676:). Livy already points out that Carthage did house a body of at least 40,000 professional soldiers until sometime after the Second Punic War. Other sources can be interpreted to refer to a high degree of military professionalism in the small Punic population whose constitution Aristotle groups along with those of Sparta and Crete. So there is an ongoing debate among historians about the extent of Carthage's military spirit. It should be pointed out that the sources on the Punic forces are rare and not easily accessible because they are almost exclusively written by their opponents in war. An inscription discovered in Carthage seems to confirm the doubts raised by the lack of sources concerning members of the nobility in the trading business. The translation (which is, like all translations from the Punic, disputed in details) only mentions in the existing parts merchants among the people with little money, while owners of producing facilities are mentioned among those with more money.
806:
common among marines at that age and according to
Plutarch also successfully employed by the Romans. The claim of sarissa armed Carthaginian infantry is naturally disputed by experts capable of reading the Greek original, and Polybius himself is not clear, when he mentions Hannibal next to Pyrrhus in his famed comparison between the Roman manipular system and the Macedonian system. It is not clear what the Macedonian system constitutes, pike blocks or combined arms tactics, although the variant of the Hellenistic empires was heavily reliant on their exclusive ethnic group forming the pike blocks, with others serving as numerous less relevant skirmishers. At that time, most Greek states fought with
473:. Xanthippus split his cavalry between his two wings, with mercenary infantry screening the cavalry, and a hastily raised citizen phalanx in the center screened by a line of elephants in front of the spearmen. Previously, Carthaginian generals had placed the elephants behind the central phalanx. Xanthippus also realized the mistakes that the Carthaginians were making by avoiding open ground battles against the Romans, instead seeking only uneven terrain. This was done out of fear of the Romans' superior infantry. Such a strategy, however, restricted Carthage's strongest elements: its cavalry and elephants. Uneven terrain also disrupts the phalanx in favor of the more flexible
527:
618:
244:
797:
Iberian light infantry. The
Iberian infantry wore purple bordered white tunics and leather headgear. The Iberian heavy infantry fought in a dense phalanx, armed with broad headed spears called lonche that could be thrown, long body shields and short slashing swords called "falcata". Campanian, Sardinian and Gallic infantry fought in their native gear, but were often equipped by Carthage. Polybius does not suggest that Hannibal's heavy Libyan infantry was equipped with the sarissa (pike), but a number of translations turned the Greek
853:) used by the Seleucids. In battle, the elephants functioned as a psychological weapon, frightening the opposing men and horses into flight or creating gaps in the enemy line that could be exploited by Carthaginian cavalry and infantry. Modern scholars have disputed whether or not Carthaginian elephants were furnished with turrets in combat; despite frequent assertions to the contrary, the evidence indicates that African forest elephants could and did carry turrets in certain military contexts.
818:
armed with bundles of javelins, a small round shield and riding without bridle or saddle. Iberians and Gauls also provided cavalry that relied on the all out charge. The
Libyans provided the bulk of the heavy, four horse war chariots for Carthage, used before the Second Punic War. Allied cities of the Punic hegemony also contributed contingents for the army. The Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains.
633:
285:
Carthaginian army. As often the wealthiest polity in the region, Carthage could and regularly did employ large numbers of mercenaries in the true sense of the term. However, many of their
African and Iberian recruits were not true mercenaries as these peoples often came from states or territories subject to or allied with Carthage, who were bound by treaty to supply Carthage's army with soldiers furnished from their own ranks. For example, the
745:, had provided them with his own person and 500 other nobles as hostages to reassure them of Carthage's sincere and honest intentions. The mercenaries and supporting native insurgents began attacking Carthaginian targets and urging the Libyan natives to rise. According to our sources, the war was conducted in a particularly brutal fashion and ended, after three years, with the total destruction of the mercenary and insurgent forces.
707:
626:
785:, a catch all Hellenic term meaning general or commander; accordingly the term may also refer to a Carthaginian military governor and or an official authorized to sign treaties. In areas of conflict, we often find dual command and not all Carthaginian strategoi seem to be concerned with governing provinces. According to Roman sources, the Carthaginian office of Boetharch may have been linked closely with military command.
