14315: 14201: 13940: 13886: 13857: 13849: 13567: 13358: 9072: 7806: 7748:

Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State Building before 1644". In Willard J. Peterson (ed.).

7360: 6781: 6652: 5747: 5738:. The revolt was defeated by the end of the year by a Banner force commanded by Prince 5105: 5054: 4640: 4625: 4561: 4306: 3962: 3531: 3500: 3406: 3154: 3150: 3096: 2768: 2576:

to the Manchus in 1618. The offspring of Li Yongfang received the "Third Class Baron" (

2432: 2420: 2148: 2126: 2085: 2032: 1854: 1826: 1811: 1761: 1703: 1695: 1414: 1394: 1384: 1379: 1358: 384: 15381: 13103: 10011:(paper). EAI Fellows Program Working Paper Series. The East Asia Institute. p. 12 7073:"Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all 6423:

the Dutch. The Ming dynasty princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were the Prince

3620:. The Manchus sent Han Chinese Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in 1760:

The Qing victory was overwhelmingly the result of the defection of the Ming dynasty's

1404: 1338: 17063: 17058: 17033: 16978: 16973: 16896: 16844: 16749: 16580: 16485: 16383: 16282: 16245: 16170: 16100: 16070: 16024: 15460: 15197: 15137: 15057: 14989: 14968: 14947: 14928: 14909: 14886: 14865: 14843: 14818: 14796: 14789: 14770: 14751: 14730: 14709: 14691: 14669: 14645: 14624: 14603: 14541: 14518: 14497: 14476: 14455: 14431: 14400: 14369: 14342: 14327: 14284: 14274: 14232: 14186: 14162: 14141: 14080: 14045: 14024: 13994: 13969: 13950: 13926: 13905: 13899: 13861: 13818: 13797: 13776: 13754: 13733: 13712: 13691: 13671: 13633: 13614: 13593: 13571: 13563: 13508: 13431: 13362: 13210: 13171: 13128: 13081: 12788: 12710: 12569: 12343: 12318: 12213: 11887: 11860: 11674: 11503: 11454: 11291: 11066: 10580: 10570: 10531: 10447: 10161: 9926: 9776: 9544: 9364: 9149: 9076: 8931: 8888: 8791: 8605: 8549: 8506: 8463: 8377: 8350: 8140: 8063: 7978: 7948: 7810: 7761: 7725: 7384: 7372: 7282: 7190: 7016: 6930: 6663: 6575:, and they were forced to grant these generals vast autonomy and subsidies. In 1673, 6552: 6380: 6281: 4898: 4696: 4516:

and the local gentry mobilised militia and revolted, but they failed in an attack on

4469: 4445: 4357: 4223: 4207: 4056: 4016: 3747: 3679: 3574: 3477: 3468:. However, his hopes to restore the former were dashed after he rebelled against the 3418: 3318: 3295: 3286:

and proclaimed himself king. In March, his armies had captured the important city of

3011: 2875:. Han Chinese defectors were primarily responsible for military strategy after 1631. 2467: 2362: 1924: 1707: 1655: 1600: 1353: 1348: 1343: 704: 638: 519: 487: 465: 15003:

Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).

10443:

A Chronology of Translation in China and the West: From the Legendary Period to 2004

7023:. Yet the phrase "defeat the Qing and restore the Ming" remained a byword for many. 6710:(Koxinga) had died in 1662. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when the 6626:

surrendered in 1681 after a massive Qing counteroffensive, in which the Han Chinese

3690:. Wu managed to engage Li's rearguard many times, but Li still managed to cross the 3153:

fell next after a major battle, due to the defection and betrayal of Ming commander

1690:

argues that one key factor was deteriorating relations between Ming royalty and the

1533:

The transition from the Ming to Qing was a decades-long period of conflict between:

17217: 17100: 17023: 16963: 16769: 16490: 16351: 16297: 16140: 16105: 16009: 15934: 15902: 15629: 15438: 15401: 15391: 15376: 15349: 15334: 15172: 15037: 14833: 14810: 14784: 14361: 14307: 13878: 13841: 13649: 13559: 13350: 11666: 9068: 9064: 7798: 7753: 7356: 7290: 7222: 7093: 6735: 6682:, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the 5915:

dynasty—from 1647 to 1661. The provincial and national boundaries are those of the

5755: 5372: 5088:, managed to escape by land to the southeastern province of Fujian. Crowned as the 4885:, who reported it. Zhang Xianzhong was killed in a battle against Qing forces near 4878: 4702: 4636: 4573: 4454: 4393: 4183:

army would not attack them nor kill or do any violence against peaceful defectors.

4064: 3966: 3958: 3930: 3743: 3431: 3068: 3035: 2502: 2411: 2319: 2167:

was busy fortifying the border garrisons and training new musketeers. The new khan

2004: 1989: 1981: 1962:

that had ruled over northern China several centuries earlier, and declared himself

1869: 1777: 1750: 1639: 1608: 1607:. Many of the grievances he presented dealt with conflicts against the Ming-backed 1596: 1461: 1429: 1419: 1333: 1328: 1141: 1113: 1085: 1064: 1021: 1005: 947: 807: 794: 781: 768: 750: 737: 713: 613: 527: 428: 226: 175: 14620:

Giulio Aleni, Kouduo richao, and Christian–Confucian Dialogism in Late Ming Fujian

14538:

From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China

7757: 7351:. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 抚顺尼堪 ( 7217:. Zhang Xianzhong killed 600,000 to 6 million civilians. A massive famine in 6909:, was one of many artists and writers who refused to give their allegiance to the 5592: 3402:

to request the Qing's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming dynasty.

2122:, learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them. 1177:

By 1648, Han Bannermen made up 75% of the Eight Banners while Manchus at only 16%.

17232: 17178: 17028: 17013: 16837: 16292: 16255: 16205: 16165: 16115: 16060: 15929: 15820: 15672: 15615: 15533: 15308: 15283: 14983: 14962: 14903: 14880: 14859: 14837: 14745: 14724: 14699: 14695: 14681: 14659: 14639: 14618: 14597: 14556: 14533: 14491: 14449: 14336: 14278: 14226: 14156: 14135: 14124: 14074: 14039: 14018: 13988: 13920: 13812: 13791: 13770: 13748: 13727: 13706: 13685: 13665: 13608: 13587: 13502: 13204: 12774: 12378: 11881: 11670: 10569:. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Vol. 105. Brill. p. 24. 10155: 9647: 9435: 9413: 9173: 9160: 8925: 8853: 8785: 8756: 7214: 7186: 7128: 7045: 7020: 6296: 6277: 6249: 6154: 6101: 6081: 6042: 5924: 5735: 5676: 5348: 5007:

and managed to hold out until suppressed by a large-scale Qing campaign in 1664.

5000: 4932: 4928: 4866: 4824: 4810: 4778: 4537: 4397: 4376:'s military camp. Huang Degong told him that if he died fighting to the death in 4203: 4157: 4040: 3970: 3954: 3790: 3625: 3523: 3476:

The easy transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties has been ascribed to the

3332: 3240: 3178: 3158: 2679: 2642: 2614: 2515: 1893: 1734: 1718: 1678:. On 6 June, the mainly Han Chinese forces of Dorgon and Wu entered the capital. 1572: 1550: 1506: 1476: 1081: 510: 361: 13427:

Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century)

7940: 5782:

and began handing out Ming ranks and documents, assembling an army. He attacked

3612:

It was such a Qing army composed mostly of Han Chinese Bannermen which attacked

3231:

faced a number of famines and floods as well as economic chaos, and rebellions.

1884:

and spread throughout China in the 1640s. Major battles included the sacking of

17095: 16968: 16734: 16697: 16145: 16135: 16075: 15796: 15791: 15667: 14178: 7557:

For examples of the factional struggles that weakened the Hongguang court, see

7451: 7251: 7226: 7148: 7140: 7132: 6731: 6727: 6711: 6588: 6253: 6015: 5995: 5908: 5715: 5691:

led elite multi-ethnic Banner forces to crush the insurrection by 18 November.

5672: 5668: 5632: 5552: 5544: 5403: 5313: 5294: 5164: 5132: 5089: 4980: 4936: 4886: 4870: 4832: 4758: 4688: 4588:. The loyalists aimed to serve as a linkage between the upstream resistance in 4509: 4252: 3887: 3875: 3825: 3766: 3562: 3539: 3527: 3469: 3410: 3299: 3007: 2988: 2980: 2932: 2816: 2792: 2756: 2718: 2654: 2638: 2634: 2587: 2459: 2407: 2399: 2361:, expressed their displeasure at the situation by massacring the population of 2265: 2242: 2234: 2171:

was eager for a quick victory to consolidate his position as khan. By invading

2164: 2160: 2052: 2051:

Ming soldiers in the city; Liaoyang fell after traitors let down ropes for the

2008: 1973: 1927: 1862: 1781: 1714: 1699: 1683: 1663: 1612: 722: 646: 603: 587: 552: 138: 14566: 14365: 14231:. Translated by David Kwan (1st ed.). Beijing: Chinese Literature Press. 13845: 10584: 10527:

Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th–20th Centuries)

8987: 7802: 5619:, and most Ming officials and their gentry-organised militia welcomed the new 2665:, who was another son of Geng Jingmao. Aisin-Gioro women were also offered to 17247: 17207: 17173: 17138: 16754: 16744: 16560: 15951: 15677: 15470: 15413: 15041: 14701:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

14424:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

14393:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

13811:

Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philip; Millward, James A (2004).

13354: 11295: 7944:

Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China

7408: 7348: 7247: 7175: 7078: 6954: 6877: 6745: 6679: 6671: 6667: 6548: 6540: 6459: 6372: 6340: 6328: 6300: 6261: 6194: 6158: 6065: 6054: 6038: 5936: 5912: 5893: 5860:. Other rebels, given the ready access to the Ming loyalists in neighbouring 5845: 5826: 5802: 5787: 5597: 5492: 5430: 5387: 5337: 5207: 5191: 5160: 5148: 5097: 5085: 5065: 5035: 5023: 4956: 4746: 4652: 4473: 4449: 4433: 4350: 4310: 4256: 4248: 4195: 4191: 4180: 4145: 4108: 3991: 3974: 3942: 3808: 3723: 3606: 3547: 3481: 3363: 3259: 3134: 3084: 3051: 3039: 2964: 2883: 2879: 2760: 2746: 2730: 2670: 2618: 2603: 2545: 2483: 2463: 2391: 2350: 2300: 2223: 2195: 2191: 2096: 2092: 2025: 1806:

Manchus were living in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopting

1799: 1687: 1542: 1409: 1399: 1389: 1275: 1164: 1146: 1057: 1046: 1035: 982: 971: 932: 896: 885: 874: 863: 847: 821: 803: 727: 709: 686: 663: 658: 483: 366: 318: 270: 239: 169: 14644:. Yale Historical Publications Series. Vol. 85. Yale University Press. 13922:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

7099: 5631:, and a woman by the surname of Zhang claimed to be the Crown Prince of the 5147:, the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi. In July, a new southern campaign led by 4380:

then all the ministers would have followed his lead in fighting against the

1912: 537: 17227: 16924: 16866: 16555: 16537: 16393: 15863: 15453: 15103: 15016:. Vol. 2. Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University. 14684: 14095: 13832:

Durrant, Stephen (Fall 1977). "Manchu Translations of Chou Dynasty Texts".

13814:

New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde

13661: 12833: 12401:

China's Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon

8601:

Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, And the State in Late Imperial China

7750:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1

7509: 7437: 7270: 7266: 7258: 7104: 6978: 6950: 6946: 6934: 6926: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6873: 6865: 6833: 6648: 6638: 6619: 6580: 6556: 6395: 6312: 6170: 6145: 6113: 6105: 5903: 5783: 5635:

and his consort, respectively. With the aid of another bandit chief called

5620: 5616: 5568: 5441: 5383: 5379: 5325: 5286: 5282: 5254: 5128: 5113: 5081: 5073: 5058: 5019: 4964: 4952: 4754: 4726: 4581: 4548: 4493: 4381: 4298: 4264: 4244: 4211: 4165: 4129: 4072: 4048: 4024: 4005: 3895: 3883: 3707: 3683: 3582: 3578: 3566: 3465: 3461: 3414: 3386: 3367: 3359: 3336: 3279: 3267: 3263: 3255: 3228: 3206: 3122: 3102: 3080: 3023: 2927: 2844: 2828: 2723: 2706: 2694: 2662: 2561: 2490: 2474:. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of 2426: 2370: 2354: 2323: 2304: 2296: 2277: 2156: 2118: 1976:

the strength to assert themselves backed by an army consisting of majority

1964: 1939: 1935: 1846: 1738: 1651: 1576: 1561: 1557: 1538: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1304: 1287: 1270: 842: 675: 532: 445: 413: 265: 215: 197: 193: 183: 165: 149: 134: 15512: 14020:

A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990

13796:. Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia. Vol. 3. Routledge. 10157:

Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing

8815: 7355:

Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing

2549: 1642:, which he did in 1636, declaring the new Qing dynasty. On 24 April 1644, 17163: 16884: 16605: 16600: 15708: 15243: 13869:

Durrant, Stephen (1979). "Sino-Manchu translations at the Mukden Court".

9620: 8717: 7404: 7344: 7307: 7089: 7074: 7069: 7007: 7002: 6994: 6970: 6966: 6893: 6889: 6785: 6777: 6675: 6600: 6592: 6564: 6471: 6178: 6162: 6124:

chiefs, rose in rebellion on the side of the Yongli Emperor. His city of

6097: 6089: 5976: 5967:

who held the position of Duke of Qianguo. In the early Ming, it was Duke

5818: 5573: 5488: 5477: 5437: 5340: 5270: 5183: 4722: 4673: 4660: 4565: 4477: 4286: 4176: 4161: 4125: 4116: 4052: 3957:, to legitimise them as a Ming loyalist force, and they quickly captured 3698:, and Wu returned to Beijing. Li Zicheng reestablished his power base in 3598: 3511: 3492: 3354: 3130: 3072: 3064: 3058:

in 1631. Mandatory shaving of the front of all male heads was imposed on

3031: 2972: 2887: 2742: 2702: 2646: 2565: 2541: 2510: 2471: 2346: 2292: 2288: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2072: 2056: 1977: 1946:, believing that his tribe was too weak to gain hegemony over the larger 1807: 1722: 1631: 962: 922: 853: 837: 692: 597: 582: 577: 439: 15049: 13853: 12064: 10006:"Managing Hegemony in East Asia: China's Rise in Historical Perspective" 6953:, a descendant of the Ming ruling family, became recluses. Others, like 4349:

campaigns. Many of these became the most capable commanders against the

3169:

then led another raid into the interior of China, reaching the northern

16831: 16675: 16625: 16595: 16438: 15687: 15543: 14493:

International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Volume 5

14319: 13687:

Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World

12776:

Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte

7416: 7380: 7262: 7182: 7163: 7144: 6857: 6813: 6765: 6623: 6584: 6536: 6483: 6424: 6419: 6137: 5987: 5928: 5822: 5581: 5577: 5540: 5500: 5290: 5136: 5077: 4836: 4828: 4790: 4290: 4133: 4096: 4060: 4044: 3891: 3834: 3675: 3657: 3543: 3535: 3395: 3382: 3275: 3232: 2992: 2976: 2960: 2936: 2886:

became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with

2836: 2820: 2752: 2714: 2710: 2658: 2595: 2591: 2506: 2403: 2395: 2330: 2168: 1889: 1647: 1635: 1599:, which enumerated grievances against the Ming. Nurhaci, leader of the 1580: 1568: 1522: 1309: 1218: 1181: 1094: 991: 907: 832: 759: 622: 609: 473: 420: 179: 15832: 15072: 14023:(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. 13890: 10160:. Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. p. 24. 9387:

The Manchus: Or The Reigning Dynasty of China; Their Rise and Progress

8502:

Global Crisis: War, Climate and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century

6898: 5563:. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured 4893:, who pointed him out to be shot by an archer. Hooge then easily took 4540:

turned on the region and with the exception of a few holdouts such as

16620: 16610: 15728: 14842:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. 10119: 7941:

Pamela Kyle Crossley; Helen F. Siu; Donald S. Sutton (January 2006).

7586: 7289:. In 1641, northern China was hit by disease and plague spreading to 7198: 7053: 6958: 6659: 6634: 6576: 6544: 6432: 6332: 6233:

bandit named Qian Ying managed to acquire blank commissions from the

6182: 6129: 6125: 6046: 6011: 5964: 5771: 5743: 5723: 5687:. Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Qing. Defected Ming general 5564: 5548: 5504: 5449: 5445: 5422: 5399: 5395: 5364: 5333: 5329: 5317: 5117: 4984: 4976: 4968: 4963:. Here he began stockpiling resources to prepare for war against the 4908: 4782: 4569: 4481: 4215: 3911: 3862:

The Qing regime passed the Neighbourhood Security Investigation Law (

3841:. A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novel 3671: 3629: 3457: 3378: 3374: 3348: 3202: 3194: 3162: 3138: 3055: 2984: 2952: 2784: 2764: 2607: 2599: 2219: 2211: 2183: 2068: 1873: 1822: 1730: 1667: 1197: 634: 628: 515: 332: 14311: 13708:

A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology

9131: 8462:(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 99–100. 6520: 6217: 5421:, disappointed at being made a mere regional commander after taking 5244: 4547:

Resistance from marsh bandits, fishermen, gentry-led militia and ex-

478: 17105: 16850: 16797: 16739: 16615: 16590: 13882: 13750:

The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing

12455: 12443: 10472: 7505: 7412: 7396: 7376: 7332: 7315: 7311: 7230: 7194: 7171: 7061: 7057: 6998: 6986: 6974: 6769: 6715: 6700: 6499: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6363: 6285: 6269: 6206: 6019: 5968: 5949: 5648: 5612: 5524: 5481: 5473: 5469: 5360: 5306: 5285:

remnants in Hunan, which became famous for holding out against the

5230: 5226: 5152: 5121: 5069: 5042: 4851: 4794: 4786: 4766: 4750: 4730: 4692: 4656: 4644: 4613: 4593: 4585: 4552: 4541: 4461: 4441: 4369: 4302: 4282:

for the best and 10 taels at most for those wearing good clothing.

4271: 4240: 4232: 4199: 4187: 4172: 4104: 4100: 4080: 4076: 4068: 4036: 4009: 4001: 3907: 3715: 3699: 3283: 3114: 3083:) and other ethnicities of this region were absorbed into the Qing 3054:, led by their own Nanai Hurka chief Sosoku before surrendering to 2573: 2380: 2375: 2254: 2064: 2044: 2040: 2021: 2012: 1997: 1985: 1885: 1772: 1754: 1670:

shifted his allegiance to the Qing. Li Zicheng was defeated at the

1620: 927: 816: 652: 391: 126: 14561:. Translated by Wylie, Alexander. Shanghae : London Mission Press. 12340:

Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800

12282: 11720: 11491: 6531: 5347:(永曆) regime in the same vicinity. The Prince of Gui had fled from 5155:

regime into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in

4959:

court for supplies, wandering in desperate search for supplies to

4923:, killed him and took the city, but continued moving southward to 4415: 2690: 1833: 17090: 14475:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. 14451:

The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions

13732:. Peoples of Asia. Vol. 14 (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 13592:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. 12781:

Representations from the field of non-Christian religious history

12023: 11744: 11566: 8787:

The Manchu era (1644–1912): arts of China's last imperial dynasty

7996: 7994: 7400: 7388: 7323: 7303: 7278: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7167: 7160: 7152: 7082: 6837: 6825: 6821: 6820:. His position was Chief Commander of Longmen (a place in modern 6817: 6809: 6707: 6612: 6604: 6596: 6494:

in 1672 on northeastern Taiwan. Only 21 Dutch sailors escaped to

6479: 6387: 6376: 6367: 6324: 6308: 6304: 6289: 6238: 6222: 6202: 6174: 6166: 6027: 6007: 6003: 5991: 5972: 5940: 5932: 5861: 5853: 5837: 5810: 5794: 5763: 5759: 5727: 5684: 5644: 5640: 5608: 5587: 5560: 5556: 5528: 5512: 5496: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5426: 5411: 5407: 5368: 5302: 5258: 5250: 5234: 5195: 5179: 5144: 5140: 5101: 5096:

on 18 August, he depended on the protection of talented seafarer

4992: 4924: 4920: 4894: 4855: 4844: 4840: 4820: 4798: 4706: 4677: 4665: 4521: 4517: 4505: 4377: 4365: 4334: 4314: 4294: 4275: 4260: 4228: 4222:. The Qing arrived at the gates of Nanjing a week later, but the 4219: 4149: 4112: 4032: 4028: 4020: 3950: 3938: 3786: 3754: 3735: 3703: 3663: 3617: 3613: 3602: 3557: 3551: 3515: 3390: 3340: 3287: 3271: 3244: 3236: 3210: 3190: 3170: 3165:

to go on the offense, but he was quickly repelled. Manchu prince

3142: 3126: 3047: 2968: 2940: 2896: 2891: 2878:

So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the

2738: 2666: 2553: 2530: 2494: 2384: 2334: 2273: 2269: 2261: 2257: 2230: 2152: 2077: 2048: 1931: 1897: 1881: 1877: 1838: 1816: 1776:

Central Asia in 1636. The Ming dynasty previously ruled over the

1659: 1643: 1592: 1567:

and various other rebel powers in China, such as the short-lived

827: 746: 567: 461: 307: 230: 14540:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 167–99. 13507:(illustrated ed.). American Heritage Pub. Co. p. 365. 11948: 11663:

Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia

9925:(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 301. 8604:(illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 14. 6666:, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the 6655:, his example inspired other Liaodong generals to remain loyal. 5135:

from the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing the

5030: 2979:, ennobled as the Qing's Prince Gongshun, joined the attacks on 2617:

allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the

2103:) using a term of geographic origin such as a toponym for their 35: 13082:"The Little Ice Age and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty: A Review" 7887:, pp. 60–61, 196–197, 200, 210, 481, 1016–1030, 1036–1039. 7480: 7352: 7328: 7274: 7136: 7124: 6902: 6861: 6812:

to leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682. Yang was a general of

6723: 6572: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6391: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6265: 6257: 6234: 6198: 6190: 6085: 6031: 5999: 5983: 5956: 5881: 5779: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5532: 5344: 5321: 5274: 5238: 5199: 5187: 5167:

and left northern Fujian undefended against a Qing army led by

5156: 5093: 5050: 4960: 4816: 4762: 4710: 4684: 4669: 4629: 4617: 4597: 4556: 4544:, the loyalists fell quickly and the population was massacred. 4489: 4465: 4429: 4322: 4236: 4092: 3945:. To pacify the rebels, the Qing government quickly despatched 3922: 3838: 3762: 3758: 3695: 3667: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3621: 3570: 3507: 3399: 3343:, Li Zicheng sent an offer to the powerful Ming general at the 3291: 3262:

enterprise", and his advisors were pondering how to attack the

3254:, whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the 3251: 3198: 3185: 3166: 3076: 3043: 3027: 3003: 2999: 2948: 2923: 2674: 2650: 2627: 2569: 2557: 2498: 2310: 2284: 2172: 2060: 2036: 1858: 1746: 1675: 572: 562: 542: 495: 435: 322: 243: 130: 15007:. Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University. 14490:

Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon, eds. (1996).

14360:. The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. 14012:. Montreal: Centre for East Asian Research, McGill University. 13656:. Montreal: Centre for East Asian Research, McGill University. 13589:

The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China

12052: 11404: 10494:

Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

9011: 9009: 7991: 7860:

Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

6120:, under the promise of being given overall command of all the 5382:

regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small

4480:

would look like Manchus and the Qing Emperor, and invoked the

4313:

who was later single-handedly responsible for the conquest of

2633:

The "Dolo efu" rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses.

1865:

tribal chieftains rather than the bureaucrats of the capital.

88: 16814: 16373: 15593: 13458:. Vol. 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779. 12226: 12177: 12175: 12124: 12042: 12040: 12038: 11446: 9262: 7392: 7337: 7306:

in a massive famine. The massive disease epidemic devastated

7286: 7065: 7049: 6495: 6487: 6415: 6336: 6093: 6023: 5830: 5656: 5652: 5520: 5516: 5356: 5352: 5298: 5266: 5262: 5229:

in November. From there he attempted to raise a rebellion in

4718: 4714: 4699:, during which local residents were seen harassed by troops. 4589: 4361: 4346: 3899: 3739: 3719: 3711: 3586: 3389:(the eastern end of the Great Wall) and were marching toward 3110: 3106: 2956: 2734: 2238: 2187: 2155:

died from his wounds afterwards. Peace negotiations with the

2129:

but suffered a defeat in which Nurhaci was mortally wounded.