789:
nobles could afford, and were legally allowed, to sustain their own armies. This practice was established by
Hamilcar Barca following the Mercenary War. The change in practice ensured that specific wealthy Carthaginians were now responsible for paying mercenaries, not the state. Furthermore, we tend to find evidence that many individuals from the leading families of Carthage served in the military forces.
862:
1528:
741:
paid last while their comrades had been shipped home. Fear had spread that this might be a
Carthaginian trap to exterminate them without payment and save their silver, after having crippled their army of the specialized supportive arms units. The conditions for the payment were rejected, although their former commander,
796:
The
Libyans supplied both heavy and light infantry and formed the most disciplined units of the army. The heavy infantry fought in close formation, armed with long spears and round shields, wearing helmets and linen cuirasses. The light Libyan infantry carried javelins and a small shield, the same as
585:
The presence of
Carthaginian citizens fighting as infantry in the army is unusual as Carthaginian citizens usually served only as officers or cavalry, while the bulk of Carthage's infantry units were generally made up of mercenaries, auxiliaries from allied communities (who might be Punic colonists),
438:, enabling him to land a Roman army in Africa. Prior to this point in the war, most ground fighting had been on Sicily, now the Roman armies threatened Carthage itself. After landing, Regulus' army immediately began scorched earth campaign, pillaging the Punic countryside and following a brief siege,
363:
of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, in which large numbers of
Carthaginian citizens had been killed, the Carthaginian Senate set about enlisting mercenary forces in order to replenish the ranks of the Carthaginian army, an extraordinary technique that Carthage had employed since the late 6th century BC.
342:
During the 4th century BC, the maximum number of standing troops
Carthage expected at its service can be estimated from the capacity of the barracks located in the three rings of walls that protected the city, offering accommodation to 24,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 300 elephants. In addition to
289:
was predominantly provided by their Numidian allies, a people famous for their elite light cavalry units. In the aftermath of the First Punic War, Carthage was on the brink of bankruptcy and found itself unable to pay what they owed the true mercenaries who had served them in the war. This led to the
284:
Ancient authors, such as Polybius and Livy, tend to stress Carthage's reliance on mercenary units. Notably, Polybius also states that the Carthaginians "wholly neglect their infantry" because of their reliance on mercenary units. The term "mercenary", however, is misleading when applied to the entire
792:
Notably the hired units were deployed with their own command structure. As Carthage sent out specific recruiters who bargained contracts with each soldier/corps of soldiers, it is possible that these also served as officers responsible for the integration of their units into the army. Polybius noted
512:
Carthage at this time was feeling the strain of the prolonged conflict. In addition to maintaining a fleet and soldiers in Sicily, it was also fighting the Libyans and Numidians in Africa. As a result, Hamilcar was given a fairly small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn so that,
1306:
The former (the Romans - editor's note) bestow their whole attention upon this department (upon military service on land - editor's note): whereas the Carthaginians wholly neglect their infantry, though they do take some slight interest in the cavalry. The reason of this is that they employ foreign
788:
While both states were fundamentally governed by an elected body of noble citizens or "Senate"; one major systemic difference between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian oligarchy was that their chief executives did not by virtue of office hold any direct authority over the military. Carthage's
728:
Units were generally segregated by ethnicity, which was also a criterion for the respective specialisation. While within a unit communication in the native tongue was possible, between units Greek and Punic helped to establish communication. According to Polybius, this enabled the insurgents during
817:
The Libyans, Carthaginian citizens and the Libyo-Phoenicians provided disciplined, well trained cavalry equipped with thrusting spears and aspis shields that were later replaced by a flat oval shield called the thyreos. Numidia provided superb light cavalry, highly skilled in skirmishing tactics,
780:
Very few Punic records survived the Roman Era and scholars have limited knowledge of the Punic language. As a result, it is unclear exactly what specific title the Carthaginians bestowed on their military commanders as the few accurate Roman and Greek sources we do have often confuse Carthaginian
740:
against Rome, payment of the mercenaries was delayed for over a year. When finally arrangements for payment were made, the mistrust between the mercenaries and their employer helped to kindle the war. The native North African Libyans, the largest contingent of the 'mercenaries', objected to being
647:
It has traditionally been argued that Carthage was a peaceful city of merchants or a brutal colonial power and both theories were rather dependent on modern perceptions. Almost all approaches towards Carthage have in common the fact that they do not look at Carthaginian policy-making as such, but
909:
army. The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors. This helped to contribute to the city's political stability, since the unemployed, debt-ridden poor in other cities were frequently inclined to support revolutionary leaders in the hope of improving their own lot.