2028:

coast were subjugated as tributary tribes from 1599 to 1641.

500: 122: 118: 14942:

Watson, Rubie Sharon; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, eds. (1991).

13925:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. 10672: 10643: 10267: 10265: 8884:

The Northern Region of Korea: History, Identity, and Culture

6630:

played the major role with the Bannermen taking a backseat.

5963:

were still in power in many areas. The tusi were led by the

5375:

while the Yongli court consisted of men of other provinces.

4907:

informally took over leadership, and he moved southward. In

4428:

around 1900. The Chinese habit of wearing a queue came from

2926:

to open markets near the borders because its conflicts with

2705:

surrendered, he was given much higher status than under the

2550:

given women from the imperial Aisin-Gioro family in marriage

2159:

after the battle delayed an aggressive Ming response to the

17294:

Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia

16984:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet

16473: 15507: 14641:

Tsʻao Yin and the Kʻang-hsi Emperor: Bondservant and Master

13810: 12911: 12879: 12863: 11984: 11972: 11936: 11924: 11912: 11900: 11834: 11795: 11771: 11732: 11665:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 204–210, 11638: 11602: 11515: 11375: 11363: 11351: 11183: 11171: 11123: 10987: 10975: 10947: 10696: 10615: 10603: 10544: 10405: 10393: 10369: 10333: 10218: 10071: 10047: 9738: 9488: 7395:

supported the Qing. The local Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of

6241:'s forces. The Qing governor-general Han Chinese bannerman 6186: 6149: 6121: 6109: 6070: 5994:

under Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting the

5960: 5664: 5010: 4385: 4279: 3879: 3819: 3593:

In addition to Han Chinese Banners, the Qing relied on the

3453: 3323: 3174: 3059: 2268:

in 1626, submitting to his rule for protection against the

2017: 1947: 1943: 1857:, where military service and command became hereditary and 505: 327: 14726:

Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws

13632:(illustrated abridged ed.). Oxford University Press. 13501:

Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick (1969). Kotker, Norman (ed.).

12172: 12035: 11824: 11822: 11761: 11759: 11693: 11590: 11539: 11135: 11016: 11014: 10662: 10660: 10658: 9987: 9985: 9972: 9970: 8694: 8670: 8658: 8646: 8634: 8300: 8032: 8030: 7895: 7893: 7415:. The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general 7213:, were thoroughly devastated and depopulated by the rebel 6726:

in 1683 from the Zheng family. Zheng Chenggong's grandson

4777:(Lianyungang) an insurgency was led by the Ming Prince of 4202:'s small force refused to surrender, but could not resist 3996: 3294:. Seeing the progress of the rebels, on 5 April, the Ming 2610:

in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.

2210:

was stationed, and Mao quickly fled with his men into the

1717:

ascended the throne, and in 1662 his regents launched the

96:, one of the major battles during the Ming–Qing transition 14496:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Taylor & Francis. 13424:

Backhouse, Sir Edmund; Otway, John; Bland, Percy (1914).

13184: 12845: 12294: 12100: 12076: 12013: 12011: 11996: 11807: 11710: 11708: 11578: 11556: 11554: 11284:"The End of the Queue: Hair as Symbol in Chinese History" 10999: 10909: 10907: 10905: 10892: 10890: 10763: 10761: 10759: 10023: 9826: 9824: 7914: 7912: 7359:. It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from 6961:, supported the new regime. Kong wrote a poignant drama, 3624:. The Qing carried out a massive depopulation policy and 3373:

Soon after the emperor had called for help, Ming general

2080:

in 1644. In 1625, the Jurchens captured the port city of

1913:

Conquest of Liaodong and other Jurchen tribes (1601–1626)

14338:

China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia

14158:

Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period: 1644–1912 (2 vols)

14137:

Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912 (2 vols)

12742: 12467: 12238: 12160: 12148: 12088: 10206: 9537:

Thackeray, Frank W.; Findling, John E. Findling (2012).

8406: 8276: 8264: 8252: 7836:

Li, Lillian M.; Dray-Novey, Alison; Kong, Haili (2008).

7005:—who among other things contributed to a revival in the 6355:

where they were defeated in June 1660, and retreated to

5898: 3869: 3223:

Ming Great Wall § The Wall and the fall of the Ming

1188:

Shun dynasty army varies between 60,000 and 100,000 men

11960: 11819: 11783: 11756: 11467: 11416: 11207: 11195: 11159: 11147: 11111: 11011: 10919: 10873: 10871: 10773: 10744: 10720: 10684: 10655: 10381: 10357: 10345: 10321: 10107: 10083: 10059: 10035: 9982: 9967: 9955: 9809: 9750: 9726: 9714: 9702: 9675: 8682: 8423: 8421: 7235:

Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty

6637:, who had betrayed two dynasties in one lifetime: even 6076:

In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu Prince

5770:

with an army of 10,000 men. The rebels were crushed by

5487:

This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New

4979:, he started building a riverine force of his own. The 4691:

had enforced the policy thoroughly on the residents of

3859:). This helped to improve local government operations. 3706:

province), where he had declared the foundation of his

2091:

When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the

1904:

by the Ming governor in an attempt to stop Li Zicheng.

1501:

from 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two major

14925:

Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History

14747:

The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44

14062:

Desertion and the Militarization of Qing Legal Culture

13966:

Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China

13753:. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. 13001: 12730: 12706:

The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam

12543: 12187: 12136: 12112: 12008: 11705: 11626: 11614: 11551: 11527: 11026: 10902: 10887: 10806: 10804: 10756: 10732: 10708: 10460: 9821: 9597: 9569: 9557: 9274: 9111: 9109: 8581: 8579: 8577: 8542:

Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013).

8238: 8236: 7909: 7681: 7679: 6018:

in charge of retaking the southwest. Headquartered in

5213:

The Prince-Regent of Lu, with the aid of the sea-lord

5186:(western Fujian) on 6 October 1646. After the fall of 4297:, accusing him of repression. With the arrival of the 2410:

en masse. During the mutiny, they purged thousands of

1934:, is retrospectively identified as the founder of the 1819:'s secretary Dahai may have been one such individual. 1666:. When Li Zicheng moved against him, the Ming general 1509:. It was a decades-long conflict between the emerging 249: 14536:. In Spence, Jonathan D.; Wills, John E. Jr. (eds.). 12635:

Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review

11428: 11394: 11392: 11390: 11251: 10591: 9394: 8862: 8834: 8758:

Early Manchu Recruitment of Chinese Scholar-officials

8437: 8324: 8288: 8114: 7391:

supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of

4769:

a scholar led a rebellion of local bandits, and from

4047:

agreed to form a loyalist Ming government around the

3718:

in the summer and autumn of 1644. Qing armies led by

2907: 2641:

and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under the

2501:

referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the

1767: 1725:. He then fought off several rebellions, such as the 14554: 12754: 12709:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 15. 12337: 10530:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 94. 10478: 10423: 10095: 9836: 9050:"The Selection of Women for the Qing Imperial Harem" 8136:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

7427: 6718:

with a fleet of 300 ships to take the Ming loyalist

6509: 5793:

With the mutineers defeated, the Qing turned on the

4620:

but were trapped in the city when Qing forces under

3933:(Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named 3651: 3302:. He was the last Ming emperor to reign in Beijing. 3258:

conquest" and "the principal architect of the great

3017: 2995:

also played prominent roles in the Korean invasion.

2709:, and even allowed to keep his troops as retainers. 2194:

to Joseon with 30,000 troops, under the guidance of

16989:

Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory

14355: 13430:(reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 209. 13423: 11038: 8765: 8736: 8574: 8562: 6929:posed practical and moral problems, especially for 6852:. Dương Ngạn Địch and Hoàng Tiến were sponsored by 6260:in 1655, also continued to defend the cause of the 5840:, a rural, untamed area, was beset by Ming colonel 3648:was an empty city when the Qing forces entered it. 3573:to take advantage of the violent death of the Ming 1674:by the joint forces of Wu Sangui and Manchu prince 14788: 14555:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko (1855). Ch'eng, Ming-yüan (ed.). 14044:(revised ed.). University Press of Kentucky. 11659:"Conclusion: Dai Viet in the Ming-Qing transition" 11479: 11387: 11061:. In Hiltebeitel, Alf; Miller, Barbara D. (eds.). 10293: 10281: 9797: 9138:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 7936: 7934: 7407:revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000 7383:community was divided in its support for the 1911 7298:Cannibalism in Asia § Ming and Qing dynasties 7115:Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905. 6792:) from her previous status as a heavenly consort ( 6288:province and finally cut the cable protecting the 6212: 5959:was still a frontier land where tribal chieftains 5887: 4115:troops from the western provinces made out of non- 2291:. The Qing defeated the armies of the Mongol khan 2222:fell without a fight and the Jin army crossed the 14489: 14038:Graff, David Andrew; Higham, Robin, eds. (2012). 13331: 11859:(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 139. 11281: 11065:(Illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 125. 9536: 8545:Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization 8373:Empire and Environment in the Making of Manchuria 5277:court, established the Thirteen Defense Commands 5245:Hunan, Guangdong and Guangxi campaign (1645–1650) 2055:to climb the wall in the night. The Ming general 17245: 14599:The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture 14252:: Vade Mecum for an Iconoclastic Translation of 11308: 11092:, "2 From smuggler-pirates to loyal Confucians". 8312: 8133:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (2013). 7835: 6587:, the "Three Feudatories", rebelled against the 6402:, expelling them from Taiwan and setting up the 5876:, led an alliance of mountain fortresses around 5825:was blocked to severe all relations between the 4186:Several contingents of Qing forces converged on 4160:, later berated the Southern Ming Prince of Fu, 3189:them in defecting to the Qing, the commander of 2248: 1942:appointed Nurhaci as paramount chieftain of the 14183:Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768 14126:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912 14116:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period: 1644–1912 13939: 12342:. Stanford University Press. pp. 469–470. 11512:, pp. 39, 141, 190, 194–195, 200–201, 255. 10523: 10490: 9791:The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty 9356: 9132:Karl August Wittfogel; Chia-shêng Fêng (1946). 8761:. University of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 10. 8505:(illustrated ed.). Yale University Press. 8139:(3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 271. 8000: 7971:Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987). 7931: 5484:, and his army absorbed He's remaining troops. 5217:, continued resistance at sea on the island of 4804: 4416:Queue order and Jiangnan resistance (1645–1646) 4274:back to their original husbands and fathers in 3216: 3209:as the last barrier on the Qing armies' way to 2947:Prior to the invasion, Hong Taiji sent princes 2726:, and they became critical assets to the Qing. 2337:, whom he succeeded as the second ruler of the 16389:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations 14905:Telling Chinese History: A Selection of Essays 14341:(reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. 14079:(Revised ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 13985:"Yangzhou: A Central Place in the Qing Empire" 13904:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. 12568:. St. Martin's Publishing Group. p. 108. 12362: 11879: 11852: 10153: 9171: 8887:. University of Washington Press. p. 19. 8790:. Art Gallery of Greater Victoria. p. 5. 8055: 7947:. University of California Press. p. 43. 7838:Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City 6744:). He and his soldiers were inducted into the 6284:in 1655. In 1658 he attacked the coastline of 6060: 5588:Ming loyalist revolts in the north (1647–1654) 3985: 3129:was besieged by a force of over 30 cannons of 3090: 1721:to defeat the resistance of Ming loyalists in 1213:25,000,000 deaths overall, including civilians 16809:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China 16780:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 15848: 15693:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 15088: 14690:Struve, Lynn (1988). "The Southern Ming". In 14118:. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 13946:China: A New History, Second Enlarged Edition 11063:Hair: Its Power and Meaning in Asian Cultures 8548:(illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. 8132: 7752:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–72. 7719: 7700: 7698: 7340:was hit by the 1641 disease plague epidemic. 7019:and the translation of Chinese classics into 6868:. These settlers named their settlements as " 6749: 6739: 6691: 5511:managed to reconquer the central province of 5049:, who was appointed Governor of Zhejiang and 4729:. Loyalist marines continued fighting in the 3882:appointed by the Ming emperor, supported the 2653:'s granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong and 2450: 2444: 2438: 2430: 2418: 1984:against the Ming and departed his capital of 1234: 14514:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery 14199: 13525: 10678: 10446:. Chinese University Press. pp. 60–61. 10439: 9687: 9543:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 200. 9134:"History of Chinese Society: Liao, 907–1125" 8541: 8081: 8079: 8051: 8049: 7970: 7481:Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang (c. 1620–1760) 6799: 4285:During the factional struggles, the warlord 2902: 2685: 2529:because of this. Refusing to mention in the 2311:Hong Taiji and formation of the Qing dynasty 1907: 15005:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2 14941: 14815:Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China 14358:Volume 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 14283:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 14185:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 14100:(PhD). University of California, San Diego. 14037: 14010:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 1 13993:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 117–50. 13654:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 1 13149:"5 of the 10 Deadliest Wars Began in China" 12681: 12679: 12517: 12501: 12485: 10147: 9772:China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary 9662: 9340: 9015: 8342: 8036: 8011: 8009: 7923:sfn error: no target: CITEREFFairbank1978 ( 7899: 7849: 7847: 6104:. The imperial retinue was disarmed by the 5750:was subject to a massacre. Simultaneously, 5175:. The Qing took control of Fujian in 1645. 5159:. Hoping to gain rewards from Prince Bolo, 5045:province was aided by the collaboration of 4270:Qing soldiers ransomed women captured from 2998:After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, 2414:, suspecting them to be loyal to the Ming. 2326:Emperor in ceremonial and ordinary uniform. 15855: 15841: 15095: 15081: 14944:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society 14382: 14073:Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.). 14068:(PhD Dissertation). Georgetown University. 13500: 13168:The Seventeen Emperors of the Ming Dynasty 13159: 12702: 12661: 12659: 12367:. Taipei: Haidong shufang. pp. 22–49. 12306: 12181: 12046: 11005: 10029: 9918: 9446:(1–2). Society for Qing Studies: 97. 1989. 9424:(1–2). Society for Qing Studies: 70. 1989. 8100: 8098: 7966: 7964: 7695: 6864:, which had been newly conquered from the 5813:communities were disarmed and shifted 150 5567:with 74 of his own cannons and the aid of 3780: 3405:Meanwhile, Wu Sangui's departure from the 3117:and immediately retreated back across the 2283:The Chahar Mongols were fought against by 1241: 1227: 16469:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 14981: 14616: 14510: 13990:Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China 13670:(2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, 13553: 13283: 13165: 12851: 12561: 12433: 12417: 12272: 11886:. Harvard University Press. p. 142. 11584: 11572: 11085: 10433: 10311: 9383: 9047: 8754: 8597: 8349:. Stanford University Press. p. 64. 8076: 8046: 7974:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century 6883: 6808:(Yang Yandi) (c) and his fleet sailed to 6252:("Koxinga"), who had been adopted by the 6144:attempted to rescue the emperor from the 5551:fell to Shang Kexi in November 1650. The 5472:) repelled the loyalist counterattack at 5452:. Loyalists hoped to move the emperor to 5178:On the pretext of relieving the siege of 4655:Bannermen were often associated with the 4524:, the resistance forces under magistrate 4119:indigenous fierce tribal warriors called 3682:to suicide, but had been defeated by the 1900:which led to the deliberately engineered 1517:, and several smaller factions (like the 639: 520: 488: 466: 16318:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi 14922: 14878: 14857: 14809: 14783: 14218:United States Government Printing Office 13871:Journal of the American Oriental Society 13789: 13725: 13704: 13683: 13407: 13391: 13209:, Harvard University Press, p. 92, 12676: 12256: 11656: 11447:Kim Hunter Gordon; Jesse Watson (2011). 11241: 11213: 11201: 11153: 11101: 10858: 10842: 10826: 10196: 9633:United States Government Printing Office 9504: 9324: 9292: 9096: 9031: 9000:United States Government Printing Office 8950: 8828:United States Government Printing Office 8730:United States Government Printing Office 8482: 8427: 8396: 8306: 8175: 8120: 8104: 8062:. Harvard University Press. p. 95. 8006: 7918: 7844: 7685: 7110: 7098: 6897: 6836:, he led 3,000 soldiers and 50 ships to 6784:the next year and, honoring the goddess 6695: 6618:However, their disunity destroyed them. 6530: 6519: 6442:against the remaining Ming loyalists in 6438:The Qing agreed to an alliance with the 6216: 6165:was overthrown in a coup by his brother 6064: 5902: 5591: 5029: 5014: 5011:Jiangxi and Fujian campaigns (1646–1650) 4504:, in command of rural militia, besieged 4464:region had been superficially pacified, 4419: 4317:. Other generals were Zuo Liangyu's son 3995: 3556: 3452: 3353: 3157:. The emperor responded by ordering the 3105:armies raided deep into the interior of 2689: 2314: 2132: 2020:1619). The powerful Yehe Jurchens under 1832: 1821: 1771: 1662:tree in the imperial garden outside the 1248: 60:of all important aspects of the article. 16925:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 15862: 15102: 14901: 14832: 14531: 14297: 14224: 14059:Gregory, Eugene John (31 August 2015). 14058: 14016: 13982: 13918: 13868: 13831: 13375: 13032: 12895: 12656: 12588: 12533: 12473: 12461: 12449: 12288: 12244: 12232: 12166: 12154: 12130: 12094: 12070: 12058: 12029: 11990: 11978: 11966: 11954: 11942: 11930: 11918: 11906: 11840: 11828: 11801: 11789: 11777: 11765: 11750: 11738: 11726: 11644: 11521: 11473: 11422: 11381: 11369: 11357: 11341: 11325: 11225: 11189: 11177: 11165: 11129: 11117: 11020: 10993: 10981: 10965: 10953: 10925: 10877: 10779: 10750: 10726: 10702: 10690: 10666: 10649: 10633: 10621: 10609: 10550: 10466: 10411: 10399: 10387: 10375: 10363: 10351: 10339: 10327: 10271: 10252: 10236: 10224: 10212: 10137: 10125: 10113: 10089: 10077: 10065: 10053: 10041: 9991: 9976: 9961: 9945: 9902: 9870: 9854: 9815: 9788: 9756: 9744: 9732: 9720: 9708: 9693: 9681: 9587: 9456: 9400: 9308: 9280: 9268: 9252: 9236: 9204: 9188: 9115: 8930:. University of Michigan. p. 219. 8923: 8700: 8676: 8664: 8652: 8640: 8624: 8412: 8294: 8282: 8270: 8258: 8242: 8223: 8207: 8191: 8159: 8095: 7961: 7884: 7704: 7558: 6161:forces into leaving. The king of Burma 5639:, they rebelled under the Ming flag in 5289:. Qing forces under the early defector 4915:still held out. Xi dynasty boats under 4580:coordinated to rise up and cut off the 3589:instead of raiding for loot and slaves. 2536: 2299:, bringing an end to his rule over the 2178:In 1627, Hong Taiji dispatched princes 1988:with 20,000 men. The army attacked and 14: 17246: 15644:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty 14722: 14689: 14658: 14637: 14468: 14448:Rawski, Evelyn S. (15 November 1998). 14447: 14413: 14334: 14154: 14133: 14122: 13768: 13660: 13627: 13606: 13484: 13468: 13007: 12991: 12975: 12959: 12943: 12927: 12772: 12736: 12625: 12549: 12363:Huang Dianquan (1957). "Yongli 15.3". 12300: 12142: 12118: 12017: 11714: 11699: 11632: 11620: 11608: 11596: 11560: 11545: 11533: 11141: 11032: 10937: 10913: 10896: 10810: 10791: 10767: 10738: 10714: 10597: 10507: 10180: 9830: 9768: 9615: 9603: 9575: 9563: 9472: 9220: 8982: 8966: 8868: 8840: 8810: 8771: 8742: 8712: 8498: 8455: 8443: 8330: 8085: 7977:. Yale University Press. p. 141. 7853: 7743: 7741: 5931:, his generals retreated southward to 2345:to recruit scholar-officials from the 56:Please consider expanding the lead to 17223:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions 16464:Principles of the Constitution (1908) 15836: 15076: 15011: 14764: 14743: 14595: 14581:from the original on 3 September 2014 14200:Larsen, E. S.; Numata, Tomoo (1943). 14161:(reprint ed.). Global Oriental. 14072: 13963: 13897: 13648: 13585: 13532: 13315: 13299: 13267: 13251: 13235: 13190: 13120: 13064: 13048: 12842:, p. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14. 12807: 12760: 12565:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan 12312: 12106: 12082: 12002: 11813: 11509: 11497: 11410: 11269: 11257: 11056: 9886: 9665:"The annals of the Joseon princesses" 9645: 9520: 8907: 8858:. Augustan Society. 1975. p. 34. 8688: 8585: 8568: 8525: 8369: 7823: 7655:"The British-Zheng trading agreement" 7621: 7613: 6872:", to recall their allegiance to the 6571:and defend against the resistance in 6193:, the same Wu whose surrender to the 5935:province, where they encountered the 5899:Conquest of the southwest (1652–1661) 5305:provinces, and was finally killed at 5163:betrayed the loyalists by contacting 4214:and easily took the garrison city of 4091:, the Qing army took the key city of 3870:Conquest of the northwest (1644–1649) 1737:(Koxinga) drove out and defeated the 1595:commissioned a document entitled the 1587:Leading up to the Qing, in 1618, the 1222: 1192:Zhang Xianzhong's army – 100,000 men 27:Period of Chinese history (1618–1683) 16444:Ministry of Posts and Communications 15020: 14729:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 14273: 14245: 14213:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 14177: 14007: 13206:China's Last Empire - The Great Qing 13202: 12839: 12748: 12398: 11282:Michael R. Godley (September 2011). 11044: 10562: 10101: 10003: 9842: 9628:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 8995:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 8823:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 8783: 8725:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 7609: 7531: 6957:, who claimed to be a descendant of 6905:(1642–1707), who was related to the 5864:, were able to continue resistance. 5456:where he would lead a reconquest of 5194:surrendered to the Qing and his son 4919:attacked Zeng's command boat on the 3980: 3929:(米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in 3921:Late in 1646, forces assembled by a 3239:in the north, while a mutiny led by 3006:. In 1650 Dorgon married the Korean 2466:was meant to hide the fact that the 1634:officials urged Nurhaci's successor 29: 17192:History of Qing (People's Republic) 14750:(illustrated ed.). Routledge. 13746: 13452:"Secret Annals of the Manchu Court" 12205: 11485: 11434: 11398: 9803: 8880: 7780: 7738: 6759:against Russian Cossacks at Albazin 5602:Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence 5444:dynasties after the usurpations of 5080:, a ninth-generation descendant of 5076:on 6 July 1645, the Prince of Tang 4869:was surprised by a Qing army under 4765:the poor peasants revolted, around 4396:garrison commander, bannermen from 4243:. By then the frontier between the 4027:imperial house started arriving in 3925:leader known in Chinese sources as 3437: 2556:married one of his granddaughters ( 1560:, the incumbent dynasty led by the 24: 16909:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor 16278:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 16271:1909 Provincial Assembly elections 16151:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874) 15975:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 15002: 14960: 14946:. University of California Press. 14927:. University of California Press. 14908:. University of California Press. 14885:. University of California Press. 14534:"Muslim and Central Asian Revolts" 14454:. University of California Press. 14356:Willard J. Peterson, ed. (2002) . 14093: 14076:Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache 13901:Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 13711:. University of California Press. 12823: 12692:Quyển 2, Tự chủ thời đại, Chương 6 12589:Bergman, Karl (28 December 2009). 12377: 12193: 10299: 10287: 8318: 7747: 7617: 7166:, it was mentioned that while the 7143:, who were then under the rule of 6323:leading to possible starvation in 5003:from 1653. They were known as the 4987:sent his alleged distant relative 4947:. The remaining Ming forces under 4753:by entering negotiations with the 4745:. Wu Yi attempted to link up with 4136:'s houses and they also did it to 4023:in April 1644, descendants of the 4004:, who refused to surrender to the 3678:, the rebel leader who had driven 2908:Second Joseon campaign (1636–1637) 2007:tribes, a powerful confederacy of 1768:Jurchens and the late Ming dynasty 1757:, a former admiral under Koxinga. 25: 17310: 17198:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty 17039:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) 16914:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 16066:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war) 15014:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry 13987:. In Cooke Johnson, Linda (ed.). 13101: 11453:. Kim Hunter Gordon. p. 61. 9390:. J. and R. Parlane. p. 198. 7856:"The Financial Capacity of China" 7663:National Museum of Taiwan History 6776:the emperor to convert it into a 6510:The Three Feudatories (1674–1681) 6478:in 1665 during their war against 6339:according to a 1671 account by a 6272:in 1650. With his help, sea lord 6189:and executed by strangulation in 5868:, who called himself the Earl of 5766:, backed by a local outlaw named 5746:. The Ming loyalist-held city of 5523:) in 1649, and the population of 3652:Consolidation in the north (1645) 3274:. In February 1644, rebel leader 3177:and 2,200,000 silver taels. Ming 3018:Campaigns against the Amur tribes 2493:dynasty. In the Ming period, the 2151:the previous year and their khan 2071:did so after Nurhaci gave him an 1692:Ming Empire's military leadership 17009:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 16325:Articles of Favourable Treatment 16081:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 13769:Dawson, Raymond Stanley (1972). 13564:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2008.00443.x 13494: 13444: 13417: 13325: 13196: 13141: 13114: 13095: 13074: 13013: 12766: 12696: 12619: 12601: 12582: 12555: 12392: 12371: 12356: 12331: 12317:. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 84–106. 12199: 12073:, pp. 1016–1030, 1036–1039. 11873: 11846: 11657:Baldanza, Kathlene, ed. (2016), 11650: 11450:Chongqing & The Three Gorges 11440: 11302: 11275: 11050: 10556: 10517: 10484: 9997: 9912: 9762: 9656: 9639: 9609: 9530: 7724:. University of Nebraska Press. 7602: 7593: 7573: 7564: 7551: 7538: 7444: 7430: 7121:defeated Dzungar Mongols in 1759 6658:The Qing forces were crushed by 4624:regrouped and closed the gates. 4140:'s daughter-in-law and son. The 3310:. The Shun received the letter. 2890:Bannermen dominating at 75% and 2110:Nurhaci read the Chinese novels 1145: 1056: 1045: 1034: 981: 970: 931: 895: 884: 873: 862: 846: 820: 765:Zhu Shichuan, Prince of Yanchang 726: 685: 662: 401: 390: 378: 349: 337: 317: 301: 259: 248: 238: 220: 87: 34: 17289:Wars involving the Qing dynasty 17284:Wars involving the Ming dynasty 16056:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 15942:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 15279:Japanese missions to Ming China 14155:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (2010). 14134:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1991). 14123:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1970). 14114:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1943). 13607:Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2011). 12626:Antony, Robert J. (June 2014). 10497:, Kelly & Walsh, p. 40 9663:Byun Eun Mi (3 February 2012). 9428: 9406: 9377: 9350: 9165: 9125: 9041: 8976: 8917: 8874: 8846: 8804: 8777: 8748: 8706: 8591: 8535: 8492: 8449: 8363: 8336: 8126: 7318:after it spread there from the 6830:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 6772:'s headquarters in 1683 but he 6641:loyalists ridiculed his cause. 6591:. They were joined by generals 6516:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 6394:in April 1661 and defeated the 6213:Seaborne resistance (1655–1663) 6096:, which was then ruled by King 5990:, who had served as general in 5888:Continued fighting in the south 5627:In March 1648, a bandit chief, 5131:armies seized land west of the 4512:, the local military commander 4231:the following year) and seized 3145:artillery under the command of 3034:federation led by Evenki chief 2771:Han Chinese) serving the Qing. 2741:, and, more importantly, added 2322:missionary illustration of the 2125:In February 1626, the Jurchens 1727:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 1467:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 48:may be too short to adequately 16710:Guest House of Imperial Envoys 16000:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 15153:Campaign against the Uriankhai 14988:. Cambridge University Press. 14668:. W. W. Norton & Company. 13790:Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. (2007). 13726:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). 13705:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2000). 13690:. Princeton University Press. 13684:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990). 13628:——— (2012). 12209:The Poet-historian Qian Qianyi 10563:Chiu, Elena Suet-Ying (2020). 10491:Von Mollendorff, P.G. (1890), 9793:. University of Arizona Press. 9146:American Philosophical Society 9069:10.1080/1547402X.2004.11827204 8343:Schlesinger, Jonathan (2017). 7829: 7774: 7713: 7647: 6069:Remains of the outer walls of 5844:, accompanied by Ming princes 5468:(one of those who defected at 5464:. However, the Qing commander 5206:also caved in to Qing general 5120:, had named himself regent in 5068:had not been eliminated. When 4951:, now promoted to Marquis and 4901:as food shortages grew acute. 4850:The Qing forces advanced from 4592:and the coastal resistance in 3817:followed by the military text 2582: 2214:. Next, the Jurchens attacked 908:Zhu Shugui, Prince of Ningjing 58:provide an accessible overview 13: 1: 17144:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank 16919:Islam during the Qing dynasty 16775:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty) 16459:Provincial military commander 16449:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 16434:Imperial Household Department 16261:Preparative Constitutionalism 15965:Sino-Russian border conflicts 15213:Campaigns against the Mongols 14723:Struve, Lynn A., ed. (1993). 14511:Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). 14469:Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). 13968:. Stanford University Press. 12667:Đại Nam liệt truyện tiền biên 12338:John Robert Shepherd (1993). 10524:Claudine Salmon, ed. (2013). 10128:, pp. 442, 445, 446–447. 9919:Des Forges, Roger V. (2003). 9175:Manchuria, Cradle of Conflict 9057:The Chinese Historical Review 7758:10.1017/CHOL9780521243346.003 7635: 7470:Sino-Russian border conflicts 5998:of the Southern Ming, retook 5596:A cannon cast in 1650 by the 5324:by sea, soon founded another 4251:had been pushed south to the 3844:Romance of the Three Kingdoms 2767:" were part of the Han army ( 2737:, but they absorbed defeated 2544:generals who defected to the 2489:family had been ruled by the 2458:Hong Taiji's renaming of the 2249:Mongolia campaign (1625–1635) 2113:Romance of the Three Kingdoms 2084:, thus controlling the whole 1654:. The last Ming emperor, the 17299:Transition from Ming to Qing 16903:Researches on Manchu Origins 16308:Mongolian Revolution of 1911 15918:Transition from Ming to Qing 15908:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 15751:Covered jar with carp design 15367:Transition from Ming to Qing 14923:Walthall, Anne, ed. (2008). 14638:Spence, Jonathan D. (1988). 14602:. Rowman & Littlefield. 14414:Spence, Jonathan D. (2002). 14300:The Journal of Asian Studies 13949:. Harvard University Press. 13504:The Horizon history of China 12562:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). 11671:10.1017/CBO9781316440551.013 11500:, pp. 52, 138, 140–141. 10004:Wang, Yuan-kang (May 2013). 7640: 7225:such as those caused by the 7026: 6748:. His rattan shield troops ( 6678:(non-Banner) instead of the 6084:'s son, took the capital of 5531:fell to another army led by 4805:Sichuan campaign (1646–1658) 4321:who later crushed rebels in 4218:, which protected access to 4107:as the main defender of the 3464:, who later defected to the 3217:Beijing and the north (1644) 2525:were not used to source the 2390:Meanwhile, in the Ming, the 2139:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 2059:who surrendered the city of 1996:about 10 kilometers east of 1794:Late Ming peasant rebellions 1646:fell to a rebel army led by 1491:transition from Ming to Qing 1184:soldiers, and Mongol cavalry 236:Southern and Eastern Mongols 7: 16803:Changzhou School of Thought 16313:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang 16288:Railway Protection Movement 16266:1909 Parliamentary election 16251:British expedition to Tibet 16161:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang 16121:Self-Strengthening Movement 16096:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856) 15746:Ming presentation porcelain 15345:Japanese invasions of Korea 14879:Wakeman, Frederic (1985b). 14858:Wakeman, Frederic (1985a). 14665:The Search for Modern China 14041:A Military History of China 13613:. Oxford University Press. 13542:The Economic History Review 12609:"Tainan Grand Matsu Temple" 12591:"Tainan Grand Matsu Temple" 12464:, pp. 1110–1111, 1124. 12452:, pp. 1099, 1107–1109. 12206:Yim, Lawrence C.H. (2009). 8370:Smith, Norman, ed. (2017). 8001:Fairbank & Goldman 2006 7475:Transition from Sui to Tang 7423: 7285:spread all over famine-hit 7243:25 million people died 7123:, they proclaimed that the 6061:Flight to Burma (1659–1662) 5971:who led the Ming armies in 5911:—the last sovereign of the 5836:The southeastern region of 5698:, the military governor in 5297:, continuing resistance in 5116:claimant, the Prince of Lu 5053:. Tong was originally from 4612:'s light craft forces. The 4460:On 21 July 1645, after the 4099:in early May 1645, leaving 3986:Conquest of Jiangnan (1645) 3377:had left his stronghold of 3091:Liaoxi campaign (1638–1642) 2673:. The Manchu Prince Regent 2621:with the permission of the 2476:Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu 2163:loss, and the Ming general 2031:By summer 1621, the Ming's 1960:the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty 1528: 108:7 May 1618 – 13 August 1683 10: 17315: 17203:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 16091:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 16030:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806) 16020:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa 15990:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736) 15608:Compilations and Documents 15239:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 15021:Zhao Gang (January 2006). 14902:Wakeman, Frederic (2009). 14791:The Fall of Imperial China 14744:Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). 14706:Cambridge University Press 14596:Smith, Richard J. (2015). 14428:Cambridge University Press 14397:Cambridge University Press 14383:Dennerline, Jerry (2002). 12637:(11): 4–30. Archived from 12386:W. W. Norton & Company 12291:, pp. 86–87, 142–144. 12212:. Routledge. p. 109. 11883:A Concise History of China 11729:, pp. 587, 737, 1103. 9775:. Routledge. p. 379. 8755:Grossnick, Roy A. (1972). 8017:"Summing up Naquin/Rawski" 7502:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia 7366:Qing lists of Manchu clans 7295: 7037:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia 7030: 6991:Three Masters of Jiangdong 6887: 6816:, and swore allegiance to 6730:surrendered Taiwan to the 6692:Surrender of Taiwan (1683) 6567:Banner generals to defeat 6513: 6498:. The ship was going from 6386:Pressured by Qing fleets, 6327:caused such fear that the 6225:'s territory, shown in red 6197:in April 1644 had allowed 5917:People's Republic of China 5891: 5872:, with the aid of general 4808: 4635:The defiant population of 4551:soldiers coalesced around 4259:observed that the city of 4235:'s main cities, including 4079:, which was launched from 3989: 3655: 3227:In their later years, the 3220: 3094: 2911: 2729:There were too few ethnic 2394:broke out in 1631, led by 2136: 1916: 1837:Battle of Ningyuan, where 1787: 1658:, hanged himself from the 870:Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang 859:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui 408:English East India Company 17213:Names of the Qing dynasty 17156: 17124: 17081: 17074: 16943: 16861:Manchu Han Imperial Feast 16788: 16720: 16641: 16546: 16342: 16233: 16191:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) 16186:Gongche Shangshu movement 16131:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 16043: 15980:Chinese Rites controversy 15950: 15880: 15871: 15812: 15779: 15741:Chinese lacquerware table 15701: 15660: 15607: 15564: 15521: 15503:Embroidered Uniform Guard 15431: 15317: 15264:Prince of Anhua rebellion 15226: 15120: 15111: 14366:10.1017/CHOL9780521243346 14335:Perdue, Peter C. (2009). 14105:Hummel, Arthur W. (ed.). 14094:Ho, Dahpon David (2011). 13983:Finnane, Antonia (1993). 13943:; Goldman, Merle (2006). 13919:Elliott, Mark C. (2001). 13846:10.1017/S0362502800006623 13526:General and cited sources 13127:. John Wiley & Sons. 12382:In Search of Modern China 11753:, pp. 539–540, 1103. 11309:Justus Doolittle (1876). 8924:Fryslie, Matthew (2001). 8598:Elverskog, Johan (2006). 8499:Parker, Geoffrey (2013). 8376:. UBC Press. p. 68. 7803:10.1007/s10584-009-9702-3 7492:Qing conquest of Mongolia 7460:Manchuria under Ming rule 7033:Names of the Qing dynasty 6949:. Some, like the painter 6804:The Ming loyalist pirate 6800:Ming loyalists in Vietnam 6750: 6740: 6703:with a party of officials 6555:who rebelled against the 6543:(1655). Shang recaptured 6335:(Tartary) and abandoning 6116:lands, and the chieftain 5923:After the elimination of 5112:In the meantime, another 5005:Kuidong Thirteen Families 4426:San Francisco's Chinatown 3674:and his troops to pursue 3235:rebelled in the 1630s in 2987:("Pidao"). The defectors 2903:Lead-up to the Great Wall 2686:Building a mixed military 2577: 2522:Veritable Records of Ming 2451: 2445: 2439: 2431: 2419: 1908:Initial Jurchen conquests 1790:Manchuria under Ming rule 1442:Manchuria under Ming rule 1260: 1212: 1207: 1156: 978:Zhu Yuyue, Prince of Tang 892:Zhu Youzhen, Prince of Yi 883:(Hongguang Emperor) 881:Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu 637:(defected in 1644) ( 452: 209: 174:Suppression of the rebel 100: 86: 81: 17134:Great Qing Treasure Note 16954:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 16664:Administrative divisions 16481:Administrative divisions 16409:Flag of the Qing dynasty 15804:Great Ming Treasure Note 15683:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum 15466:Administrative divisions 15269:Prince of Ning rebellion 15042:10.1177/0097700405282349 14795:. New York: Free Press. 14532:Rossabi, Morris (1979). 14280:Imperial China, 900–1800 14246:Mair, Victor H. (2008). 14203:"Mêng Ch'iao-fang" 14129:. Chʻeng Wen Publishing. 13898:Ebrey, Patricia (1993). 13355:10.1177/0959683615572851 12399:Wong, Young-tsu (2017). 12032:, p. 973, note 194. 11957:, pp. 804, 822–827. 11413:, pp. 132–134, 137. 11288:China Heritage Quarterly 10679:Larsen & Numata 1943 9769:Dillon, Michael (1998). 9363:. ABC-CLIO. p. 30. 9357:Cathal J. Nolan (2008). 9178:. Macmillan. p. 47. 8855:The Augustan, vols 17–20 7840:. MacMillan. p. 35. 7526:Xinjiang under Qing rule 7516:Mongolia under Qing rule 7465:Mongol conquest of China 6440:Dutch East India Company 6331:considered returning to 6256:in 1646 and ennobled by 6133:himself and his family. 5225:, the base was moved to 5143:. In May, they besieged 4819:sent two expeditions to 4789:mobilised rebels in the 4142:Dutch East India Company 4055:, a first cousin of the 3640:fled to the hills or to 3173:and looting 12,000 gold 3046:at first fought against 2939:would complain that the 2295:, who was allied to the 1829:between Ming and Manchus 1499:Manchu conquest of China 612:(defected in 1633) 254:Dutch East India Company 16730:Chengde Mountain Resort 16531:Three Eastern Provinces 16181:First Sino-Japanese War 16156:Northern Chinese Famine 16015:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 15913:Qing invasion of Joseon 15623:The Hundred-word Eulogy 15289:Great Rites Controversy 15143:Ming conquest of Yunnan 14769:. U of Nebraska Press. 14765:Swope, Kenneth (2018). 14017:Forsyth, James (1994). 13586:Brook, Timothy (1999). 13124:China at the Crossroads 12773:Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). 12518:Graff & Higham 2012 12502:Graff & Higham 2012 12486:Graff & Higham 2012 11880:J.A.G. Roberts (1999). 11853:J.A.G. Roberts (2011). 11575:, pp. 64, 104–106. 11315:. Harpers. p. 242. 10154:Yoshiki Enatsu (2004). 9341:Graff & Higham 2012 9172:Owen Lattimore (1932). 9048:Shou Wang (Fall 2004). 9016:Watson & Ebrey 1991 8056:Kimberly Kagan (2010). 8037:Watson & Ebrey 1991 7900:Graff & Higham 2012 7582:Classic of Filial Piety 7257:Immediately before the 6563:The Qing had relied on 6400:Siege of Fort Zeelandia 5939:forces retreating from 5817:(75 km) away from 5706:, felt threatened that 5092:in the coastal city of 4668:"southern barbarians" ( 4388:on 15 June 1645, under 3965:, but were repelled at 3781:Administrative policies 3581:as the avengers of the 3133:banner artillery under 2914:Qing invasion of Joseon 1902:1642 Yellow River flood 1753:by Han Chinese admiral 1174:defectors (after 1644) 903:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu 17111:Great Qing Copper Coin 16999:Convention of Tientsin 16932:Annotated Bibliography 16880:Qing official headwear 15923:Battle of Shanhai Pass 15661:Palaces and Mausoleums 15651:Ming Veritable Records 15299:Luso-Chinese agreement 13533:Allen, Robert (2009). 13203:Rowe, William (2010), 12061:, pp. 1030, 1033. 11057:Cheng, Weikun (1998). 9789:Parsons, J.B. (1970). 9271:, pp. 60–61, 200. 9148:(published 1949): 10. 8456:Sneath, David (2007). 7720:Kenneth Swope (2018). 7497:Qing conquest of Tibet 7181:The rebellions led by 7157:account of his meeting 7116: 7108: 7088:During the Qing, many 7085:subjects of the Qing. 6931:literati and officials 6922: 6884:Literature and thought 6828:). In 1679, after the 6704: 6560: 6528: 6226: 6073: 5982:Though the Qing under 5920: 5607:A major revolt around 5604: 5417:In May 1648, however, 5198:fled to the island of 5041:The Qing advance into 5038: 5027: 4437: 4293:who was in control at 4015:A few weeks after the 4012: 3688:Battle of Shanhai Pass 3590: 3585:and to conquer all of 3565:(1593–1665), a former 3473: 3451: 3428:Battle of Shanhai Pass 3407:stronghold of Ningyuan 3370: 2698: 2449:), and Zhang Wenheng ( 2341:in 1626. He organised 2333:was the eighth son of 2327: 1842: 1830: 1803:was kept in the rear. 1785: 1672:Battle of Shanhai Pass 1605:unified Jurchen tribes 1457:2nd invasion of Joseon 1452:1st invasion of Joseon 1180:Han Chinese soldiers, 980:(Shaowu Emperor) 872:(Longwu Emperor) 861:(Yongli Emperor) 453:Commanders and leaders 94:Battle of Shanhai Pass 17254:17th century in China 17185:Draft History of Qing 17044:Treaty of Shimonoseki 16825:performance criticism 16429:Imperial Commissioner 16419:Great Qing Legal Code 16218:Eight-Nation Alliance 16201:Third plague pandemic 16111:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 16035:White Lotus Rebellion 15756:Yongning Temple Stele 15493:Imperial Commissioner 15218:Reign of Ren and Xuan 15178:Ming treasure voyages 15168:Dao Ganmeng rebellion 14416:"The K'ang-hsi Reign" 14385:"The Shun-chih Reign" 14208:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 13964:Faure, David (2007). 13747:Dai Yingcong (2009). 13581:on 20 September 2010. 13121:Nolan, Peter (2013). 12315:Taiwan: A New History 12235:, pp. 1048–1049. 12133:, pp. 1043–1046. 10479:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko 1855 10440:Sin-wai Chan (2009). 10424:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko 1855 9652:. 梨大史學會. p. 105. 9617:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 9436:"Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi" 9414:"Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi" 8984:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 8881:Kim, Sun Joo (2011). 8812:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 8714:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 7854:Parker, E.H. (1899). 7521:Tibet under Qing rule 7387:. The Hui Muslims of 7296:Further information: 7114: 7102: 6963:The Peach Blossom Fan 6937:teachings emphasized 6901: 6888:Further information: 6699: 6534: 6523: 6317:Battle of Liaoluo Bay 6220: 6068: 5906: 5595: 5367:, but his retreat to 5033: 5018: 4423: 4289:had mutinied against 4019:committed suicide in 3999: 3680:the last Ming emperor 3616:'s Ming loyalists in 3569:official who advised 3560: 3489:Imperial examinations 3460:was a general of the 3456: 3441: 3357: 2693: 2568:after he surrendered 2343:imperial examinations 2318: 2133:First Joseon campaign 1958:in 1616, named after 1841:was injured in defeat 1836: 1825: 1775: 1541:, established by the 1208:Casualties and losses 356:Northern Yuan dynasty 271:Southern Ming dynasty 170:Southern Ming dynasty 17264:History of Manchuria 17116:Great Qing Gold Coin 17049:Treaty of Tarbagatai 16994:Convention of Peking 16874:Pentaglot Dictionary 16856:Literary inquisition 16566:Ever Victorious Army 16399:Deliberative Council 16303:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 16256:1905 Batang uprising 16196:Hundred Days' Reform 16086:Small Swords Society 15355:Sino-Dutch conflicts 15254:Rebellion of Cao Qin 15183:Ming–Turpan conflict 15133:Red Turban Rebellion 14708:. pp. 641–725. 14430:. pp. 120–182. 14420:Peterson, Willard J. 14389:Peterson, Willard J. 14263:Sino-Platonic Papers 13456:The Atlantic Monthly 11611:, pp. 670, 673. 10652:, pp. 695, 698. 9161:Another Google entry 8784:Till, Barry (2004). 7548:南征) on 1 April 1645. 6907:Ming imperial family 6506:on a trade mission. 6092:fleeing into nearby 5386:force led by former 5151:sent Prince of Lu's 4883:Gabriel de Magalhães 4368:'s southern bank at 3973:and allied with the 3662:Soon after entering 3514:civilians to vacate 2669:who defected to the 2560:'s daughter) to the 2537:Han–Manchu marriages 2470:were vassals of the 2406:and defected to the 1970:unify Jurchen tribes 1710:and other polities. 1575:and the short-lived 1495:Ming-Qing transition 1252:Ming−Qing transition 1163:Manchu, Mongol, Han 82:Ming-Qing transition 18:Ming-Qing Transition 17169:Anti-Qing sentiment 17019:Treaty of the Bogue 16959:Treaty of Nerchinsk 16891:Complete Tang Poems 16571:Green Standard Army 16454:Provincial governor 16424:Imperial Clan Court 16404:Diplomatic missions 16379:Consultative Bureau 16126:Tongzhi Restoration 16005:Afaqi Khoja revolts 15985:Ten Great Campaigns 15893:Jurchen unification 15702:Society and Culture 15637:Yongle Encyclopedia 15476:Imperial Clan Court 15419:Kingdom of Tungning 15372:Jurchen unification 15304:Jiajing wokou raids 15193:Battle of Palembang 15158:Battle of Buir Lake 14660:Spence, Jonathan D. 14399:. pp. 73–119. 13347:2015Holoc..25..900X 12912:Dunnell et al. 2004 12880:Dunnell et al. 2004 12864:Dunnell et al. 2004 12751:, pp. 852–855. 12703:Khánh Trần (1993). 12644:on 15 November 2021 12407:. pp. 111–113. 12379:Spence, Jonathan D. 12196:, pp. 149–150. 12085:, pp. 263–267. 12005:, pp. 171–179. 11993:, pp. 990–991. 11981:, pp. 827–830. 11945:, pp. 838–841. 11933:, pp. 805–821. 11921:, pp. 785–792. 11909:, pp. 699–702. 11843:, pp. 767–768. 11816:, pp. 165–168. 11804:, pp. 764–766. 11780:, pp. 737–728. 11741:, pp. 768–771. 11702:, pp. 675–676. 11647:, pp. 736–737. 11599:, pp. 667–674. 11548:, pp. 666–667. 11524:, pp. 734–736. 11384:, pp. 731–733. 11372:, pp. 724–730. 11360:, pp. 717–723. 11192:, pp. 661–674. 11180:, pp. 651–655. 11144:, pp. 662–663. 11132:, pp. 648–650. 10996:, pp. 634–646. 10984:, pp. 598–601. 10956:, pp. 536–545. 10705:, pp. 802–804. 10624:, pp. 708–712. 10612:, pp. 703–707. 10553:, pp. 654–656. 10414:, pp. 713–716. 10402:, pp. 681–682. 10378:, pp. 501–506. 10342:, pp. 482–483. 10227:, pp. 305–306. 10080:, pp. 311–312. 10056:, pp. 310–311. 9747:, pp. 152–155. 9489:Dunnell et al. 2004 9440:Late Imperial China 9418:Late Imperial China 9086:on 11 January 2014. 8989:"Li Shih-yao" 8703:, pp. 204–208. 8679:, pp. 196–197. 8667:, pp. 179–180. 8655:, pp. 160–167. 8643:, pp. 201–203. 8059:The Imperial Moment 7795:2010ClCh..101..565F 7561:, pp. 523–543. 7343:Selected groups of 7155:'s Manchu language 6987:evidential learning 6720:Kingdom of Tungning 6684:Green Standard Army 6628:Green Standard Army 6404:Kingdom of Tungning 5734:who rose up in the 5722:, top commander in 5316:'s younger brother 4971:in the north under 4911:, the Ming general 4616:resistance stormed 4604:, was destroyed at 4156:Qing Prince of Yu, 3890:revolt and against 3686:in late May at the 3595:Green Standard Army 3434:of the Great Shun. 3205:'s forces near the 3201:collapsed, leaving 3161:garrison commander 2649:women, with Prince 2505:, above the rivers 2206:where Ming general 1919:Jurchen unification 1743:Kingdom of Tungning 1447:Jurchen unification 1172:Green Standard Army 967:Prince of Jingjiang 397:Kingdom of Portugal 344:Kingdom of Tungning 325:(Korea; until 1636) 246:(Korea; after 1636) 188:Kingdom of Tungning 17054:Treaty of Tientsin 16765:Western Qing tombs 16760:Eastern Qing tombs 16586:Peking Field Force 16330:Manchu Restoration 16223:Declaration of war 16176:Jindandao incident 15995:Lhasa riot of 1750 15551:Military conquests 15397:Peasant rebellions 15274:Capture of Malacca 15249:Defense of Beijing 15163:Lin Kuan rebellion 14982:Xing Hang (2016). 14961:Wu Shuhui (1995). 14854:. In two volumes. 14692:Mote, Frederick W. 14617:Song Gang (2018). 14275:Mote, Frederick W. 13166:Mao Peiqi (2006). 13102:Ch’iu, Chung-lin. 12303:, pp. 136–37. 12109:, p. 267–273. 11856:A History of China 9384:John Ross (1880). 8691:, pp. 96–101. 8309:, pp. 62, 64. 7261:was overthrown by 7117: 7109: 6925:The defeat of the 6923: 6782:Grand Matsu Temple 6766:Prince of Ningjing 6705: 6561: 6529: 6524:The revolt of the 6458:(Quemoy) from the 6366:disobeyed orders, 6362:After the admiral 6227: 6136:Loyalist generals 6074: 5921: 5907:The flight of the 5605: 5559:and from there to 5249:After the fall of 5210:by November 1646. 