805:
was originally a throwing weapon). There is a mention of a 5,000 men contingent on Zama fighting in Macedonian fashion, sent by the Macedonian king. It is not clear what that exactly means. It could be a Macedonian-style phalanx or some troops using long two handed naval lances, a practice quite
508:
in 249 BC, Rome controlled most of Sicily. Until this point, Carthage had been led by the landed aristocracy and they preferred to expand into Africa instead of pursuing an aggressive policy against Rome in Sicily. Hanno "The Great" had been in charge of operations in Africa since 248 BC and had
251:
The most distinct feature of the Carthaginian army was its composition. Contrary to most other states in the Mediterranean at the time, the army was composed almost exclusively of foreign mercenary units while its navy was manned by citizens. Carthage lacked a history of citizen infantry forces,
276:
origins, however, granted Carthage a long history as a seafaring people. Additionally, while the navy was a permanently manned force, the army would be enlisted only for a particular campaign and then demobilized. Only when the city of Carthage itself was threatened would citizens be
1307:
mercenaries, the Romans native and citizen levies. It is in this point that the latter polity is preferable to the former. They have their hopes of freedom ever resting on the courage of mercenary troops: the Romans on the valour of their own citizens and the aid of their allies.
452:
Following these events, Carthage sued for peace, but the terms demanded by Regulus were too harsh, and the war continued. The Carthaginians began to quickly expand their military capabilities on land, conscripting their own citizens and recruiting more mercenaries, including
537:
Though native Carthaginian hoplite infantry could be fielded and was, it had been largely replaced by allied and mercenary infantry by the time of the First Punic War. Carthaginian infantry was made up of Libyans armed with one or two short spears that could be thrown,
793:
for the mercenary war that the mercenaries were told to ask their commanding officers for payment, which frustrated them to such an extent that they elected new ones. In the army, payment was done per unit with subordinates responsible for the further distribution.
294:
with Carthageâs domestic forces and some of her remaining allies, forced to put down a rebellion by the unpaid mercenaries. Afterwards, Carthage continued to fill its ranks with foreign conscripts, but never depended on hired mercenaries in the same way again.
725:. However, the term 'mercenary' is misleading when applied to the North African and Iberian recruits, i.e. from areas controlled by Carthage. They were comparable to Roman Auxilia though Carthage did also employ mercenaries in the true sense as well.
218:
in 146 BC, by which time the Carthaginian military was only a shadow of its former self. Carthage came close to victory on several occasions during the earlier Punic Wars, however, with its military achieving notable success under the command of
558:
being a round buckler. They also wielded all iron soliferra javelins and falcata swords. Gallic and Ligurian footmen were armed with similar tall shields, chain mail, and bronze helmets, but carried heavier spears and longer, straighter swords.
1059:
Emery, Kevin Patrick, "Carthaginian Mercenaries: Soldiers of Fortune, Allied Conscripts, and Multi-Ethnic Armies in Antiquity" (2016) digitalcommons.wofford.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=studentpubs. Pages
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over large territories, which were also deeply influenced by the Punic culture. It played a very important role in the urbanization of Northern Africa, where the Punic language was to persist until the 5th century AD.
691:
by our Greek sources, are regarded as the elite troops of their time. These consisted of infantry troops and cavalry units. The latter were formed by young nobles of the city devoting their life to military training.
876:
wrote in the sixth book of his History that the Carthaginians were, "more exercised in maritime affairs than any other people". The Romans, unable to defeat them through conventional maritime tactics, developed the
821:
Carthaginian forces also employed war-elephants, both within Africa and during overseas operations, including campaigns in Iberia and most famously Hannibal's invasion of Italy. These beasts were the now-extinct
577:
was an elite unit of the Carthaginian army. Since its formation in the 4th century BC, the unit consisted exclusively of the sons of the noble Carthaginian citizens. The unit usually did not fight outside of
550:
in the east. The shield change probably came as a result of prolonged experience with the more flexible Gallic, Ligurian, Italian, and Iberian mercenaries who had been using such shields for centuries prior.