5127:In February 1646, 5106:Tokugawa Shogunate 5039: 5028: 4823:to try to destroy 4568:and the remaining 4562:Songjiang District 4438: 4345:who served in the 4333:who served in the 4208:"brutal slaughter" 4121:"Sichuan" soldiers 4013: 4008:in the defense of 3644:to avoid the war; 3591: 3474: 3371: 3141:, with supporting 3097:Battle of Song-Jin 2699: 2328: 2149:Battle of Ningyuan 2086:Liaodong peninsula 1843: 1831: 1827:Battle of Ningyuan 1786: 1696:the General Crisis 1628:peasant rebellions 1300:Peasant rebellions 1203:Nanai Hurka: 6,000 631:(defected in 1642) 606:(defected in 1633) 600:(defected in 1618) 423:(Zhang Xianzhong) 385:Tokugawa Shogunate 17241: 17240: 17152: 17151: 17064:Treaty of Whampoa 17059:Treaty of Wanghia 17034:Treaty of Nanking 17004:Li–Lobanov Treaty 16979:Chefoo Convention 16974:Burlingame Treaty 16845:Kangxi Dictionary 16750:Old Summer Palace 16581:Firearm Battalion 16384:Cup of Solid Gold 16338: 16337: 16283:Manchurian plague 16246:Late Qing reforms 16237:(1901–1912) 16171:Sikkim expedition 16101:Panthay Rebellion 16071:Taiping Rebellion 16047:(1801–1900) 16025:Sino-Nepalese War 15970:Dzungar–Qing Wars 15956:(1683–1799) 15884:(1616–1683) 15830: 15829: 15539:Gunpowder weapons 15498:Grand coordinator 15461:Grand Secretariat 15427: 15426: 15321:(1572–1683) 15230:(1435–1572) 15198:Battle of Kherlen 15148:Ming–Mong Mao War 15138:Wu Mian rebellion 15124:(1368–1435) 15067:on 25 March 2014. 14953:978-0-520-07124-7 14934:978-0-520-25444-2 14915:978-0-520-25606-4 14892:978-0-520-23519-9 14871:978-0-520-23518-2 14849:978-0-520-04804-1 14834:Wakeman, Frederic 14811:Wakeman, Frederic 14785:Wakeman, Frederic 14715:978-0-521-24332-2 14547:978-0-300-02672-6 14503:978-1-88496-404-6 14461:978-0-520-92679-0 14437:978-0-521-24334-6 14406:978-0-521-24334-6 14348:978-0-674-04202-5 14290:978-0-674-44515-4 14250:Soldierly Methods 14192:978-0-674-82152-1 14147:978-9-5763-8066-2 14107:清代名人傳略: 1644–1912 14051:978-0-8131-3584-7 14000:978-0-7914-1423-1 13975:978-0-8047-5318-0 13941:Fairbank, John K. 13911:978-0-02-908752-7 13824:978-1-134-36222-6 13760:978-0-295-98952-5 13739:978-0-631-23591-0 13718:978-0-520-92884-8 13697:978-0-691-00877-6 13677:978-0-19-921734-2 13650:Chang, Kang-i Sun 13177:978-7-80206-237-5 13155:. 6 October 2014. 12595:Tainan City Guide 11893:978-0-674-00075-9 11866:978-0-230-34411-2 11680:978-1-107-12424-0 11460:978-7-5022-5215-1 11437:, pp. 17–18. 10537:978-981-4414-32-6 10453:978-962-996-355-2 10167:978-0-89264-165-9 9669:The Gachon Herald 9370:978-0-313-35920-0 8415:, pp. 59–64. 8285:, pp. 55–57. 8273:, pp. 51–53. 8261:, pp. 37–39. 8146:978-1-2855-2867-0 8069:978-0-674-05409-7 8021:pages.uoregon.edu 7954:978-0-520-23015-6 7767:978-1-139-05353-2 7608:For example, see 7532:Explanatory notes 7487:Dzungar–Qing Wars 7385:Xinhai Revolution 7373:Xinhai revolution 7223:natural disasters 7191:Yangzhou massacre 7017:Manchu literature 6846:Trần Thượng Xuyên 6664:Three Feudatories 6553:Three Feudatories 6526:Three Feudatories 6381:Three Feudatories 6295:In 1659, just as 6292:estuary in 1659. 5821:communities. The 5694:In January 1649, 5332:, the capital of 4927:. A young son of 4781:. Ming Prince of 4697:Yangzhou Massacre 4446:Hongguang Emperor 4424:A Chinese man in 4358:Hongguang Emperor 4224:Hongguang Emperor 4126:Hongguang Emperor 4057:Chongzhen Emperor 4043:Governor-general 4017:Chongzhen Emperor 3981:Fall of the south 3864:linbao jiancha fa 3785:On the orders of 3748:Jiugong Mountains 3575:Chongzhen Emperor 3478:Chongzhen Emperor 3419:Mandate of Heaven 3319:Chongzhen Emperor 3296:Chongzhen Emperor 3115:Shandong province 2944:Joseon subjects. 2468:Jianzhou Jurchens 2339:Later Jin dynasty 2127:besieged Ningyuan 2069:China's northeast 2065:Liaoning province 2035:fortress cities, 1992:, located on the 1968:. His efforts to 1956:Later Jin dynasty 1708:English Civil War 1656:Chongzhen Emperor 1638:to crown himself 1601:Jianzhou Jurchens 1486: 1485: 1217: 1216: 705:Chongzhen Emperor 205: 204: 192:Consolidation of 75: 74: 16:(Redirected from 17306: 17218:New Qing History 17101:Qianlong Tongbao 17079: 17078: 17024:Treaty of Canton 16964:Unequal treaties 16770:Fuling Mausoleum 16369:Advisory Council 16298:Wuchang Uprising 16238: 16141:Tianjin Massacre 16106:Second Opium War 16048: 16010:Sino-Burmese War 15957: 15935:Battle of Penghu 15903:Seven Grievances 15885: 15878: 15877: 15857: 15850: 15843: 15834: 15833: 15630:Huang-Ming Zuxun 15402:Jiashen Incident 15392:She-An Rebellion 15377:Seven Grievances 15350:Donglin movement 15335:Bozhou rebellion 15322: 15231: 15208:Lam Sơn uprising 15188:Ming–Đại Ngu War 15173:Jingnan campaign 15125: 15118: 15117: 15097: 15090: 15083: 15074: 15073: 15068: 15066: 15060:. Archived from 15027: 15017: 15008: 14999: 14978: 14957: 14938: 14919: 14896: 14875: 14853: 14828: 14806: 14794: 14780: 14761: 14740: 14719: 14696:Twitchett, Denis 14679: 14655: 14634: 14613: 14590: 14588: 14586: 14580: 14573: 14562: 14551: 14528: 14507: 14486: 14465: 14441: 14410: 14379: 14352: 14331: 14294: 14270: 14260: 14242: 14225:Li Ling (1995). 14221: 14205: 14196: 14172: 14151: 14130: 14119: 14110: 14101: 14090: 14069: 14067: 14055: 14034: 14013: 14004: 13979: 13960: 13936: 13915: 13894: 13865: 13828: 13807: 13786: 13764: 13743: 13722: 13701: 13680: 13657: 13643: 13624: 13603: 13582: 13580: 13574:. Archived from 13557: 13539: 13519: 13518: 13498: 13492: 13482: 13476: 13466: 13460: 13459: 13448: 13442: 13441: 13421: 13415: 13405: 13399: 13389: 13383: 13373: 13367: 13366: 13329: 13323: 13313: 13307: 13297: 13291: 13281: 13275: 13265: 13259: 13249: 13243: 13233: 13227: 13226: 13225: 13223: 13200: 13194: 13188: 13182: 13181: 13163: 13157: 13156: 13153:Business Insider 13145: 13139: 13138: 13118: 13112: 13111: 13099: 13093: 13092: 13090: 13088: 13078: 13072: 13062: 13056: 13046: 13040: 13030: 13024: 13017: 13011: 13005: 12999: 12989: 12983: 12973: 12967: 12957: 12951: 12941: 12935: 12925: 12919: 12909: 12903: 12893: 12887: 12877: 12871: 12861: 12855: 12849: 12843: 12837: 12831: 12821: 12815: 12805: 12799: 12798: 12770: 12764: 12758: 12752: 12746: 12740: 12734: 12728: 12727: 12725: 12723: 12700: 12694: 12687:Việt Nam sử lược 12683: 12674: 12663: 12654: 12653: 12651: 12649: 12643: 12632: 12623: 12617: 12616: 12605: 12599: 12598: 12586: 12580: 12579: 12559: 12553: 12547: 12541: 12531: 12525: 12515: 12509: 12499: 12493: 12483: 12477: 12471: 12465: 12459: 12453: 12447: 12441: 12431: 12425: 12415: 12409: 12408: 12396: 12390: 12389: 12375: 12369: 12368: 12360: 12354: 12353: 12335: 12329: 12328: 12310: 12304: 12298: 12292: 12286: 12280: 12270: 12264: 12254: 12248: 12242: 12236: 12230: 12224: 12223: 12203: 12197: 12191: 12185: 12179: 12170: 12164: 12158: 12152: 12146: 12140: 12134: 12128: 12122: 12116: 12110: 12104: 12098: 12092: 12086: 12080: 12074: 12068: 12062: 12056: 12050: 12044: 12033: 12027: 12021: 12015: 12006: 12000: 11994: 11988: 11982: 11976: 11970: 11964: 11958: 11952: 11946: 11940: 11934: 11928: 11922: 11916: 11910: 11904: 11898: 11897: 11877: 11871: 11870: 11850: 11844: 11838: 11832: 11826: 11817: 11811: 11805: 11799: 11793: 11787: 11781: 11775: 11769: 11763: 11754: 11748: 11742: 11736: 11730: 11724: 11718: 11712: 11703: 11697: 11691: 11690: 11689: 11687: 11654: 11648: 11642: 11636: 11630: 11624: 11618: 11612: 11606: 11600: 11594: 11588: 11582: 11576: 11570: 11564: 11558: 11549: 11543: 11537: 11531: 11525: 11519: 11513: 11507: 11501: 11495: 11489: 11483: 11477: 11471: 11465: 11464: 11444: 11438: 11432: 11426: 11420: 11414: 11408: 11402: 11396: 11385: 11379: 11373: 11367: 11361: 11355: 11349: 11339: 11333: 11323: 11317: 11316: 11306: 11300: 11299: 11279: 11273: 11267: 11261: 11255: 11249: 11239: 11233: 11223: 11217: 11211: 11205: 11199: 11193: 11187: 11181: 11175: 11169: 11163: 11157: 11151: 11145: 11139: 11133: 11127: 11121: 11115: 11109: 11099: 11093: 11083: 11077: 11076: 11054: 11048: 11042: 11036: 11030: 11024: 11018: 11009: 11003: 10997: 10991: 10985: 10979: 10973: 10963: 10957: 10951: 10945: 10935: 10929: 10923: 10917: 10911: 10900: 10894: 10885: 10875: 10866: 10856: 10850: 10840: 10834: 10824: 10818: 10808: 10799: 10789: 10783: 10777: 10771: 10765: 10754: 10748: 10742: 10736: 10730: 10724: 10718: 10712: 10706: 10700: 10694: 10688: 10682: 10676: 10670: 10664: 10653: 10647: 10641: 10631: 10625: 10619: 10613: 10607: 10601: 10595: 10589: 10588: 10560: 10554: 10548: 10542: 10541: 10521: 10515: 10505: 10499: 10498: 10488: 10482: 10476: 10470: 10464: 10458: 10457: 10437: 10431: 10421: 10415: 10409: 10403: 10397: 10391: 10385: 10379: 10373: 10367: 10361: 10355: 10349: 10343: 10337: 10331: 10325: 10319: 10309: 10303: 10297: 10291: 10285: 10279: 10269: 10260: 10250: 10244: 10234: 10228: 10222: 10216: 10210: 10204: 10194: 10188: 10178: 10172: 10171: 10151: 10145: 10135: 10129: 10123: 10117: 10111: 10105: 10099: 10093: 10087: 10081: 10075: 10069: 10063: 10057: 10051: 10045: 10039: 10033: 10027: 10021: 10020: 10018: 10016: 10010: 10001: 9995: 9989: 9980: 9974: 9965: 9959: 9953: 9943: 9937: 9936: 9916: 9910: 9900: 9894: 9884: 9878: 9868: 9862: 9852: 9846: 9840: 9834: 9828: 9819: 9813: 9807: 9801: 9795: 9794: 9786: 9766: 9760: 9754: 9748: 9742: 9736: 9730: 9724: 9718: 9712: 9706: 9700: 9691: 9685: 9679: 9673: 9672: 9660: 9654: 9653: 9643: 9637: 9636: 9624: 9613: 9607: 9601: 9595: 9585: 9579: 9573: 9567: 9561: 9555: 9554: 9534: 9528: 9518: 9512: 9502: 9496: 9486: 9480: 9470: 9464: 9454: 9448: 9447: 9432: 9426: 9425: 9410: 9404: 9398: 9392: 9391: 9381: 9375: 9374: 9354: 9348: 9338: 9332: 9322: 9316: 9306: 9300: 9290: 9284: 9278: 9272: 9266: 9260: 9250: 9244: 9234: 9228: 9218: 9212: 9202: 9196: 9186: 9180: 9179: 9169: 9163: 9159: 9129: 9123: 9113: 9104: 9094: 9088: 9087: 9085: 9079:. Archived from 9054: 9045: 9039: 9029: 9023: 9013: 9004: 9003: 8991: 8980: 8974: 8964: 8958: 8948: 8942: 8941: 8921: 8915: 8905: 8899: 8898: 8878: 8872: 8866: 8860: 8859: 8850: 8844: 8838: 8832: 8831: 8819: 8808: 8802: 8801: 8781: 8775: 8769: 8763: 8762: 8752: 8746: 8740: 8734: 8733: 8721: 8710: 8704: 8698: 8692: 8686: 8680: 8674: 8668: 8662: 8656: 8650: 8644: 8638: 8632: 8622: 8616: 8615: 8595: 8589: 8583: 8572: 8566: 8560: 8559: 8539: 8533: 8523: 8517: 8516: 8496: 8490: 8480: 8474: 8473: 8453: 8447: 8441: 8435: 8425: 8416: 8410: 8404: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8367: 8361: 8360: 8340: 8334: 8328: 8322: 8316: 8310: 8304: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8256: 8250: 8240: 8231: 8221: 8215: 8205: 8199: 8189: 8183: 8173: 8167: 8157: 8151: 8150: 8130: 8124: 8118: 8112: 8102: 8093: 8083: 8074: 8073: 8053: 8044: 8034: 8025: 8024: 8013: 8004: 7998: 7989: 7988: 7968: 7959: 7958: 7938: 7929: 7928: 7916: 7907: 7897: 7888: 7882: 7876: 7875: 7873: 7871: 7851: 7842: 7841: 7833: 7827: 7821: 7815: 7814: 7789:(3–4): 565–573. 7778: 7772: 7771: 7745: 7736: 7735: 7717: 7711: 7702: 7693: 7683: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7669: 7651: 7629: 7606: 7600: 7597: 7591: 7577: 7571: 7568: 7562: 7555: 7549: 7542: 7454: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7440: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7401:Shaanxi province 7357:Qianlong emperor 7170:were unlike the 7011:form of poetry. 6913:. Art historian 6832:was put down by 6753: 6752: 6743: 6742: 6736:Battle of Penghu 6476:Zhoushan Islands 6181:was captured by 6022:(in what is now 5880:, just south of 5576:Banner generals 5402:and sending the 5343:established the 5139:in northeastern 4797:area and around 4703:Chongming Island 4574:Chongming Island 4500:A minor scholar 4455:Donglin movement 4263:was unharmed by 4035:Minister of War 3967:Gongchang, Gansu 3449: 3438:Ethnic situation 3278:had founded the 3171:Jiangsu province 3069:Tungusic peoples 2623:Board of Revenue 2584: 2579: 2503:Korean peninsula 2480:Manzhou Shilu Tu 2454: 2453: 2448: 2447: 2443:), Shen Peirui ( 2442: 2441: 2436: 2435: 2424: 2423: 2412:Southern Chinese 2147:had lost at the 1982:Seven Grievances 1896:and a battle in 1870:She-An Rebellion 1778:Aisin Gioro Clan 1751:Battle of Penghu 1741:and founded the 1597:Seven Grievances 1549:in contemporary 1513:, the incumbent 1462:Seven Grievances 1317:She–An Rebellion 1255: 1253: 1243: 1236: 1229: 1220: 1219: 1149: 1118: 1090: 1069: 1063:Gao Yigong 1060: 1049: 1038: 1026: 1010: 985: 974: 952: 935: 899: 888: 877: 866: 850: 824: 812: 799: 786: 773: 755: 742: 730: 718: 689: 684:(defected) 666: 661:(defected) 641: 618: 522: 490: 468: 429:She-An Rebellion 427:Kingdom of Shu ( 406: 405: 404: 395: 394: 383: 382: 381: 373:Armament support 354: 353: 352: 342: 341: 340: 321: 306: 305: 304: 264: 263: 262: 252: 242: 227:Aisin-Gioro clan 225: 224: 223: 164:Collapse of the 102: 101: 91: 79: 78: 70: 67: 61: 38: 30: 21: 17314: 17313: 17309: 17308: 17307: 17305: 17304: 17303: 17244: 17243: 17242: 17237: 17233:Willow Palisade 17179:Chuang Guandong 17148: 17120: 17070: 17029:Treaty of Kulja 17014:Treaty of Aigun 16947: 16939: 16838:History of Ming 16790: 16784: 16722: 16716: 16642:Special regions 16637: 16576:Imperial Guards 16542: 16334: 16293:1911 Revolution 16239: 16236: 16229: 16206:Boxer Rebellion 16166:Sino-French War 16116:Amur Annexation 16061:First Opium War 16049: 16046: 16039: 15958: 15955: 15946: 15930:Great Clearance 15886: 15883: 15867: 15861: 15831: 15826: 15821:History of Ming 15808: 15775: 15697: 15673:Chaotian Palace 15656: 15616:History of Yuan 15603: 15560: 15517: 15423: 15323: 15320: 15313: 15309:Single whip law 15284:Ningbo incident 15259:Miao rebellions 15232: 15229: 15222: 15126: 15123: 15107: 15101: 15071: 15064: 15025: 14996: 14975: 14954: 14935: 14916: 14893: 14872: 14850: 14825: 14803: 14777: 14758: 14737: 14716: 14676: 14652: 14631: 14610: 14584: 14582: 14578: 14571: 14565: 14548: 14525: 14504: 14483: 14462: 14438: 14407: 14376: 14349: 14312:10.2307/2941233 14291: 14258: 14239: 14193: 14179:Kuhn, Philip A. 14169: 14148: 14140:. Taipei: SMC. 14113: 14104: 14087: 14065: 14052: 14031: 14001: 13976: 13957: 13933: 13912: 13825: 13804: 13783: 13761: 13740: 13719: 13698: 13678: 13640: 13621: 13600: 13578: 13555:10.1.1.149.5916 13537: 13528: 13523: 13522: 13515: 13499: 13495: 13483: 13479: 13467: 13463: 13450: 13449: 13445: 13438: 13422: 13418: 13406: 13402: 13390: 13386: 13374: 13370: 13330: 13326: 13314: 13310: 13298: 13294: 13282: 13278: 13266: 13262: 13250: 13246: 13234: 13230: 13221: 13219: 13217: 13201: 13197: 13189: 13185: 13178: 13164: 13160: 13147: 13146: 13142: 13135: 13119: 13115: 13100: 13096: 13086: 13084: 13080: 13079: 13075: 13063: 13059: 13047: 13043: 13031: 13027: 13018: 13014: 13006: 13002: 12990: 12986: 12974: 12970: 12958: 12954: 12942: 12938: 12926: 12922: 12910: 12906: 12894: 12890: 12878: 12874: 12862: 12858: 12850: 12846: 12838: 12834: 12822: 12818: 12806: 12802: 12795: 12771: 12767: 12759: 12755: 12747: 12743: 12735: 12731: 12721: 12719: 12717: 12701: 12697: 12684: 12677: 12664: 12657: 12647: 12645: 12641: 12630: 12624: 12620: 12607: 12606: 12602: 12587: 12583: 12576: 12560: 12556: 12548: 12544: 12532: 12528: 12516: 12512: 12500: 12496: 12484: 12480: 12476:, p. 1116. 12472: 12468: 12460: 12456: 12448: 12444: 12432: 12428: 12416: 12412: 12397: 12393: 12376: 12372: 12361: 12357: 12350: 12336: 12332: 12325: 12311: 12307: 12299: 12295: 12287: 12283: 12271: 12267: 12255: 12251: 12247:, p. 1049. 12243: 12239: 12231: 12227: 12220: 12204: 12200: 12192: 12188: 12182:Dennerline 2002 12180: 12173: 12169:, p. 1046. 12165: 12161: 12157:, p. 1003. 12153: 12149: 12141: 12137: 12129: 12125: 12117: 12113: 12105: 12101: 12097:, p. 1035. 12093: 12089: 12081: 12077: 12069: 12065: 12057: 12053: 12047:Dennerline 2002 12045: 12036: 12028: 12024: 12016: 12009: 12001: 11997: 11989: 11985: 11977: 11973: 11965: 11961: 11953: 11949: 11941: 11937: 11929: 11925: 11917: 11913: 11905: 11901: 11894: 11878: 11874: 11867: 11851: 11847: 11839: 11835: 11827: 11820: 11812: 11808: 11800: 11796: 11788: 11784: 11776: 11772: 11764: 11757: 11749: 11745: 11737: 11733: 11725: 11721: 11713: 11706: 11698: 11694: 11685: 11683: 11681: 11655: 11651: 11643: 11639: 11631: 11627: 11619: 11615: 11607: 11603: 11595: 11591: 11587:, pp. 67–. 11583: 11579: 11571: 11567: 11559: 11552: 11544: 11540: 11532: 11528: 11520: 11516: 11508: 11504: 11496: 11492: 11484: 11480: 11472: 11468: 11461: 11445: 11441: 11433: 11429: 11421: 11417: 11409: 11405: 11397: 11388: 11380: 11376: 11368: 11364: 11356: 11352: 11340: 11336: 11324: 11320: 11307: 11303: 11290:. No. 27. 11280: 11276: 11268: 11264: 11256: 11252: 11240: 11236: 11224: 11220: 11212: 11208: 11200: 11196: 11188: 11184: 11176: 11172: 11164: 11160: 11152: 11148: 11140: 11136: 11128: 11124: 11116: 11112: 11100: 11096: 11084: 11080: 11073: 11055: 11051: 11043: 11039: 11031: 11027: 11019: 11012: 11006:Dennerline 2002 11004: 11000: 10992: 10988: 10980: 10976: 10964: 10960: 10952: 10948: 10936: 10932: 10924: 10920: 10912: 10903: 10895: 10888: 10876: 10869: 10857: 10853: 10841: 10837: 10825: 10821: 10809: 10802: 10790: 10786: 10778: 10774: 10766: 10757: 10749: 10745: 10737: 10733: 10725: 10721: 10713: 10709: 10701: 10697: 10689: 10685: 10677: 10673: 10665: 10656: 10648: 10644: 10632: 10628: 10620: 10616: 10608: 10604: 10596: 10592: 10577: 10561: 10557: 10549: 10545: 10538: 10522: 10518: 10506: 10502: 10489: 10485: 10477: 10473: 10465: 10461: 10454: 10438: 10434: 10422: 10418: 10410: 10406: 10398: 10394: 10386: 10382: 10374: 10370: 10362: 10358: 10350: 10346: 10338: 10334: 10326: 10322: 10310: 10306: 10298: 10294: 10286: 10282: 10270: 10263: 10251: 10247: 10235: 10231: 10223: 10219: 10215:, p. 1020. 10211: 10207: 10195: 10191: 10179: 10175: 10168: 10152: 10148: 10136: 10132: 10124: 10120: 10112: 10108: 10100: 10096: 10088: 10084: 10076: 10072: 10064: 10060: 10052: 10048: 10040: 10036: 10030:Dennerline 2002 10028: 10024: 10014: 10012: 10008: 10002: 9998: 9990: 9983: 9975: 9968: 9960: 9956: 9944: 9940: 9933: 9917: 9913: 9901: 9897: 9885: 9881: 9869: 9865: 9853: 9849: 9841: 9837: 9829: 9822: 9814: 9810: 9802: 9798: 9783: 9767: 9763: 9755: 9751: 9743: 9739: 9731: 9727: 9719: 9715: 9707: 9703: 9692: 9688: 9680: 9676: 9661: 9657: 9644: 9640: 9614: 9610: 9602: 9598: 9586: 9582: 9574: 9570: 9562: 9558: 9551: 9535: 9531: 9519: 9515: 9503: 9499: 9487: 9483: 9471: 9467: 9455: 9451: 9434: 9433: 9429: 9412: 9411: 9407: 9399: 9395: 9382: 9378: 9371: 9355: 9351: 9339: 9335: 9323: 9319: 9307: 9303: 9291: 9287: 9279: 9275: 9267: 9263: 9251: 9247: 9235: 9231: 9219: 9215: 9203: 9199: 9187: 9183: 9170: 9166: 9156: 9130: 9126: 9114: 9107: 9095: 9091: 9083: 9052: 9046: 9042: 9030: 9026: 9014: 9007: 8981: 8977: 8965: 8961: 8949: 8945: 8938: 8922: 8918: 8906: 8902: 8895: 8879: 8875: 8867: 8863: 8852: 8851: 8847: 8839: 8835: 8817:"Nurhaci" 8809: 8805: 8798: 8782: 8778: 8770: 8766: 8753: 8749: 8741: 8737: 8711: 8707: 8699: 8695: 8687: 8683: 8675: 8671: 8663: 8659: 8651: 8647: 8639: 8635: 8623: 8619: 8612: 8596: 8592: 8584: 8575: 8567: 8563: 8556: 8540: 8536: 8524: 8520: 8513: 8497: 8493: 8481: 8477: 8470: 8454: 8450: 8442: 8438: 8426: 8419: 8411: 8407: 8395: 8391: 8384: 8368: 8364: 8357: 8341: 8337: 8329: 8325: 8317: 8313: 8305: 8301: 8293: 8289: 8281: 8277: 8269: 8265: 8257: 8253: 8241: 8234: 8222: 8218: 8206: 8202: 8190: 8186: 8174: 8170: 8158: 8154: 8147: 8131: 8127: 8119: 8115: 8103: 8096: 8084: 8077: 8070: 8054: 8047: 8035: 8028: 8015: 8014: 8007: 7999: 7992: 7985: 7969: 7962: 7955: 7939: 7932: 7922: 7917: 7910: 7898: 7891: 7883: 7879: 7869: 7867: 7852: 7845: 7834: 7830: 7822: 7818: 7783:Climatic Change 7779: 7775: 7768: 7746: 7739: 7732: 7718: 7714: 7703: 7696: 7684: 7677: 7667: 7665: 7653: 7652: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7632: 7607: 7603: 7598: 7594: 7578: 7574: 7569: 7565: 7556: 7552: 7543: 7539: 7534: 7483: 7450: 7445: 7443: 7436: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7300: 7241:. An estimated 7215:Zhang Xianzhong 7187:Zhang Xianzhong 7129:Khalkha Mongols 7039: 7029: 6896: 6886: 6854:Nguyễn Phúc Tần 6806:Dương Ngạn Địch 6802: 6708:Zheng Chenggong 6694: 6518: 6512: 6278:Zhoushan Island 6250:Zheng Chenggong 6215: 6177:. In 1662, the 6155:Irrawaddy River 6102:Toungoo dynasty 6063: 6043:Shunzhi Emperor 5925:Zhang Xianzhong 5901: 5896: 5890: 5736:Helan Mountains 5714:, commander of 5677:Dongming County 5590: 5527:was massacred. 5349:Zhang Xianzhong 5320:, who had fled 5247: 5235:Zheng Chenggong 5190:on 17 October, 5064:Meanwhile, the 5013: 5001:Xingshan County 4933:Fuling District 4929:Zhang Xianzhong 4867:Zhang Xianzhong 4825:Zhang Xianzhong 4813: 4811:Zhang Xianzhong 4807: 4418: 3994: 3988: 3983: 3872: 3783: 3742:and further to 3660: 3654: 3605:Bannermen, and 3577:to present the 3450: 3447: 3440: 3333:Grand Secretary 3241:Zhang Xianzhong 3225: 3219: 3179:Grand Secretary 3099: 3093: 3020: 2916: 2910: 2905: 2765:red coat cannon 2688: 2680:Manchu language 2643:Shunzhi Emperor 2539: 2527:History of Ming 2516:History of Ming 2313: 2251: 2141: 2135: 2063:in what is now 1990:captured Fushun 1921: 1915: 1910: 1894:Zhang Xianzhong 1796: 1788:Main articles: 1770: 1735:Zheng Chenggong 1719:Great Clearance 1573:Zhang Xianzhong 1551:Northeast China 1531: 1507:Chinese history 1493:(or simply the 1487: 1482: 1481: 1477:Great Clearance 1378: 1256: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1202: 1194: 1190: 1176: 1168: 1151: 1139: 1138: 1128: 1127: 1114: 1086: 1082:Zhang Xianzhong 1077: 1076: 1065: 1022: 1006: 976: 960: 959: 948: 912: 808: 795: 782: 769: 751: 738: 714: 698: 614: 593: 592: 511:Shunzhi Emperor 444: 433: 425: 418: 402: 400: 399: 389: 388: 379: 377: 376: 371: 369: 365: 362:Yarkent Khanate 359: 350: 348: 347: 338: 336: 335: 331: 326: 316: 314:Combat support: 312: 302: 300: 289:Guangzhou court 269: 260: 258: 247: 237: 235: 233: 229: 221: 219: 218: 158: 141: 129:, and parts of 92: 71: 65: 62: 55: 43:This article's 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17312: 17302: 17301: 17296: 17291: 17286: 17281: 17276: 17271: 17266: 17261: 17256: 17239: 17238: 17236: 17235: 17230: 17225: 17220: 17215: 17210: 17205: 17200: 17195: 17188: 17181: 17176: 17171: 17166: 17160: 17158: 17154: 17153: 17150: 17149: 17147: 17146: 17141: 17136: 17130: 17128: 17122: 17121: 17119: 17118: 17113: 17108: 17103: 17098: 17096:Kangxi Tongbao 17093: 17087: 17085: 17076: 17072: 17071: 17069: 17068: 17067: 17066: 17061: 17056: 17051: 17046: 17041: 17036: 17031: 17026: 17021: 17016: 17011: 17006: 17001: 16996: 16991: 16986: 16981: 16976: 16971: 16969:Boxer Protocol 16961: 16956: 16950: 16948: 16941: 16940: 16938: 16937: 16936: 16935: 16921: 16916: 16911: 16906: 16899: 16894: 16887: 16882: 16877: 16870: 16863: 16858: 16853: 16848: 16841: 16834: 16829: 16828: 16827: 16817: 16812: 16805: 16800: 16794: 16792: 16786: 16785: 16783: 16782: 16777: 16772: 16767: 16762: 16757: 16752: 16747: 16742: 16737: 16735:Forbidden City 16732: 16726: 16724: 16718: 16717: 16715: 16714: 16713: 16712: 16702: 16701: 16700: 16698:General of Ili 16695: 16685: 16684: 16683: 16681:List of ambans 16678: 16668: 16667: 16666: 16656: 16651: 16645: 16643: 16639: 16638: 16636: 16635: 16630: 16629: 16628: 16623: 16618: 16608: 16603: 16598: 16593: 16588: 16583: 16578: 16573: 16568: 16563: 16558: 16552: 16550: 16544: 16543: 16541: 16540: 16535: 16534: 16533: 16528: 16523: 16518: 16513: 16508: 16503: 16498: 16493: 16483: 16478: 16477: 16476: 16466: 16461: 16456: 16451: 16446: 16441: 16436: 16431: 16426: 16421: 16416: 16411: 16406: 16401: 16396: 16391: 16386: 16381: 16376: 16371: 16366: 16365: 16364: 16359: 16348: 16346: 16340: 16339: 16336: 16335: 16333: 16332: 16327: 16322: 16321: 16320: 16315: 16310: 16305: 16300: 16290: 16285: 16280: 16275: 16274: 16273: 16268: 16258: 16253: 16248: 16242: 16240: 16235: 16231: 16230: 16228: 16227: 16226: 16225: 16215: 16214: 16213: 16203: 16198: 16193: 16188: 16183: 16178: 16173: 16168: 16163: 16158: 16153: 16148: 16146:Margary Affair 16143: 16138: 16136:Mudan incident 16133: 16128: 16123: 16118: 16113: 16108: 16103: 16098: 16093: 16088: 16083: 16078: 16076:Nian Rebellion 16073: 16068: 16063: 16058: 16052: 16050: 16045: 16041: 16040: 16038: 16037: 16032: 16027: 16022: 16017: 16012: 16007: 16002: 15997: 15992: 15987: 15982: 15977: 15972: 15967: 15961: 15959: 15954: 15948: 15947: 15945: 15944: 15939: 15938: 15937: 15927: 15926: 15925: 15915: 15910: 15905: 15900: 15895: 15889: 15887: 15882: 15875: 15869: 15868: 15860: 15859: 15852: 15845: 15837: 15828: 15827: 15825: 15824: 15816: 15814: 15810: 15809: 15807: 15806: 15801: 15800: 15799: 15797:Yongle Tongbao 15794: 15792:Hongwu Tongbao 15783: 15781: 15777: 15776: 15774: 15773: 15768: 15763: 15758: 15753: 15748: 15743: 15738: 15737: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15716: 15711: 15705: 15703: 15699: 15698: 15696: 15695: 15690: 15685: 15680: 15675: 15670: 15668:Forbidden City 15664: 15662: 15658: 15657: 15655: 15654: 15647: 15640: 15633: 15626: 15619: 15611: 15609: 15605: 15604: 15602: 15601: 15596: 15591: 15586: 15585: 15584: 15579: 15568: 15566: 15562: 15561: 15559: 15558: 15556:Nine Garrisons 15553: 15548: 15547: 15546: 15536: 15531: 15525: 15523: 15519: 15518: 15516: 15515: 15510: 15505: 15500: 15495: 15490: 15489: 15488: 15478: 15473: 15468: 15463: 15458: 15457: 15456: 15451: 15446: 15435: 15433: 15429: 15428: 15425: 15424: 15422: 15421: 15416: 15411: 15410: 15409: 15404: 15399: 15394: 15389: 15384: 15379: 15374: 15364: 15363: 15362: 15352: 15347: 15342: 15340:Ordos campaign 15337: 15332: 15326: 15324: 15319: 15315: 15314: 15312: 15311: 15306: 15301: 15296: 15291: 15286: 15281: 15276: 15271: 15266: 15261: 15256: 15251: 15246: 15241: 15235: 15233: 15228: 15224: 15223: 15221: 15220: 15215: 15210: 15205: 15203:Ming–Kotte War 15200: 15195: 15190: 15185: 15180: 15175: 15170: 15165: 15160: 15155: 15150: 15145: 15140: 15135: 15129: 15127: 15122: 15115: 15109: 15108: 15100: 15099: 15092: 15085: 15077: 15070: 15069: 15018: 15009: 15000: 14995:978-1316453841 14994: 14979: 14974:978-3447037563 14973: 14958: 14952: 14939: 14933: 14920: 14914: 14899: 14898: 14897: 14891: 14876: 14870: 14848: 14830: 14824:978-0520025974 14823: 14807: 14802:978-0029336908 14801: 14781: 14776:978-0803249950 14775: 14762: 14757:978-1134462094 14756: 14741: 14736:978-0300075533 14735: 14720: 14714: 14687: 14682:See profile at 14675:978-0393307801 14674: 14656: 14651:978-0300042771 14650: 14635: 14630:978-0429959202 14629: 14614: 14609:978-1442221949 14608: 14593: 14592: 14591: 14552: 14546: 14529: 14523: 14508: 14502: 14487: 14482:978-0295980409 14481: 14466: 14460: 14445: 14444: 14443: 14436: 14411: 14405: 14374: 14353: 14347: 14332: 14306:(3): 387–400. 14295: 14289: 14271: 14243: 14237: 14222: 14197: 14191: 14175: 14174: 14173: 14168:978-9004218017 14167: 14152: 14146: 14131: 14120: 14102: 14091: 14086:978-3447055284 14085: 14070: 14056: 14050: 14035: 14030:978-0521477710 14029: 14014: 14005: 13999: 13980: 13974: 13961: 13956:978-0674036659 13955: 13937: 13932:978-0804746847 13931: 13916: 13910: 13895: 13883:10.2307/601450 13877:(4): 653–661. 13866: 13829: 13823: 13808: 13803:978-1135789558 13802: 13787: 13781: 13775:. Hutchinson. 13772:Imperial China 13766: 13759: 13744: 13738: 13723: 13717: 13702: 13696: 13681: 13676: 13658: 13646: 13645: 13644: 13639:978-0199792122 13638: 13620:978-0199792122 13619: 13604: 13599:978-0520221543 13598: 13583: 13548:(3): 525–550. 13529: 13527: 13524: 13521: 13520: 13513: 13493: 13477: 13461: 13443: 13436: 13416: 13400: 13384: 13368: 13341:(6): 900–910. 13324: 13308: 13292: 13284:Xing Hang 2016 13276: 13260: 13244: 13228: 13215: 13195: 13183: 13176: 13158: 13140: 13134:978-0745657615 13133: 13113: 13108:中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊 13094: 13073: 13057: 13041: 13025: 13012: 13010:, p. 269. 13000: 12984: 12968: 12952: 12936: 12920: 12904: 12888: 12872: 12856: 12854:, p. 146. 12852:Rodriguez 1997 12844: 12832: 12816: 12800: 12794:978-0199792054 12793: 12765: 12753: 12741: 12739:, p. 163. 12729: 12715: 12695: 12675: 12655: 12618: 12613:Chinatownology 12600: 12581: 12575:978-0230614246 12574: 12554: 12552:, p. 146. 12542: 12526: 12510: 12494: 12478: 12466: 12454: 12442: 12434:Xing Hang 2016 12426: 12418:Xing Hang 2016 12410: 12391: 12370: 12355: 12348: 12330: 12323: 12305: 12293: 12281: 12273:Xing Hang 2016 12265: 12249: 12237: 12225: 12219:978-1134006069 12218: 12198: 12186: 12184:, p. 118. 12171: 12159: 12147: 12145:, p. 136. 12135: 12123: 12121:, p. 710. 12111: 12099: 12087: 12075: 12063: 12051: 12049:, p. 117. 12034: 12022: 12020:, p. 704. 12007: 11995: 11983: 11971: 11969:, p. 192. 11959: 11947: 11935: 11923: 11911: 11899: 11892: 11872: 11865: 11845: 11833: 11831:, p. 767. 11818: 11806: 11794: 11792:, p. 738. 11782: 11770: 11768:, p. 737. 11755: 11743: 11731: 11719: 11717:, p. 676. 11704: 11692: 11679: 11649: 11637: 11635:, p. 675. 11625: 11623:, p. 674. 11613: 11601: 11589: 11585:Xing Hang 2016 11577: 11573:Xing Hang 2016 11565: 11563:, p. 667. 11550: 11538: 11536:, p. 665. 11526: 11514: 11502: 11490: 11478: 11476:, p. 399. 11466: 11459: 11439: 11427: 11425:, p. 544. 11415: 11403: 11386: 11374: 11362: 11350: 11334: 11318: 11301: 11274: 11262: 11260:, p. 164. 11250: 11234: 11218: 11206: 11194: 11182: 11170: 11168:, p. 650. 11158: 11146: 11134: 11122: 11120:, p. 868. 11110: 11094: 11086:Xing Hang 2016 11078: 11072:978-0791437414 11071: 11049: 11037: 11035:, p. 662. 11025: 11023:, p. 647. 11010: 10998: 10986: 10974: 10958: 10946: 10930: 10928:, p. 580. 10918: 10916:, p. 660. 10901: 10899:, p. 658. 10886: 10867: 10851: 10835: 10819: 10800: 10784: 10782:, p. 522. 10772: 10770:, p. 657. 10755: 10753:, p. 521. 10743: 10741:, p. 644. 10731: 10729:, p. 346. 10719: 10717:, p. 642. 10707: 10695: 10693:, p. 800. 10683: 10681:, p. 572. 10671: 10669:, p. 191. 10654: 10642: 10626: 10614: 10602: 10590: 10576:978-1684170890 10575: 10555: 10543: 10536: 10516: 10500: 10483: 10471: 10459: 10452: 10432: 10416: 10404: 10392: 10390:, p. 507. 10380: 10368: 10366:, p. 501. 10356: 10354:, p. 483. 10344: 10332: 10330:, p. 317. 10320: 10312:Song Gang 2018 10304: 10302:, p. 198. 10292: 10290:, p. 135. 10280: 10261: 10245: 10229: 10217: 10205: 10189: 10173: 10166: 10146: 10130: 10118: 10116:, p. 257. 10106: 10104:, p. 817. 10094: 10092:, p. 313. 10082: 10070: 10068:, p. 311. 10058: 10046: 10044:, p. 308. 10034: 10022: 9996: 9994:, p. 304. 9981: 9979:, p. 296. 9966: 9964:, p. 290. 9954: 9938: 9932:978-0804740449 9931: 9911: 9895: 9879: 9863: 9847: 9845:, p. 809. 9835: 9833:, p. 641. 9820: 9818:, p. 893. 9808: 9796: 9782:978-0700704392 9781: 9761: 9759:, p. 221. 9749: 9737: 9735:, p. 215. 9725: 9723:, p. 212. 9713: 9711:, p. 142. 9701: 9686: 9684:, p. 217. 9674: 9655: 9649:梨大史苑, Volume 7 9646:梨大史學會 (1968). 9638: 9622:"Dorgon" 9619:, ed. (1943). 9608: 9606:, p. 275. 9596: 9580: 9578:, p. 217. 9568: 9566:, p. 217. 9556: 9550:978-1598849011 9549: 9529: 9513: 9497: 9481: 9465: 9449: 9427: 9405: 9393: 9376: 9369: 9349: 9333: 9317: 9301: 9285: 9283:, p. 210. 9273: 9261: 9245: 9229: 9213: 9197: 9181: 9164: 9154: 9124: 9105: 9089: 9063:(2): 212–222. 9040: 9024: 9005: 8986:, ed. (1943). 8975: 8959: 8943: 8936: 8916: 8900: 8894:978-0295802176 8893: 8873: 8871:, p. 598. 8861: 8845: 8843:, p. 598. 8833: 8814:, ed. (1943). 8803: 8796: 8776: 8764: 8747: 8735: 8719:"Abahai" 8716:, ed. (1943). 8705: 8693: 8681: 8669: 8657: 8645: 8633: 8617: 8611:978-0824830212 8610: 8590: 8573: 8561: 8555:978-0500771471 8554: 8534: 8518: 8512:978-0300189193 8511: 8491: 8475: 8469:978-0231511674 8468: 8448: 8446:, p. 597. 8436: 8417: 8405: 8389: 8383:978-0774832922 8382: 8362: 8356:978-1503600683 8355: 8335: 8333:, p. 269. 8323: 8311: 8299: 8287: 8275: 8263: 8251: 8232: 8216: 8200: 8184: 8168: 8152: 8145: 8125: 8113: 8094: 8075: 8068: 8045: 8026: 8005: 8003:, p. 146. 7990: 7984:978-0300046021 7983: 7960: 7953: 7930: 7908: 7889: 7877: 7843: 7828: 7816: 7773: 7766: 7737: 7730: 7712: 7694: 7675: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7601: 7592: 7572: 7563: 7550: 7536: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7482: 7479: 7478: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7456: 7455: 7452:History portal 7441: 7425: 7422: 7411:population of 7239:Koxinga regime 7227:Little Ice Age 7161:Torghut leader 7149:Russian Empire 7145:Oirat Khanates 7119:When the Qing 7042:Dulimbai Gurun 7028: 7025: 6885: 6882: 6840:together with 6801: 6798: 6732:Kangxi Emperor 6728:Zheng Keshuang 6712:Kangxi Emperor 6693: 6690: 6589:Kangxi Emperor 6514:Main article: 6511: 6508: 6274:Zhang Mingzhen 6268:, he captured 6254:Longwu Emperor 6214: 6211: 6205:and contacted 6179:Yongli Emperor 6090:Yongli Emperor 6088:, sending the 6062: 6059: 6016:Hong Chengchou 5996:Yongli Emperor 5909:Yongli Emperor 5900: 5897: 5889: 5886: 5878:Mount Banchang 5842:Tang Zhongheng 5720:Wang Yongqiang 5716:Yulin, Shaanxi 5673:Chengwu County 5669:Dingtao County 5633:Tianqi Emperor 5589: 5586: 5553:Yongli Emperor 5545:Geng Zhongming 5404:Yongli Emperor 5400:Shaowu Emperor 5398:, killing the 5314:Longwu Emperor 5295:Yongli Emperor 5246: 5243: 5215:Zhang Mingzhen 5165:Hong Chengchou 5137:Longwu Emperor 5133:Qiantang River 5090:Longwu Emperor 5059:inward-looking 5012: 5009: 4981:Yongli Emperor 4937:Yunyang County 4815:In early 1646 4806: 4803: 4785:and Prince of 4749:resistance in 4689:Hong Chengchou 4472:just like the 4417: 4414: 4253:Qiantang River 4148:observed that 4146:Johann Nieuhof 3990:Main article: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3949:, governor of 3871: 3868: 3826:The Art of War 3782: 3779: 3767:millenarianist 3666:in June 1644, 3653: 3650: 3563:Hong Chengchou 3561:A portrait of 3540:Geng Zhongming 3470:Kangxi Emperor 3445: 3439: 3436: 3411:Hong Chengchou 3358:The battle at 3308:Central Plains 3300:Forbidden City 3218: 3215: 3095:Main article: 3092: 3089: 3019: 3016: 3008:Princess Uisun 2989:Geng Zhongming 2912:Main article: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2817:Hong Chengchou 2809:Deng Changchun 2793:Geng Zhongming 2757:Hong Chengchou 2719:Geng Zhongming 2687: 2684: 2639:Geng Jingzhong 2635:Geng Zhongming 2583:sān děng zǐjué 2538: 2535: 2400:Geng Zhongming 2312: 2309: 2250: 2247: 2243:Ganghwa Island 2165:Yuan Chonghuan 2137:Main article: 2134: 2131: 1938:. In 1589 the 1917:Main article: 1914: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1769: 1766: 1715:Kangxi Emperor 1700:Spanish Empire 1698:affecting the 1684:Little Ice Age 1664:Forbidden City 1585: 1584: 1565: 1554: 1530: 1527: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1285: 1284: 1283: 1278: 1267: 1266: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1246: 1245: 1238: 1231: 1223: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1204: 1185: 1178: 1159: 1158: 1154: 1153: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1120: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1092: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1061: 1050: 1039: 1028: 1015: 1012: 999: 994: 988: 986: 958: 957: 954: 941: 936: 925: 919: 911: 910: 905: 900: 889: 878: 867: 856: 851: 840: 835: 830: 825: 814: 801: 788: 775: 762: 757: 744: 731: 723:Yuan Chonghuan 720: 707: 701: 699: 697: 696: 690: 679: 673: 667: 656: 650: 647:Hong Chengchou 644: 632: 626: 620: 607: 604:Geng Zhongming 601: 594: 591: 590: 588:Kangxi Emperor 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 481: 476: 471: 458: 455: 454: 450: 449: 410: 370:Turpan Khanate 311: 310: 298: 292: 286: 280: 256: 234:Ming defectors 212: 211: 207: 206: 203: 202: 201: 200: 190: 176:Kingdom of Shu 172: 160: 154: 153: 147: 143: 142: 139:Southeast Asia 116: 114: 110: 109: 106: 98: 97: 84: 83: 73: 72: 52:the key points 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17311: 17300: 17297: 17295: 17292: 17290: 17287: 17285: 17282: 17280: 17279:Southern Ming 17277: 17275: 17272: 17270: 17267: 17265: 17262: 17260: 17259:Eight Banners 17257: 17255: 17252: 17251: 17249: 17234: 17231: 17229: 17226: 17224: 17221: 17219: 17216: 17214: 17211: 17209: 17208:Manchu people 17206: 17204: 17201: 17199: 17196: 17194: 17193: 17189: 17187: 17186: 17182: 17180: 17177: 17175: 17174:Canton System 17172: 17170: 17167: 17165: 17162: 17161: 17159: 17155: 17145: 17142: 17140: 17139:Hubu Guanpiao 17137: 17135: 17132: 17131: 17129: 17127: 17123: 17117: 17114: 17112: 17109: 17107: 17104: 17102: 17099: 17097: 17094: 17092: 17089: 17088: 17086: 17084: 17080: 17077: 17073: 17065: 17062: 17060: 17057: 17055: 17052: 17050: 17047: 17045: 17042: 17040: 17037: 17035: 17032: 17030: 17027: 17025: 17022: 17020: 17017: 17015: 17012: 17010: 17007: 17005: 17002: 17000: 16997: 16995: 16992: 16990: 16987: 16985: 16982: 16980: 16977: 16975: 16972: 16970: 16967: 16966: 16965: 16962: 16960: 16957: 16955: 16952: 16951: 16949: 16946: 16942: 16934: 16933: 16929: 16928: 16927: 16926: 16922: 16920: 16917: 16915: 16912: 16910: 16907: 16905: 16904: 16900: 16898: 16895: 16893: 16892: 16888: 16886: 16883: 16881: 16878: 16876: 16875: 16871: 16869: 16868: 16864: 16862: 16859: 16857: 16854: 16852: 16849: 16847: 16846: 16842: 16840: 16839: 16835: 16833: 16830: 16826: 16823: 16822: 16821: 16818: 16816: 16813: 16811: 16810: 16806: 16804: 16801: 16799: 16796: 16795: 16793: 16789:Society & 16787: 16781: 16778: 16776: 16773: 16771: 16768: 16766: 16763: 16761: 16758: 16756: 16755:Summer Palace 16753: 16751: 16748: 16746: 16745:Mukden Palace 16743: 16741: 16738: 16736: 16733: 16731: 16728: 16727: 16725: 16721:Palaces & 16719: 16711: 16708: 16707: 16706: 16703: 16699: 16696: 16694: 16691: 16690: 16689: 16686: 16682: 16679: 16677: 16674: 16673: 16672: 16669: 16665: 16662: 16661: 16660: 16657: 16655: 16652: 16650: 16647: 16646: 16644: 16640: 16634: 16631: 16627: 16624: 16622: 16619: 16617: 16614: 16613: 16612: 16609: 16607: 16604: 16602: 16599: 16597: 16594: 16592: 16589: 16587: 16584: 16582: 16579: 16577: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16567: 16564: 16562: 16561:Eight Banners 16559: 16557: 16554: 16553: 16551: 16549: 16545: 16539: 16536: 16532: 16529: 16527: 16524: 16522: 16519: 16517: 16514: 16512: 16509: 16507: 16504: 16502: 16499: 16497: 16494: 16492: 16489: 16488: 16487: 16484: 16482: 16479: 16475: 16472: 16471: 16470: 16467: 16465: 16462: 16460: 16457: 16455: 16452: 16450: 16447: 16445: 16442: 16440: 16437: 16435: 16432: 16430: 16427: 16425: 16422: 16420: 16417: 16415: 16414:Grand Council 16412: 16410: 16407: 16405: 16402: 16400: 16397: 16395: 16392: 16390: 16387: 16385: 16382: 16380: 16377: 16375: 16372: 16370: 16367: 16363: 16360: 16358: 16355: 16354: 16353: 16350: 16349: 16347: 16345: 16341: 16331: 16328: 16326: 16323: 16319: 16316: 16314: 16311: 16309: 16306: 16304: 16301: 16299: 16296: 16295: 16294: 16291: 16289: 16286: 16284: 16281: 16279: 16276: 16272: 16269: 16267: 16264: 16263: 16262: 16259: 16257: 16254: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16243: 16241: 16234:20th century 16232: 16224: 16221: 16220: 16219: 16216: 16212: 16209: 16208: 16207: 16204: 16202: 16199: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16187: 16184: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16172: 16169: 16167: 16164: 16162: 16159: 16157: 16154: 16152: 16149: 16147: 16144: 16142: 16139: 16137: 16134: 16132: 16129: 16127: 16124: 16122: 16119: 16117: 16114: 16112: 16109: 16107: 16104: 16102: 16099: 16097: 16094: 16092: 16089: 16087: 16084: 16082: 16079: 16077: 16074: 16072: 16069: 16067: 16064: 16062: 16059: 16057: 16054: 16053: 16051: 16044:19th century 16042: 16036: 16033: 16031: 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 16011: 16008: 16006: 16003: 16001: 15998: 15996: 15993: 15991: 15988: 15986: 15983: 15981: 15978: 15976: 15973: 15971: 15968: 15966: 15963: 15962: 15960: 15953: 15949: 15943: 15940: 15936: 15933: 15932: 15931: 15928: 15924: 15921: 15920: 15919: 15916: 15914: 15911: 15909: 15906: 15904: 15901: 15899: 15896: 15894: 15891: 15890: 15888: 15879: 15876: 15874: 15870: 15865: 15858: 15853: 15851: 15846: 15844: 15839: 15838: 15835: 15823: 15822: 15818: 15817: 15815: 15811: 15805: 15802: 15798: 15795: 15793: 15790: 15789: 15788: 15785: 15784: 15782: 15778: 15772: 15769: 15767: 15764: 15762: 15759: 15757: 15754: 15752: 15749: 15747: 15744: 15742: 15739: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15725: 15722: 15721: 15720: 15717: 15715: 15712: 15710: 15707: 15706: 15704: 15700: 15694: 15691: 15689: 15686: 15684: 15681: 15679: 15678:Ming Xiaoling 15676: 15674: 15671: 15669: 15666: 15665: 15663: 15659: 15653: 15652: 15648: 15646: 15645: 15641: 15639: 15638: 15634: 15632: 15631: 15627: 15625: 15624: 15620: 15618: 15617: 15613: 15612: 15610: 15606: 15600: 15597: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15583: 15580: 15578: 15575: 15574: 15573: 15570: 15569: 15567: 15563: 15557: 15554: 15552: 15549: 15545: 15542: 15541: 15540: 15537: 15535: 15532: 15530: 15527: 15526: 15524: 15520: 15514: 15511: 15509: 15506: 15504: 15501: 15499: 15496: 15494: 15491: 15487: 15486:Vassal prince 15484: 15483: 15482: 15479: 15477: 15474: 15472: 15471:Eastern Depot 15469: 15467: 15464: 15462: 15459: 15455: 15452: 15450: 15447: 15445: 15442: 15441: 15440: 15437: 15436: 15434: 15430: 15420: 15417: 15415: 15414:Southern Ming 15412: 15408: 15405: 15403: 15400: 15398: 15395: 15393: 15390: 15388: 15385: 15383: 15380: 15378: 15375: 15373: 15370: 15369: 15368: 15365: 15361: 15358: 15357: 15356: 15353: 15351: 15348: 15346: 15343: 15341: 15338: 15336: 15333: 15331: 15328: 15327: 15325: 15316: 15310: 15307: 15305: 15302: 15300: 15297: 15295: 15292: 15290: 15287: 15285: 15282: 15280: 15277: 15275: 15272: 15270: 15267: 15265: 15262: 15260: 15257: 15255: 15252: 15250: 15247: 15245: 15242: 15240: 15237: 15236: 15234: 15225: 15219: 15216: 15214: 15211: 15209: 15206: 15204: 15201: 15199: 15196: 15194: 15191: 15189: 15186: 15184: 15181: 15179: 15176: 15174: 15171: 15169: 15166: 15164: 15161: 15159: 15156: 15154: 15151: 15149: 15146: 15144: 15141: 15139: 15136: 15134: 15131: 15130: 15128: 15119: 15116: 15114: 15110: 15105: 15098: 15093: 15091: 15086: 15084: 15079: 15078: 15075: 15063: 15059: 15055: 15051: 15047: 15043: 15039: 15035: 15031: 15024: 15019: 15015: 15010: 15006: 15001: 14997: 14991: 14987: 14986: 14980: 14976: 14970: 14966: 14965: 14959: 14955: 14949: 14945: 14940: 14936: 14930: 14926: 14921: 14917: 14911: 14907: 14906: 14900: 14894: 14888: 14884: 14883: 14877: 14873: 14867: 14863: 14862: 14856: 14855: 14851: 14845: 14841: 14840: 14835: 14831: 14826: 14820: 14816: 14812: 14808: 14804: 14798: 14793: 14792: 14786: 14782: 14778: 14772: 14768: 14763: 14759: 14753: 14749: 14748: 14742: 14738: 14732: 14728: 14727: 14721: 14717: 14711: 14707: 14704:. Cambridge: 14703: 14702: 14697: 14693: 14688: 14686: 14683: 14677: 14671: 14667: 14666: 14661: 14657: 14653: 14647: 14643: 14642: 14636: 14632: 14626: 14623:. Routledge. 14622: 14621: 14615: 14611: 14605: 14601: 14600: 14594: 14577: 14570: 14569: 14564: 14563: 14560: 14559: 14553: 14549: 14543: 14539: 14535: 14530: 14526: 14524:9780874368857 14520: 14516: 14515: 14509: 14505: 14499: 14495: 14494: 14488: 14484: 14478: 14474: 14473: 14467: 14463: 14457: 14453: 14452: 14446: 14439: 14433: 14429: 14426:. Cambridge: 14425: 14421: 14417: 14412: 14408: 14402: 14398: 14395:. Cambridge: 14394: 14390: 14386: 14381: 14380: 14377: 14375:9781139053532 14371: 14367: 14363: 14359: 14354: 14350: 14344: 14340: 14339: 14333: 14329: 14325: 14321: 14317: 14313: 14309: 14305: 14301: 14296: 14292: 14286: 14282: 14281: 14276: 14272: 14268: 14264: 14257: 14255: 14254:Sun Zi bingfa 14251: 14244: 14240: 14238:9787507102888 14234: 14230: 14229: 14228:Son of Heaven 14223: 14219: 14215: 14214: 14209: 14204: 14198: 14194: 14188: 14184: 14180: 14176: 14170: 14164: 14160: 14159: 14153: 14149: 14143: 14139: 14138: 14132: 14128: 14127: 14121: 14117: 14112: 14111: 14108: 14103: 14099: 14098: 14092: 14088: 14082: 14078: 14077: 14071: 14064: 14063: 14057: 14053: 14047: 14043: 14042: 14036: 14032: 14026: 14022: 14021: 14015: 14011: 14006: 14002: 13996: 13992: 13991: 13986: 13981: 13977: 13971: 13967: 13962: 13958: 13952: 13948: 13947: 13942: 13938: 13934: 13928: 13924: 13923: 13917: 13913: 13907: 13903: 13902: 13896: 13892: 13888: 13884: 13880: 13876: 13872: 13867: 13863: 13859: 13855: 13851: 13847: 13843: 13839: 13835: 13830: 13826: 13820: 13817:. Routledge. 13816: 13815: 13809: 13805: 13799: 13795: 13794: 13788: 13784: 13782:9780091084806 13778: 13774: 13773: 13767: 13762: 13756: 13752: 13751: 13745: 13741: 13735: 13731: 13730: 13724: 13720: 13714: 13710: 13709: 13703: 13699: 13693: 13689: 13688: 13682: 13679: 13673: 13669: 13668: 13663: 13662:Clunas, Craig 13659: 13655: 13651: 13647: 13641: 13635: 13631: 13626: 13625: 13622: 13616: 13612: 13611: 13605: 13601: 13595: 13591: 13590: 13584: 13577: 13573: 13569: 13565: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13547: 13543: 13536: 13531: 13530: 13516: 13514:9780828100052 13510: 13506: 13505: 13497: 13490: 13486: 13481: 13474: 13470: 13465: 13457: 13453: 13447: 13439: 13437:9780404004385 13433: 13429: 13428: 13420: 13413: 13409: 13408:Crossley 2000 13404: 13397: 13393: 13392:Crossley 2000 13388: 13381: 13377: 13372: 13364: 13360: 13356: 13352: 13348: 13344: 13340: 13336: 13328: 13321: 13317: 13312: 13305: 13301: 13296: 13289: 13285: 13280: 13273: 13269: 13264: 13257: 13253: 13248: 13241: 13237: 13232: 13218: 13216:9780674054554 13212: 13208: 13207: 13199: 13192: 13187: 13179: 13173: 13169: 13162: 13154: 13150: 13144: 13136: 13130: 13126: 13125: 13117: 13109: 13105: 13098: 13083: 13077: 13070: 13066: 13061: 13054: 13050: 13045: 13038: 13034: 13029: 13022: 13016: 13009: 13004: 12997: 12993: 12988: 12981: 12977: 12972: 12965: 12961: 12956: 12949: 12945: 12940: 12933: 12929: 12924: 12917: 12913: 12908: 12901: 12897: 12892: 12885: 12881: 12876: 12869: 12865: 12860: 12853: 12848: 12841: 12836: 12829: 12825: 12820: 12813: 12809: 12804: 12796: 12790: 12786: 12782: 12778: 12777: 12769: 12763:, p. 71. 12762: 12757: 12750: 12745: 12738: 12733: 12718: 12716:9789813016675 12712: 12708: 12707: 12699: 12693: 12689: 12688: 12682: 12680: 12673: 12669: 12668: 12662: 12660: 12640: 12636: 12629: 12622: 12614: 12610: 12604: 12596: 12592: 12585: 12577: 12571: 12567: 12566: 12558: 12551: 12546: 12539: 12535: 12530: 12523: 12519: 12514: 12507: 12503: 12498: 12491: 12487: 12482: 12475: 12470: 12463: 12458: 12451: 12446: 12439: 12435: 12430: 12423: 12419: 12414: 12406: 12402: 12395: 12388:. p. 44. 12387: 12383: 12380: 12374: 12366: 12359: 12351: 12345: 12341: 12334: 12326: 12324:9780765614957 12320: 12316: 12309: 12302: 12297: 12290: 12285: 12278: 12274: 12269: 12262: 12258: 12257:Wakeman 1985a 12253: 12246: 12241: 12234: 12229: 12221: 12215: 12211: 12210: 12202: 12195: 12190: 12183: 12178: 12176: 12168: 12163: 12156: 12151: 12144: 12139: 12132: 12127: 12120: 12115: 12108: 12103: 12096: 12091: 12084: 12079: 12072: 12067: 12060: 12055: 12048: 12043: 12041: 12039: 12031: 12026: 12019: 12014: 12012: 12004: 11999: 11992: 11987: 11980: 11975: 11968: 11963: 11956: 11951: 11944: 11939: 11932: 11927: 11920: 11915: 11908: 11903: 11895: 11889: 11885: 11884: 11876: 11868: 11862: 11858: 11857: 11849: 11842: 11837: 11830: 11825: 11823: 11815: 11810: 11803: 11798: 11791: 11786: 11779: 11774: 11767: 11762: 11760: 11752: 11747: 11740: 11735: 11728: 11723: 11716: 11711: 11709: 11701: 11696: 11682: 11676: 11672: 11668: 11664: 11660: 11653: 11646: 11641: 11634: 11629: 11622: 11617: 11610: 11605: 11598: 11593: 11586: 11581: 11574: 11569: 11562: 11557: 11555: 11547: 11542: 11535: 11530: 11523: 11518: 11511: 11506: 11499: 11494: 11488:, p. 18. 11487: 11482: 11475: 11470: 11462: 11456: 11452: 11451: 11443: 11436: 11431: 11424: 11419: 11412: 11407: 11401:, p. 17. 11400: 11395: 11393: 11391: 11383: 11378: 11371: 11366: 11359: 11354: 11347: 11343: 11338: 11331: 11327: 11322: 11314: 11313: 11305: 11297: 11293: 11289: 11285: 11278: 11271: 11266: 11259: 11254: 11247: 11243: 11242:Wakeman 1985a 11238: 11231: 11227: 11222: 11216:, p. 83. 11215: 11214:Wakeman 1975b 11210: 11204:, p. 78. 11203: 11202:Wakeman 1975b 11198: 11191: 11186: 11179: 11174: 11167: 11162: 11156:, p. 56. 11155: 11154:Wakeman 1975b 11150: 11143: 11138: 11131: 11126: 11119: 11114: 11107: 11103: 11102:Wakeman 1985a 11098: 11091: 11087: 11082: 11074: 11068: 11064: 11060: 11053: 11047:, p. 12. 11046: 11041: 11034: 11029: 11022: 11017: 11015: 11008:, p. 87. 11007: 11002: 10995: 10990: 10983: 10978: 10971: 10967: 10962: 10955: 10950: 10943: 10939: 10934: 10927: 10922: 10915: 10910: 10908: 10906: 10898: 10893: 10891: 10883: 10879: 10874: 10872: 10864: 10860: 10859:Crossley 1990 10855: 10848: 10844: 10843:Wakeman 1985a 10839: 10832: 10828: 10827:Wakeman 1985a 10823: 10816: 10812: 10807: 10805: 10797: 10793: 10788: 10781: 10776: 10769: 10764: 10762: 10760: 10752: 10747: 10740: 10735: 10728: 10723: 10716: 10711: 10704: 10699: 10692: 10687: 10680: 10675: 10668: 10663: 10661: 10659: 10651: 10646: 10639: 10635: 10630: 10623: 10618: 10611: 10606: 10600:, p. vi. 10599: 10594: 10586: 10582: 10578: 10572: 10568: 10567: 10559: 10552: 10547: 10539: 10533: 10529: 10528: 10520: 10513: 10509: 10504: 10496: 10495: 10487: 10481:, p. 39. 10480: 10475: 10469:, p. 53. 10468: 10463: 10455: 10449: 10445: 10444: 10436: 10429: 10425: 10420: 10413: 10408: 10401: 10396: 10389: 10384: 10377: 10372: 10365: 10360: 10353: 10348: 10341: 10336: 10329: 10324: 10317: 10313: 10308: 10301: 10296: 10289: 10284: 10277: 10273: 10268: 10266: 10258: 10254: 10249: 10242: 10238: 10233: 10226: 10221: 10214: 10209: 10202: 10198: 10197:Di Cosmo 2007 10193: 10186: 10182: 10177: 10169: 10163: 10159: 10158: 10150: 10143: 10139: 10134: 10127: 10122: 10115: 10110: 10103: 10098: 10091: 10086: 10079: 10074: 10067: 10062: 10055: 10050: 10043: 10038: 10032:, p. 81. 10031: 10026: 10007: 10000: 9993: 9988: 9986: 9978: 9973: 9971: 9963: 9958: 9951: 9947: 9942: 9934: 9928: 9924: 9923: 9915: 9908: 9904: 9899: 9892: 9888: 9883: 9876: 9872: 9867: 9860: 9856: 9851: 9844: 9839: 9832: 9827: 9825: 9817: 9812: 9806:, p. 15. 9805: 9800: 9792: 9784: 9778: 9774: 9773: 9765: 9758: 9753: 9746: 9741: 9734: 9729: 9722: 9717: 9710: 9705: 9699: 9695: 9690: 9683: 9678: 9670: 9666: 9659: 9651: 9650: 9642: 9634: 9630: 9629: 9623: 9618: 9612: 9605: 9600: 9593: 9589: 9584: 9577: 9572: 9565: 9560: 9552: 9546: 9542: 9541: 9533: 9526: 9522: 9517: 9510: 9506: 9505:Crossley 2000 9501: 9494: 9490: 9485: 9478: 9474: 9469: 9462: 9458: 9453: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9431: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9409: 9403:, p. 84. 9402: 9397: 9389: 9388: 9380: 9372: 9366: 9362: 9361: 9353: 9346: 9342: 9337: 9330: 9326: 9325:Di Cosmo 2007 9321: 9314: 9310: 9305: 9298: 9294: 9293:Di Cosmo 2007 9289: 9282: 9277: 9270: 9265: 9258: 9254: 9249: 9242: 9238: 9233: 9226: 9222: 9217: 9210: 9206: 9201: 9194: 9190: 9185: 9177: 9176: 9168: 9162: 9157: 9155:9781422377192 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9128: 9121: 9117: 9112: 9110: 9102: 9098: 9097:Walthall 2008 9093: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9070: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9051: 9044: 9037: 9033: 9032:Walthall 2008 9028: 9021: 9017: 9012: 9010: 9001: 8997: 8996: 8990: 8985: 8979: 8972: 8968: 8963: 8956: 8952: 8951:Walthall 2008 8947: 8939: 8937:9780493415963 8933: 8929: 8928: 8920: 8913: 8909: 8904: 8896: 8890: 8886: 8885: 8877: 8870: 8865: 8857: 8856: 8849: 8842: 8837: 8829: 8825: 8824: 8818: 8813: 8807: 8799: 8797:9780888852168 8793: 8789: 8788: 8780: 8773: 8768: 8760: 8759: 8751: 8744: 8739: 8731: 8727: 8726: 8720: 8715: 8709: 8702: 8697: 8690: 8685: 8678: 8673: 8666: 8661: 8654: 8649: 8642: 8637: 8630: 8626: 8621: 8613: 8607: 8603: 8602: 8594: 8588:, p. 65. 8587: 8582: 8580: 8578: 8571:, p. 64. 8570: 8565: 8557: 8551: 8547: 8546: 8538: 8531: 8527: 8522: 8514: 8508: 8504: 8503: 8495: 8488: 8484: 8483:Crossley 1990 8479: 8471: 8465: 8461: 8460: 8452: 8445: 8440: 8433: 8429: 8428:Wakeman 1975a 8424: 8422: 8414: 8409: 8402: 8398: 8397:Crossley 2000 8393: 8385: 8379: 8375: 8374: 8366: 8358: 8352: 8348: 8347: 8339: 8332: 8327: 8321:, p. 30. 8320: 8315: 8308: 8307:Crossley 2002 8303: 8297:, p. 58. 8296: 8291: 8284: 8279: 8272: 8267: 8260: 8255: 8248: 8244: 8239: 8237: 8229: 8225: 8220: 8213: 8209: 8204: 8197: 8193: 8188: 8181: 8177: 8176:Wakeman 1975a 8172: 8165: 8161: 8156: 8148: 8142: 8138: 8137: 8129: 8122: 8121:Crossley 2002 8117: 8110: 8106: 8105:Di Cosmo 2007 8101: 8099: 8091: 8087: 8082: 8080: 8071: 8065: 8061: 8060: 8052: 8050: 8042: 8038: 8033: 8031: 8022: 8018: 8012: 8010: 8002: 7997: 7995: 7986: 7980: 7976: 7975: 7967: 7965: 7956: 7950: 7946: 7945: 7937: 7935: 7926: 7921:, p. 65. 7920: 7919:Fairbank 1978 7915: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7896: 7894: 7886: 7881: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7850: 7848: 7839: 7832: 7825: 7820: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7777: 7769: 7763: 7759: 7755: 7751: 7744: 7742: 7733: 7731:9781496206244 7727: 7723: 7716: 7710: 7706: 7701: 7699: 7691: 7687: 7686:Crossley 2000 7682: 7680: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7650: 7646: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7605: 7596: 7588: 7584: 7583: 7576: 7567: 7560: 7554: 7547: 7541: 7537: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7511: 7508:and parts of 7507: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7484: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7457: 7453: 7442: 7439: 7428: 7421: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7403:) joined the 7402: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7369: 7367: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7341: 7339: 7334: 7330: 7325: 7321: 7317: 7313: 7309: 7305: 7299: 7294: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7255: 7253: 7249: 7248:Yangtze delta 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7179: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7133:Inner Mongols 7130: 7126: 7122: 7113: 7106: 7101: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7086: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7038: 7034: 7024: 7022: 7018: 7012: 7010: 7009: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6955:Kong Shangren 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6895: 6891: 6881: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6747: 6746:Eight Banners 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6702: 6698: 6689: 6687: 6685: 6681: 6680:Eight Banners 6677: 6673: 6669: 6668:Eight Banners 6665: 6661: 6656: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6631: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6616: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6549:Southern Ming 6546: 6542: 6541:Johan Nieuhof 6538: 6533: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6507: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6460:Southern Ming 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6373:Southern Ming 6369: 6365: 6360: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6301:Yangtze River 6298: 6293: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6276:had captured 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6262:Southern Ming 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6224: 6219: 6210: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6151: 6148:and attacked 6147: 6143: 6139: 6134: 6131: 6128:was taken by 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6080:(1636–1661), 6079: 6072: 6067: 6058: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6035: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5980: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5937:Southern Ming 5934: 5930: 5926: 5918: 5914: 5913:Southern Ming 5910: 5905: 5895: 5894:Southern Ming 5885: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5846:Zhu Changying 5843: 5839: 5834: 5832: 5828: 5827:Kumul Khanate 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5803:Suzhou, Gansu 5800: 5796: 5791: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5637:Zhang Tianbao 5634: 5630: 5625: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5603: 5599: 5598:Southern Ming 5594: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5515:(present-day 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5499:armies under 5498: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5432: 5431:Jin Shenghuan 5428: 5424: 5420: 5415: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5388:Southern Ming 5385: 5381: 5376: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5351:'s attack on 5350: 5346: 5342: 5339: 5338:Prince of Gui 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5223:Huang Binqing 5220: 5216: 5211: 5209: 5208:Jin Shenghuan 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5192:Zheng Zhilong 5189: 5185: 5181: 5176: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5161:Zheng Zhilong 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5110: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5098:Zheng Zhilong 5095: 5091: 5087: 5086:Zhu Yuanzhang 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5066:Southern Ming 5062: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5037: 5036:Southern Ming 5034:Situation of 5032: 5025: 5024:Southern Ming 5021: 5017: 5008: 5006: 5002: 4996: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4957:Southern Ming 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4921:Yangtzi River 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4848: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4812: 4802: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4747:Southern Ming 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4545: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4498: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4456: 4451: 4450:Southern Ming 4447: 4443: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4413: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4352: 4351:Southern Ming 4348: 4344: 4343:Hao Xiaozhong 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4311:Jin Shenghuan 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4249:Southern Ming 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4109:Southern Ming 4106: 4102: 4098: 4095:north of the 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3992:Southern Ming 3978: 3976: 3975:Kumul Khanate 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3947:Meng Qiaofang 3944: 3943:Islamic state 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3919: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3904:Meng Qiaofang 3901: 3898:forces under 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3867: 3865: 3860: 3858: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3830: 3828: 3827: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3815: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3659: 3649: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3519: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3483: 3482:Southern Ming 3479: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3444: 3435: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3381:north of the 3380: 3376: 3369: 3365: 3362:that allowed 3361: 3356: 3352: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3309: 3303: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3246: 3243:broke out in 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3098: 3088: 3086: 3085:Eight Banners 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3026:defeated the 3025: 3015: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2915: 2900: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2880:Eight Banners 2876: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2857:Liu Liangchen 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2833:Meng Qiaofang 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2748: 2747:Eight Banners 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2683: 2681: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2657:'s (a son of 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2523: 2518: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2434: 2429:, Ma Guozhu ( 2428: 2422: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2392:Wuqiao mutiny 2388: 2386: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2301:Northern Yuan 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2225: 2224:Taedong River 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2196:Gang Hong-rip 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2093:Eight Banners 2089: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1966: 1961: 1957: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1926: 1920: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1876:broke out in 1875: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1840: 1835: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1804: 1801: 1795: 1791: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1765: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1688:Kenneth Swope 1685: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1276:Southern Ming 1274: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1264: 1263: 1259: 1254: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1232: 1230: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1167: 1166: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1148: 1143: 1134: 1132:She Chongming 1131: 1130: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1089: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1072: 1070: 1068: 1062: 1059: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1025: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1009: 1003: 1000: 998: 995: 993: 990: 989: 987: 984: 979: 975: 973: 968: 964: 955: 953: 951: 945: 942: 940: 937: 934: 929: 926: 924: 921: 920: 918: 916: 909: 906: 904: 901: 898: 893: 890: 887: 882: 879: 876: 871: 868: 865: 860: 857: 855: 852: 849: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 823: 818: 815: 813: 811: 805: 804:Sun Chuanting 802: 800: 798: 792: 789: 787: 785: 779: 776: 774: 772: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 754: 748: 745: 743: 741: 735: 734:Lu Xiangsheng 732: 729: 724: 721: 719: 717: 711: 710:Sun Chengzong 708: 706: 703: 702: 700: 694: 691: 688: 683: 680: 677: 674: 671: 670:Meng Qiaofang 668: 665: 660: 659:Zheng Zhilong 657: 654: 651: 648: 645: 642: 636: 633: 630: 627: 624: 621: 619: 617: 611: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 595: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 523: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 491: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 469: 463: 460: 459: 457: 456: 451: 447: 443: 441: 437: 432: 430: 424: 422: 417: 416:(Li Zicheng) 415: 411: 409: 398: 393: 386: 374: 368: 367:Kumul Khanate 363: 357: 345: 334: 329: 324: 320: 315: 309: 299: 296: 295:Nanning court 293: 290: 287: 284: 281: 278: 277:Nanjing court 275: 274: 273:(1644–1662): 272: 267: 257: 255: 251: 245: 241: 232: 228: 217: 214: 213: 208: 199: 195: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 171: 167: 163: 162: 161: 156: 155: 151: 148: 145: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 115: 112: 111: 107: 104: 103: 99: 95: 90: 85: 80: 77: 69: 59: 53: 51: 46: 41: 37: 32: 31: 19: 17274:Qing dynasty 17269:Ming dynasty 17228:Treaty ports 17190: 17183: 17157:Other topics 16930: 16923: 16901: 16889: 16872: 16867:Peiwen Yunfu 16865: 16843: 16836: 16807: 16556:Beiyang Army 16538:Zongli Yamen 16394:Da-Qing Bank 16211:Red Lanterns 15917: 15864:Qing dynasty 15819: 15813:Other topics 15724:Four Masters 15649: 15642: 15635: 15628: 15621: 15614: 15454:House of Zhu 15407:Shanhai Pass 15387:Great Plague 15366: 15330:Jianzhou war 15104:Ming dynasty 15062:the original 15033: 15030:Modern China 15029: 15013: 15004: 14984: 14963: 14943: 14924: 14904: 14881: 14860: 14838: 14814: 14790: 14766: 14746: 14725: 14700: 14685:Google Books 14663: 14640: 14619: 14598: 14583:. Retrieved 14567: 14557: 14537: 14517:. ABC-CLIO. 14513: 14492: 14471: 14450: 14423: 14392: 14357: 14337: 14303: 14299: 14279: 14266: 14262: 14253: 14249: 14227: 14211: 14182: 14157: 14136: 14125: 14115: 14106: 14096: 14075: 14061: 14040: 14019: 14009: 13989: 13965: 13945: 13921: 13900: 13874: 13870: 13837: 13833: 13813: 13792: 13771: 13749: 13728: 13707: 13686: 13667:Art in China 13666: 13653: 13629: 13609: 13588: 13576:the original 13545: 13541: 13503: 13496: 13480: 13464: 13455: 13446: 13426: 13419: 13403: 13387: 13376:Elliott 2001 13371: 13338: 13335:The Holocene 13334: 13327: 13311: 13295: 13279: 13263: 13247: 13231: 13220:, retrieved 13205: 13198: 13186: 13167: 13161: 13152: 13143: 13123: 13116: 13107: 13097: 13085:. Retrieved 13076: 13060: 13044: 13033:Wakeman 1985 13028: 13015: 13003: 12987: 12971: 12955: 12939: 12923: 12907: 12896:Elliott 2001 12891: 12875: 12859: 12847: 12835: 12819: 12803: 12780: 12775: 12768: 12756: 12744: 12732: 12720:. 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Retrieved 12639:the original 12634: 12621: 12612: 12603: 12594: 12584: 12564: 12557: 12545: 12534:Wakeman 2009 12529: 12513: 12497: 12481: 12474:Wakeman 1985 12469: 12462:Wakeman 1985 12457: 12450:Wakeman 1985 12445: 12429: 12413: 12400: 12394: 12381: 12373: 12364: 12358: 12339: 12333: 12314: 12308: 12296: 12289:Gregory 2015 12284: 12268: 12252: 12245:Wakeman 1985 12240: 12233:Wakeman 1985 12228: 12208: 12201: 12189: 12167:Wakeman 1985 12162: 12155:Wakeman 1985 12150: 12138: 12131:Wakeman 1985 12126: 12114: 12102: 12095:Wakeman 1985 12090: 12078: 12071:Wakeman 1985 12066: 12059:Wakeman 1985 12054: 12030:Wakeman 1985 12025: 11998: 11991:Wakeman 1985 11986: 11979:Wakeman 1985 11974: 11967:Rossabi 1979 11962: 11955:Wakeman 1985 11950: 11943:Wakeman 1985 11938: 11931:Wakeman 1985 11926: 11919:Wakeman 1985 11914: 11907:Wakeman 1985 11902: 11882: 11875: 11855: 11848: 11841:Wakeman 1985 11836: 11829:Wakeman 1985 11809: 11802:Wakeman 1985 11797: 11790:Wakeman 1985 11785: 11778:Wakeman 1985 11773: 11766:Wakeman 1985 11751:Wakeman 1985 11746: 11739:Wakeman 1985 11734: 11727:Wakeman 1985 11722: 11695: 11684:, retrieved 11662: 11652: 11645:Wakeman 1985 11640: 11628: 11616: 11604: 11592: 11580: 11568: 11541: 11529: 11522:Wakeman 1985 11517: 11505: 11493: 11481: 11474:Parsons 1957 11469: 11449: 11442: 11430: 11423:Wakeman 1985 11418: 11406: 11382:Wakeman 1985 11377: 11370:Wakeman 1985 11365: 11358:Wakeman 1985 11353: 11342:Elliott 2001 11337: 11326:Elliott 2001 11321: 11311: 11304: 11287: 11277: 11265: 11253: 11237: 11226:Wakeman 2009 11221: 11209: 11197: 11190:Wakeman 1985 11185: 11178:Wakeman 1985 11173: 11166:Wakeman 1985 11161: 11149: 11137: 11130:Wakeman 1985 11125: 11118:Wakeman 1985 11113: 11097: 11081: 11062: 11052: 11040: 11028: 11021:Wakeman 1985 11001: 10994:Wakeman 1985 10989: 10982:Wakeman 1985 10977: 10966:Wakeman 1985 10961: 10954:Wakeman 1985 10949: 10933: 10926:Wakeman 1985 10921: 10878:Finnane 1993 10854: 10838: 10822: 10787: 10780:Wakeman 1985 10775: 10751:Wakeman 1985 10746: 10734: 10727:Wakeman 1985 10722: 10710: 10703:Wakeman 1985 10698: 10691:Wakeman 1985 10686: 10674: 10667:Rossabi 1979 10650:Wakeman 1985 10645: 10634:Wakeman 1985 10629: 10622:Wakeman 1985 10617: 10610:Wakeman 1985 10605: 10593: 10565: 10558: 10551:Durrant 1979 10546: 10526: 10519: 10503: 10493: 10486: 10474: 10467:Durrant 1977 10462: 10442: 10435: 10419: 10412:Wakeman 1985 10407: 10400:Wakeman 1985 10395: 10388:Wakeman 1985 10383: 10376:Wakeman 1985 10371: 10364:Wakeman 1985 10359: 10352:Wakeman 1985 10347: 10340:Wakeman 1985 10335: 10328:Wakeman 1985 10323: 10307: 10295: 10283: 10272:Wakeman 1985 10253:Wakeman 1985 10248: 10237:Wakeman 1985 10232: 10225:Wakeman 1985 10220: 10213:Wakeman 1985 10208: 10192: 10176: 10156: 10149: 10138:Wakeman 1985 10133: 10126:Wakeman 1985 10121: 10114:Wakeman 1985 10109: 10097: 10090:Wakeman 1985 10085: 10078:Wakeman 1985 10073: 10066:Wakeman 1985 10061: 10054:Wakeman 1985 10049: 10042:Wakeman 1985 10037: 10025: 10013:. 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Retrieved 7658: 7649: 7625: 7604: 7595: 7580: 7575: 7566: 7559:Wakeman 1985 7553: 7545: 7540: 7510:Central Asia 7438:China portal 7370: 7342: 7301: 7271:Shanhai Pass 7259:Ming dynasty 7256: 7180: 7118: 7105:Qing dynasty 7087: 7041: 7040: 7013: 7006: 6979:Huang Zongxi 6951:Bada Shanren 6942: 6927:Ming dynasty 6924: 6919:Ming dynasty 6915:Craig Clunas 6874:Ming dynasty 6850:Trần An Bình 6834:Qing dynasty 6803: 6793: 6789: 6774:memorialized 6763: 6754: 6706: 6688: 6657: 6649:Fan Wencheng 6643: 6632: 6620:Shang Zhixin 6617: 6609:Wang Pingfan 6581:Shang Zhixin 6569:Li Chengdong 6562: 6535:Portrait of 6491: 6437: 6429:Zhu Honghuan 6411: 6407: 6385: 6361: 6345: 6343:missionary. 6294: 6248: 6243:Lang Tingzuo 6228: 6135: 6075: 6036: 5981: 5955: 5948: 5922: 5835: 5814: 5799:Ding Guodong 5792: 5768:Zhao Ronggui 5693: 5626: 5606: 5486: 5435: 5419:Li Chengdong 5416: 5392:Li Chengdong 5377: 5311: 5278: 5273:, under the 5257:governor of 5248: 5212: 5204:Yang Tinglin 5177: 5173:Tong Yangjia 5169:Li Chengdong 5126: 5111: 5072:fell to the 5063: 5040: 5022:conquest of 5004: 4997: 4903: 4891:Liu Jinzhong 4864: 4860:Liu Jinzhong 4849: 4835:(the son of 4814: 4771:Mount Yuntai 4757:official of 4733:area, under 4727:Ruan Dacheng 4701: 4682: 4649:Liu Liangzuo 4634: 4610:Li Chengdong 4546: 4532:and scholar 4526:Yang Yongyan 4499: 4487: 4459: 4439: 4402:Liu Liangzuo 4400:and general 4390:Zhang Tianlu 4374:Huang Degong 4355: 4319:Zuo Menggeng 4284: 4269: 4212:Yangzi River 4185: 4170: 4166:Yellow River 4155: 4130:Ruan Dacheng 4089:Liu Liangzuo 4085:Li Chengdong 4075:conquest of 4049:Prince of Fu 4014: 4000:Portrait of 3935:Ding Guodong 3920: 3873: 3863: 3861: 3856: 3853: 3842: 3831: 3824: 3818: 3813: 3804: 3799: 3784: 3775:Zheng Dengqi 3772: 3752: 3708:Shun dynasty 3661: 3611: 3592: 3520: 3505: 3497:Board of War 3487: 3475: 3466:Qing dynasty 3462:Ming dynasty 3442: 3424: 3415:Fan Wencheng 3404: 3387:Shanhai Pass 3372: 3368:China proper 3360:Shanhai Pass 3337:Shun dynasty 3331:, the Chief 3312: 3304: 3280:Shun dynasty 3249: 3226: 3207:Shanhai Pass 3100: 3060:Amur peoples 3021: 3000:Joseon Korea 2997: 2946: 2917: 2882:that ethnic 2877: 2849:Sun Dingliao 2845:Zhang Cunren 2841:Sun Dingliao 2829:Zhang Cunren 2813:Wang Shixian 2777:Ma Guangyuan 2773: 2751: 2728: 2700: 2663:Geng Juzhong 2645:and married 2632: 2612: 2581: 2540: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2479: 2475: 2457: 2437:), Zu Kefa ( 2427:Fan Wencheng 2416: 2389: 2329: 2305:Yuan dynasty 2282: 2272:Mongols and 2260:allied with 2252: 2228: 2177: 2142: 2124: 2119:Water Margin 2117: 2111: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2090: 2030: 2002: 1963: 1952: 1940:Ming dynasty 1936:Qing dynasty 1922: 1867: 1851:Zongdu Junwu 1850: 1847:Ming dynasty 1845:In the late 1844: 1805: 1797: 1759: 1712: 1686:. Historian 1680: 1652:Shun dynasty 1625: 1611:clan of the 1586: 1577:Shun dynasty 1558:Ming dynasty 1539:Qing dynasty 1532: 1519:Shun dynasty 1515:Ming dynasty 1511:Qing dynasty 1498: 1494: 1490: 1488: 1472:Great Plague 1425:Shanhai Pass 1265:Belligerents 1250: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1169: 1162: 1140: 1115: 1087: 1066: 1023: 1007: 961: 949: 915:Supported by 914: 913: 843:Ou Guangchen 809: 796: 793:(丁國棟) 791:Ding Guodong 783: 770: 752: 739: 715: 676:Zhang Cunren 615: 533:Fan Wencheng 434: 426: 419: 414:Shun dynasty 412: 372: 313: 283:Fuzhou court 266:Ming dynasty 216:Qing dynasty 210:Belligerents 198:China proper 194:Qing dynasty 184:Shun dynasty 166:Ming dynasty 135:Central Asia 76: 63: 47: 45:lead section 17164:Aisin Gioro 17126:Paper money 16885:Qing poetry 16606:Wuwei Corps 16601:Shuishiying 16362:Family tree 15766:Tai history 15449:Family tree 15360:Liaoluo Bay 15294:Renyin plot 15244:Tumu Crisis 15036:(1): 3–30. 14585:29 February 13834:Early China 13729:The Manchus 13485:Rhoads 2000 13469:Rhoads 2000 13410:, pp. 13286:, pp. 13222:3 September 13170:. 光明日报出版社. 13087:3 September 13067:, pp. 13035:, pp. 13008:Struve 1993 12992:Perdue 2009 12976:Cassel 2012 12960:Cassel 2011 12944:Cassel 2012 12928:Cassel 2011 12914:, pp. 12749:Mote (1999) 12737:Clunas 2009 12550:Spence 2002 12520:, pp. 12365:Haiji jiyao 12301:Spence 2002 12143:Spence 2002 12119:Struve 1988 12018:Struve 1988 11715:Struve 1988 11700:Struve 1988 11633:Struve 1988 11621:Struve 1988 11609:Struve 1988 11597:Struve 1988 11561:Struve 1988 11546:Struve 1988 11534:Struve 1988 11272:, p. . 11142:Struve 1988 11104:, pp. 11033:Struve 1988 10968:, pp. 10940:, pp. 10938:Struve 1993 10914:Struve 1988 10897:Struve 1988 10845:, pp. 10813:, pp. 10811:Struve 1993 10792:Struve 1993 10768:Struve 1988 10739:Struve 1988 10715:Struve 1988 10636:, pp. 10598:Hummel 1991 10508:Perdue 2009 10426:, pp. 10274:, pp. 10183:, pp. 10181:Spence 1988 9948:, pp. 9905:, pp. 9889:, pp. 9873:, pp. 9857:, pp. 9831:Struve 1988 9604:Dawson 1972 9576:Hummel 1970 9564:Hummel 1991 9473:Rawski 1998 9459:, pp. 9223:, pp. 9221:Rawski 1998 9018:, pp. 8967:Rawski 1998 8869:Hummel 1991 8841:Hummel 2010 8772:Hummel 1991 8743:Hummel 2010 8444:Hummel 1970 8331:Hummel 2010 8086:Spence 1990 7826:, p. . 7659:nmth.gov.tw 7405:Han Chinese 7345:Han Chinese 7320:Grand Canal 7308:South Zhili 7283:cannibalism 7139:(including 7090:Han Chinese 7075:Han Chinese 7070:Han Chinese 7003:Qian Qianyi 6995:Gong Dingzi 6971:Qing poetry 6967:Ming poetry 6894:Qing poetry 6890:Ming poetry 6778:Mazu temple 6755:tengpaiying 6714:dispatched 6676:Han Chinese 6645:Fan Chengmo 6601:Wang Fuchen 6593:Sun Yanling 6565:Han Chinese 6470:complex at 6427:and Prince 6410:instead of 6321:Grand Canal 6163:Pindale Min 6142:Bai Wenxuan 6098:Pindale Min 6047:janissaries 5977:Ming-Ho War 5975:during the 5866:Sun Shoujin 5856:commander, 5852:and a Ming 5819:Han Chinese 5778:rose up in 5776:Zhang Wugui 5712:Liu Denglou 5696:Jiang Xiang 5643:, south of 5600:, from the 5574:Han Chinese 5478:He Tengjiao 5406:fleeing to 5341:Zhu Youlang 5271:He Tengjiao 5149:Prince Bolo 5026:territories 4989:Zhu Rongfan 4941:Li Zhanchun 4899:cannibalism 4881:missionary 4723:Qian Qianyi 4674:Queue Order 4661:Han Chinese 4622:Wang Guocai 4608:by general 4566:Chen Zilong 4538:Prince Dodo 4534:Zhu Jihuang 4530:Wang Zuocai 4478:Han Chinese 4353:loyalists. 4287:Zuo Liangyu 4177:Han Chinese 4162:Zhu Yousong 4117:Han Chinese 4053:Zhu Yousong 3878:, who were 3728:Shi Tingzhu 3670:despatched 3601:Bannermen, 3599:Han Chinese 3512:Han Chinese 3493:North China 3155:Xia Chengde 3131:Han Chinese 3073:Amur region 2973:Han Chinese 2922:had forced 2888:Han Chinese 2827:, Zu Kefa, 2743:Han Chinese 2703:Li Yongfang 2647:Aisin-Gioro 2566:Li Yongfang 2548:were often 2542:Han Chinese 2487:Aisin-Gioro 2472:Han Chinese 2359:Prince Amin 2347:Han Chinese 2289:Zhangjiakou 2208:Mao Wenlong 2200:Li Yongfang 2073:Aisin Gioro 2057:Li Yongfang 1978:Han Chinese 1944:Yalu Region 1808:Han Chinese 1723:South China 1632:Han Chinese 1547:Aisin Gioro 1123:Bai Wenxuan 1042:Yuan Zongdi 1002:Liu Zongmin 997:Ma Shouying 963:Zhu Hengjia 956:Sultan Khan 923:Ligdan Khan 854:Zuo Liangyu 838:Qin Liangyu 780:(米喇印) 693:Wang Fuchen 598:Li Yongfang 583:Yao Qisheng 578:Li Shuaitai 442:federation 364:(1646–1650) 358:(1618–1635) 346:(1661–1683) 297:(1646–1662) 291:(1646–1647) 285:(1645–1646) 279:(1644–1645) 268:(1618–1644) 157:Territorial 117:Modern-day 17248:Categories 16832:Four Wangs 16723:mausoleums 16676:Golden Urn 16649:Inner Asia 16626:Xiang Army 16596:Hushenying 16521:Liangguang 16501:Liangjiang 16439:Lifan Yuan 16344:Government 15734:Zhe School 15688:Ming tombs 15572:Inner Asia 15544:Shenjiying 15534:Great Wall 15432:Government 13487:, p. 13471:, p. 13394:, p. 13378:, p. 13318:, p. 13316:Brook 1999 13302:, p. 13300:Brook 1999 13270:, p. 13268:Brook 1999 13254:, p. 13252:Brook 1999 13238:, p. 13236:Smith 2015 13193:, table 7. 13191:Allen 2009 13110:: 331–388. 13065:Smith 2015 13051:, p. 13049:Swope 2014 12994:, p. 12978:, p. 12962:, p. 12946:, p. 12930:, p. 12898:, p. 12882:, p. 12866:, p. 12826:, p. 12810:, p. 12808:Hauer 2007 12761:Zhang 2002 12648:5 November 12536:, p. 12504:, p. 12488:, p. 12436:, p. 12420:, p. 12349:0804720665 12275:, p. 12259:, p. 12107:Swope 2018 12083:Swope 2018 12003:Swope 2018 11814:Swope 2018 11510:Swope 2018 11498:Swope 2018 11411:Swope 2018 11344:, p. 11328:, p. 11270:Ebrey 1993 11258:Faure 2007 11244:, p. 11228:, p. 11088:, p. 10880:, p. 10861:, p. 10829:, p. 10794:, p. 10585:1048096749 10510:, p. 10314:, p. 10255:, p. 10239:, p. 10199:, p. 10140:, p. 9887:Swope 2014 9696:, p. 9590:, p. 9523:, p. 9521:Swope 2014 9507:, p. 9491:, p. 9475:, p. 9343:, p. 9327:, p. 9311:, p. 9295:, p. 9255:, p. 9239:, p. 9207:, p. 9191:, p. 9144:(Part 1). 9118:, p. 9099:, p. 9034:, p. 8969:, p. 8953:, p. 8910:, p. 8908:Smith 2015 8689:Swope 2014 8627:, p. 8586:Swope 2014 8569:Swope 2014 8528:, p. 8526:Swope 2014 8485:, p. 8430:, p. 8399:, p. 8245:, p. 8226:, p. 8210:, p. 8194:, p. 8178:, p. 8164:24, note 1 8162:, p. 8107:, p. 8088:, p. 8039:, p. 7902:, p. 7824:Swope 2014 7707:, p. 7688:, p. 7636:References 7622:Zhang 2002 7614:Chang 2001 7417:Ma Anliang 7381:Hui Muslim 7263:Li Zicheng 7183:Li Zicheng 7164:Ayuka Khan 7031:See also: 6983:Fang Yizhi 6870:Minh Huong 6856:to settle 6842:Hoàng Tiến 6814:Ming China 6734:after the 6624:Geng Jimao 6585:Geng Jimao 6537:Shang Kexi 6492:Cuylenburg 6484:Zheng Jing 6425:Zhu Shugui 6420:Zheng Jing 6379:, and the 6229:In 1656 a 6221:Extent of 6138:Li Dingguo 6051:Lu Guangxu 5988:Li Dingguo 5945:Sun Kewang 5929:Xi dynasty 5892:See also: 5823:Jiayu Pass 5797:rebels of 5661:Li Huajing 5629:Yang Sihai 5582:Geng Jimao 5578:Shang Kexi 5541:Shang Kexi 5501:Kong Youde 5390:commander 5328:regime in 5291:Kong Youde 5253:, the old 5078:Zhu Yujian 5047:Tong Guoqi 4973:Li Guoying 4917:Liu Wenxiu 4905:Sun Kewang 4875:Li Guoying 4837:Hong Taiji 4829:Xi dynasty 4809:See also: 4584:forces in 4528:, general 4406:Tian Xiong 4360:fled into 4337:campaign, 4331:Li Guoying 4327:Lu Guangzu 4301:forces in 4291:Ma Shiying 4267:soldiers. 4144:secretary 4134:Ma Shiying 4097:Huai River 4045:Ma Shiying 3892:Li Zicheng 3886:against a 3835:Hong Taiji 3676:Li Zicheng 3658:Li Zicheng 3656:See also: 3626:clearances 3544:Kong Youde 3536:Shang Kexi 3396:Li Zicheng 3383:Great Wall 3345:Great Wall 3276:Li Zicheng 3233:Li Zicheng 3221:See also: 3182:Zhou Yanru 3119:Great Wall 3109:as far as 3056:Hong Taiji 2993:Shang Kexi 2977:Kong Youde 2961:Hong Taiji 2937:Hong Taiji 2837:Kong Youde 2825:Liu Wuyuan 2821:Shang Kexi 2753:Hong Taiji 2715:Shang Kexi 2711:Kong Youde 2659:Hong Taiji 2608:Hong Taiji 2596:Shang Kexi 2592:Geng Jimao 2404:Bohai Gulf 2396:Kong Youde 2331:Hong Taiji 2245:in panic. 2169:Hong Taiji 1890:Li Zicheng 1872:among the 1648:Li Zicheng 1636:Hong Taiji 1581:Li Zicheng 1569:Xi dynasty 1523:Xi dynasty 1182:Hui Muslim 1135:An Bangyan 1105:Liu Wenxiu 1100:Sun Kewang 1095:Li Dingguo 1073:Liu Tichun 1053:Wang Deren 1018:Li Laiheng 992:Li Zicheng 939:Sa'id Baba 833:Li Dingguo 760:Ma Shilong 695:(defected) 682:Sun Kewang 678:(defected) 672:(defected) 655:(defected) 649:(defected) 625:(defected) 623:Shang Kexi 610:Kong Youde 538:Manggūltai 474:Hong Taiji 421:Xi dynasty 180:Xi dynasty 16654:Manchuria 16621:Huai Army 16611:Yong Ying 16496:Shaan-Gan 15952:High Qing 15898:Later Jin 15729:Wu School 15714:Musicians 15577:Manchuria 15565:Frontiers 15058:144587815 14787:(1975a). 14328:162377335 13862:191822020 13840:: 52–54. 13572:153993424 13550:CiteSeerX 13363:129183241 12840:Zhao 2006 11296:1833-8461 11045:Kuhn 1990 10102:Mote 1999 9843:Mote 1999 9077:151328254 7811:153997845 7641:Citations 7610:Fong 2001 7590:top-knot. 7587:Confucius 7546:nan zheng 7233:like the 7231:epidemics 7199:Guangzhou 7159:with the 7107:in 1820 . 7054:Manchuria 7048:name for 7027:Aftermath 6959:Confucius 6935:Confucian 6757:) served 6660:Wu Sangui 6647:, son of 6635:Wu Sangui 6577:Wu Sangui 6545:Guangzhou 6472:Putuoshan 6433:Zhu Yihai 6431:, son of 6333:Manchuria 6183:Wu Sangui 6130:Wu Sangui 6126:Yuanjiang 6055:Bannermen 6012:Guangdong 5965:Mu family 5850:Zhu Youdu 5772:Wu Sangui 5752:Zhu Senfu 5744:Wu Sangui 5565:Guangzhou 5549:Guangdong 5509:Lekedehun 5505:Jirgalang 5450:An Lushan 5446:Wang Mang 5423:Guangdong 5396:Guangzhou 5394:captured 5373:Cantonese 5365:Guangdong 5334:Guangdong 5330:Guangzhou 5318:Zhu Yuyue 5309:in 1649. 5118:Zhu Yihai 4985:Guangdong 4977:Zhangzhou 4949:Yang Zhan 4913:Zeng Ying 4909:Chongqing 4865:En route 4827:'s Great 4743:Tu Guobao 4641:Songjiang 4626:Songjiang 4606:Chushenpu 4578:Wu Zhikui 4570:Ming navy 4502:Wang Zhan 4494:Confucian 4482:Confucian 4216:Zhenjiang 4196:Bannermen 3963:Liangzhou 3912:Fengxiang 3857:kao cheng 3765:province 3744:Tongcheng 3732:Han River 3672:Wu Sangui 3630:Guangdong 3458:Wu Sangui 3375:Wu Sangui 3366:to enter 3349:Wu Sangui 3329:Wei Zaode 3203:Wu Sangui 3195:Zu Dashou 3163:Wu Sangui 3139:Jirgalang 3101:In 1638, 2953:Jirgalang 2933:King Injo 2920:Later Jin 2861:Zu Zehong 2797:Zu Zehong 2785:Zu Dashou 2606:and Khan 2600:Wu Sangui 2371:Confucian 2307:as well. 2235:King Injo 2220:Pyongyang 2212:Bohai Sea 2184:Jirgalang 2145:Later Jin 1994:Hun River 1972:gave the 1874:Yi people 1859:vassalage 1731:Wu Sangui 1704:Philip IV 1668:Wu Sangui 1617:Ming rule 1589:Later Jin 1503:dynasties 1497:) or the 1374:Guangning 1369:Zhenjiang 1364:Shen-Liao 1293:Later Jin 1200:fighters 1165:Bannermen 1110:Ai Nengqi 1031:Hao Yaoqi 635:Wu Sangui 629:Zu Dashou 516:Jirgalang 360:Chagatai 333:Tiandihui 66:June 2024 50:summarize 17106:Hongqian 17075:Currency 16945:Treaties 16851:Kaozheng 16798:Booi Aha 16740:Hetu Ala 16693:Timeline 16688:Xinjiang 16659:Mongolia 16616:Chu Army 16591:New Army 16548:Military 16486:Viceroys 15780:Currency 15719:Painting 15529:Military 15522:Military 15050:20062627 14882:Volume 2 14861:Volume 1 14836:(1985). 14698:(eds.). 14662:(1990). 14576:Archived 14277:(1999). 14181:(1990). 13854:23351361 13664:(2009), 12722:26 April 12405:Springer 11486:Dai 2009 11435:Dai 2009 11399:Dai 2009 9804:Dai 2009 7506:Xinjiang 7424:See also 7361:Liaodong 7333:Hangzhou 7316:Zhejiang 7312:Jiangnan 7269:entered 7265:and the 7195:Yangzhou 7172:Russians 7168:Torghuts 7141:Tibetans 7062:Mongolia 7058:Xinjiang 6999:Wu Weiye 6975:Gu Yanwu 6878:Biên Hòa 6770:Shi Lang 6716:Shi Lang 6701:Shi Lang 6653:Liaodong 6559:in 1673. 6500:Nagasaki 6468:Buddhist 6464:Shi Lang 6390:fled to 6364:Shi Lang 6286:Zhejiang 6270:Chaozhou 6231:Lake Mao 6020:Changsha 5969:Mu Sheng 5950:de facto 5858:Shibulai 5829:and the 5649:Shandong 5613:Shandong 5555:fled to 5525:Xiangtan 5482:Xiangtan 5474:Changsha 5470:Jiangnan 5378:The two 5361:Zhaoqing 5307:Xiangtan 5231:Jiangnan 5227:Zhoushan 5219:Shacheng 5184:Tingzhou 5153:Zhejiang 5122:Zhejiang 5084:founder 5070:Hangzhou 5055:Liaodong 5043:Zhejiang 4945:Yu Dahai 4795:Yangzhou 4787:Ruichang 4779:Xinchang 4767:Tangshan 4751:Zhejiang 4739:Zhou Rui 4731:Lake Tai 4693:Jiangnan 4657:Jiangyin 4645:Jiangyin 4614:Lake Tai 4602:Lake Mao 4594:Zhejiang 4586:Zhejiang 4553:Lake Tai 4542:Jiangyin 4462:Jiangnan 4442:Jiangnan 4410:Ma Deong 4370:Tongling 4307:Liaodong 4303:Jiujiang 4272:Yangzhou 4247:and the 4241:Hangzhou 4233:Jiangnan 4200:Shi Kefa 4188:Yangzhou 4173:Jiangnan 4138:Wang Duo 4105:Yangzhou 4101:Shi Kefa 4077:Jiangnan 4069:era name 4041:Fengyang 4039:and the 4037:Shi Kefa 4010:Yangzhou 4002:Shi Kefa 3955:Yanchang 3916:Ren Zhen 3876:Monguors 3753:Between 3746:and the 3716:Shandong 3532:Liaodong 3510:ordered 3501:Liaodong 3446:— 3379:Ningyuan 3270:capital 3250:Just as 3159:Ningyuan 3151:Songshan 3087:system. 3050:and the 3036:Bombogor 3012:Lianshan 2873:Zu Zerun 2805:Zu Zerun 2789:Quan Jie 2781:Wu Rujie 2769:Liaodong 2733:to rule 2697:firearms 2574:Liaoning 2564:general 2478:and the 2460:Jurchens 2408:Jurchens 2379:between 2376:Dalinghe 2367:Yongping 2266:Jurchens 2264:and the 2255:Khorchin 2239:Hanseong 2053:Jurchens 2045:Liaoyang 2041:Shenyang 2033:Liaodong 2022:Gintaisi 2013:Bujantai 1998:Shenyang 1986:Hetu Ala 1925:Jianzhou 1886:Fengyang 1855:Liaodong 1812:Liaodong 1782:Jurchens 1762:Liaodong 1755:Shi Lang 1621:Liaoning 1613:Jurchens 1562:Zhu clan 1529:Overview 1415:Song-Jin 1395:Dalinghe 1385:Ning-Jin 1380:Ningyuan 1281:Tungning 1196:300,000 1157:Strength 1142:Bombogor 944:Turumtay 928:Gintaisi 817:Shi Kefa 653:Shi Lang 330:Jurchens 196:rule in 127:Mongolia 113:Location 17091:Zhiqian 17083:Coinage 16820:Economy 16791:culture 16526:Yun-Gui 16516:Min-Zhe 16511:Sichuan 16506:Huguang 16352:Emperor 15873:History 15787:Coinage 15761:Economy 15589:Vietnam 15481:Princes 15439:Emperor 15227:Middle 15113:History 14422:(ed.). 14391:(ed.). 14320:2941233 14210:(ed.). 14109:. 經文書局. 13343:Bibcode 12824:Wu 1995 12194:Ho 2011 10970:572–573 10300:Ho 2011 10288:Ho 2011 10015:11 July 9461:194–196 8319:Li 2002 7870:1 April 7791:Bibcode 7618:Yu 2002 7579:In the 7389:Shaanxi 7324:Yangtze 7304:Jiangxi 7291:Huangpi 7279:Huguang 7252:Britain 7219:Shaanxi 7211:Sichuan 7207:Nanjing 7203:Beijing 7176:Manchus 7153:Tulisen 7044:is the 6939:loyalty 6838:Da Nang 6826:Guangxi 6822:Qinzhou 6818:Koxinga 6810:Vietnam 6794:tianfei 6790:Tianhou 6613:Sichuan 6605:Shaanxi 6597:Guangxi 6504:Batavia 6482:'s son 6480:Koxinga 6474:on the 6398:in the 6388:Koxinga 6377:Koxinga 6368:Koxinga 6329:Manchus 6325:Beijing 6315:at the 6309:Nanjing 6305:Nanjing 6297:Shunzhi 6290:Yangtze 6282:Taizhou 6264:. From 6239:Koxinga 6223:Koxinga 6203:Vietnam 6195:Manchus 6167:Pye Min 6146:Burmese 6106:Burmese 6100:of the 6039:Manchus 6028:Guizhou 6008:Huguang 6004:Guangxi 5992:Sichuan 5973:Vietnam 5941:Guangxi 5933:Guizhou 5870:Xing'an 5862:Sichuan 5838:Shaanxi 5790:scout. 5764:Sichuan 5762:, near 5760:Shaanxi 5756:Jiezhou 5732:Zhamasu 5730:leader 5685:Fengqiu 5681:Lanyang 5665:Caozhou 5645:Tianjin 5641:Qingyun 5609:Zouping 5561:Guizhou 5557:Nanning 5529:Jiangxi 5513:Huguang 5466:Xu Yong 5462:Kaifeng 5458:Nanjing 5454:Wuchang 5427:Jiangxi 5412:Guangxi 5408:Nanning 5369:Guangxi 5303:Guizhou 5259:Huguang 5251:Nanjing 5196:Koxinga 5180:Ganzhou 5145:Ganzhou 5141:Jiangxi 5102:Koxinga 4993:Kuizhou 4969:Baoning 4961:Jiading 4925:Guizhou 4895:Chengdu 4887:Xichong 4856:Sichuan 4845:Chengdu 4841:Shaanxi 4821:Sichuan 4799:Nanjing 4791:Huai'an 4775:Haizhou 4759:Jiashan 4707:Yangtzi 4705:in the 4678:Jiading 4666:Jiading 4637:Jiading 4522:Kunshan 4518:Jiaxing 4514:Chen Wu 4510:Xiushui 4506:Taicang 4474:Manchus 4434:Manchus 4394:Guazhou 4378:Nanjing 4364:on the 4339:Xu Yong 4335:Sichuan 4315:Jiangxi 4295:Nanjing 4276:Nanjing 4261:Nanjing 4257:Nieuhof 4229:Beijing 4220:Nanjing 4192:Manchus 4150:Nanjing 4113:Nanjing 4065:emperor 4061:crowned 4033:Nanjing 4029:Nanjing 4021:Beijing 3959:Ganzhou 3951:Shaanxi 3939:Lanzhou 3931:Ganzhou 3927:Milayin 3888:Tibetan 3811:), and 3787:Nurhaci 3761:and in 3755:Beijing 3736:Wuchang 3704:Shaanxi 3692:Gu Pass 3664:Beijing 3618:Nanjing 3614:Koxinga 3552:Mongols 3548:Manchus 3524:Shunzhi 3516:Beijing 3432:Emperor 3391:Beijing 3364:Manchus 3341:Beijing 3317:to the 3288:Taiyuan 3272:Beijing 3245:Sichuan 3237:Shaanxi 3211:Beijing 3191:Jinzhou 3137:prince 3127:Jinzhou 3071:of the 3052:Manchus 3048:Nurhaci 3040:Banners 2981:Ganghwa 2941:Koreans 2897:Nurhaci 2884:Manchus 2869:Zu Kufa 2865:Zu Zepu 2801:Zu Zepu 2761:Banners 2745:to the 2739:Mongols 2731:Manchus 2671:Manchus 2667:Mongols 2619:Banners 2615:Shunzhi 2554:Nurhaci 2546:Manchus 2531:Mingshi 2495:Koreans 2464:Manchus 2385:Beijing 2363:Qian'an 2351:Manchus 2335:Nurhaci 2270:Khalkha 2262:Nurhaci 2258:Mongols 2231:Hwangju 2161:Jurchen 2153:Nurhaci 2095:, many 2078:Beijing 2026:Pacific 2009:Jurchen 1974:Jurchen 1932:Nurhaci 1930:chief, 1928:Jurchen 1898:Kaifeng 1882:Shaanxi 1878:Sichuan 1863:Jurchen 1839:Nurhaci 1817:Nurhaci 1800:Manchus 1729:led by 1660:Zuihuai 1644:Beijing 1640:emperor 1593:Nurhaci 1579:led by 1571:led by 1436:Related 1420:Beijing 1354:Xicheng 1349:Tieling 1344:Kaiyuan 1323:Battles 1116:† 1088:† 1067:† 1024:† 1008:† 950:† 828:Koxinga 810:† 797:† 784:† 778:Milayin 771:† 753:† 747:Man Gui 740:† 716:† 616:† 568:Suksaha 518: ( 486: ( 464: ( 462:Nurhaci 387:(Japan) 308:Koxinga 231:Manchus 159:changes 152:victory 16705:Taiwan 15881:Early 15866:topics 15709:Poetry 15599:Yunnan 15121:Early 15106:topics 15056: 15048: 14992: 14971: 14950: 14931: 14912: 14889: 14868: 14846: 14821: 14799: 14773: 14754: 14733: 14712: 14672: 14648: 14627: 14606: 14544: 14521: 14500: 14479: 14458: 14434: 14403: 14372: 14345: 14326: 14318: 14287: 14235: 14189: 14165: 14144: 14083: 14048: 14027: 13997: 13972: 13953: 13929: 13908: 13891:601450 13889: 13860: 13852: 13821: 13800: 13779: 13757: 13736: 13715: 13694: 13674: 13636: 13617: 13596: 13570: 13552: 13511: 13434: 13361: 13213: 13174: 13131: 12791: 12713: 12672:vol. 6 12572: 12346: 12321: 12216: 11890: 11863: 11686:26 May 11677: 11457: 11294: 11108:, 650. 11069: 10849:–642]. 10583: 10573: 10534: 10450: 10430:–xlix. 10278:–1048. 10164: 9929: 9779: 9547: 9367: 9152: 9075: 8934: 8891: 8794: 8608: 8552: 8509: 8466: 8380: 8353: 8143: 8066: 7981: 7951: 7809: 7764: 7728: 7668:9 July 7626:passim 7620:, and 7409:Manchu 7379:. The 7353:Fushun 7349:Manchu 7329:Fujian 7275:Huzhou 7229:, and 7137:Oirats 7125:Oirats 7094:slaves 7083:Mongol 7081:, and 7079:Manchu 7046:Manchu 7021:Manchu 6981:, and 6903:Shitao 6866:Khmers 6862:Nam Ky 6858:Mỹ Tho 6724:Taiwan 6672:Manchu 6583:, and 6573:Taiwan 6456:Kinmen 6452:Xiamen 6448:Taiwan 6444:Fujian 6392:Taiwan 6357:Taiwan 6353:Xiamen 6349:Fujian 6341:French 6266:Xiamen 6258:Yongli 6235:Yongli 6199:Dorgon 6191:Yunnan 6086:Yunnan 6032:Yunnan 6000:Guilin 5984:Dorgon 5957:Yunnan 5882:Ziyang 5874:Tan Qi 5854:Mongol 5811:Muslim 5795:Muslim 5788:Manchu 5780:Shanxi 5748:Puzhou 5728:Mongol 5724:Yan'an 5718:, and 5708:Dorgon 5704:Shanxi 5700:Datong 5689:Gao Di 5675:, and 5655:, and 5537:Holhoi 5533:Tantai 5497:Mongol 5493:Manchu 5345:Yongli 5322:Fuzhou 5279:(zhen) 5275:Longwu 5239:Xiamen 5200:Taiwan 5188:Fuzhou 5157:Fujian 5094:Fuzhou 5051:Fujian 4939:under 4879:Jesuit 4817:Dorgon 4783:Rui'an 4763:Liyang 4711:Anqing 4685:Fuzhou 4653:Manchu 4630:Fuzhou 4618:Suzhou 4598:Fujian 4576:under 4564:under 4557:ad hoc 4490:Dorgon 4466:Dorgon 4430:Dorgon 4392:, the 4366:Yangzi 4323:Datong 4237:Suzhou 4181:Manchu 4093:Xuzhou 3971:Suzhou 3923:Muslim 3849:Erdeni 3839:Mukden 3814:Sanlüe 3805:Su Shu 3800:Liutao 3791:Manchu 3763:Shanxi 3759:Datong 3726:, and 3696:Shanxi 3668:Dorgon 3646:Fuzhou 3642:Taiwan 3638:Fujian 3634:Fujian 3622:Fujian 3607:Manchu 3603:Mongol 3571:Dorgon 3542:, and 3528:Kangxi 3508:Dorgon 3400:Dorgon 3315:Du Xun 3292:Shanxi 3260:Manchu 3252:Dorgon 3199:Liaoxi 3186:Dorgon 3167:Abatai 3143:Korean 3135:Manchu 3121:. The 3081:Nanais 3077:Evenks 3044:Nanais 3042:. The 3004:Dorgon 2971:, and 2969:Mongol 2965:Manchu 2955:, and 2949:Abatai 2924:Joseon 2892:Mongol 2853:Liu Wu 2675:Dorgon 2651:Abatai 2628:Dorgon 2598:, and 2588:Kangxi 2570:Fushun 2558:Abatai 2499:Joseon 2484:Manchu 2381:Mukden 2320:Jesuit 2293:Ligdan 2285:Dorgon 2274:Chahar 2190:, and 2173:Joseon 2097:Manchu 2082:Lüshun 2061:Fushun 2049:Mongol 2043:, and 2037:Fushun 1747:Taiwan 1706:, the 1702:under 1676:Dorgon 1543:Manchu 1430:Penghu 1405:Lüshun 1400:Wuqiao 1359:Chahar 1334:Qinghe 1329:Fushun 1152:Sosoku 1144: 1112: 1084: 1055: 1044: 1033: 1020: 1014:Li Guo 1004: 969: 946: 930: 894: 845: 819: 806: 767: 749: 736: 725: 712: 573:Laimbu 563:Ebilun 543:Abatai 496:Dorgon 479:Daišan 323:Joseon 244:Joseon 186:, and 146:Result 131:Russia 16897:Queue 16815:Dibao 16671:Tibet 16491:Zhili 16374:Amban 15771:Islam 15594:Wokou 15582:Tibet 15513:Fotou 15382:Sarhū 15318:Late 15065:(PDF) 15054:S2CID 15046:JSTOR 15026:(PDF) 14579:(PDF) 14572:(PDF) 14418:. 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