197:
formation. Though they ultimately prevailed over the Greeks in Sicily, shortly thereafter the Carthaginian war machine was confronted with the single greatest military challenge it would ever face from the
643:"The central problem concerning Carthaginian political institutions is their relation to military aspects." ("Das zentrale Problem des karthagischen Staatslebens ist sein VerhÀltnis zum MilitÀrwesen.")
687:
and the Carthaginian presented there is a rather humble merchant. An important part of the Punic culture seems to have consisted in their devotion to the gods, and their well-known units, called
677:
772:, Lybo-Phoenicians (also called Africans), and Punics from Carthage and its allied or external settlements. Sources often broadly label recruits from the latter three groups as "Africans."
582:. As a unit of heavy spearmen, the unit was placed in the center of the army formation immediately behind the row of elephants and protected by auxiliary wings of mercenaries and cavalry.
477:. By seeking battles on open plains, Xanthippus was able to make the fullest use of Carthage's strengths, where Roman formations broke under attack from the elephant and cavalry charges.
399:. were extensively recruited by Carthage. Troops were recruited both by simple monetary contracts and through partnerships established through treaties with other states and tribes.
1106:
James Hampton, ed. (1823). "The General History of Polybius - Chapter III". The General History of Polybius. I (5th ed.). London: W. Baxter. p. 35. Retrieved December 14, 2008.
131:. This expansion transformed the military from a body of citizen-soldiers into a multinational force composed of a combination of allies, citizens and foreign mercenary units.
589:
With their elite status, members of the Sacred Band received the best equipment in the Carthaginian army. Their weapons and training were similar to those of the Greek
1137:
Rankov, Boris (2011). "A War of Phases: Strategies and Stalemates". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). A Companion to the Punic Wars. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 151.
885:, a spiked boarding bridge that could be impaled onto an enemy ship so that the Romans could send over marines to capture or sink the Carthaginian vessels.
115:. Although Carthage's navy was always its main military force, the army acquired a key role in the spread of Carthaginian power over the native peoples of
1723:
Warfare in The Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome
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701:
1301:
554:
Iberian warriors serving Carthage were split into scutari heavy infantry and caetrati light infantry, named so after their shields, the
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shield that was later replaced by a flat, oval shield gripped in the center. It was called a scutum in the western Mediterranean and a
1030:
189:. These encounters influenced the development of the Carthaginians' weapons and tactics, causing Carthage to adopt the Greek-style
901:
were recruited from the lower classes of Carthage itself, meaning that the navy was manned in the majority by actual Carthaginian
1005:
Lanning, Michael Lee, âThe Military 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Leaders of All Timeâ. Citadel Press (October 1, 2002).
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Punic Wars respectively. Hannibal Barca specifically, is widely regarded as one of the greatest military geniuses of all time.
1142:
481:
654:
Carthage was, over the course of several centuries, the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean and could establish its
178:
until the third century BC. Thereafter, professional military generals were appointed directly by the Carthaginian Senate.
347:
mentions that in total 40,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, and 2,000 heavy chariots were recruited to oppose the invasion of
215:
733:, which is also the only recorded large mutiny of Carthage's troops, to communicate with each other on higher levels.
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1675:
1661:
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1,444f. on Carthage: for this reason shall the people be glorious in war and acquire food easily for centuries (
480:
Under the leadership of Xanthippus, the reformed Carthaginian army completely destroyed the Roman army at the
1750:
748:
It would be difficult to say precisely what a typical make-up of a Carthaginian army would be, but in the
312:
became king of Carthage and sought to establish Carthage as the dominant military power in the western
484:
in 255 BC, capturing Regulus in the process and ending the Roman threat in Africa for the time being.
375:
Punic recruiters toured all corners of the Mediterranean, attracting mercenaries and fugitive slaves.
1617:
Charles, M.B. and Rhodan, P. "Magister Elephantorum: A Reappraisal of Hannibalâs Use of Elephants",
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199:
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from the 6th century BC and the 3rd century BC. Carthage's military also allowed it to expand into
526:
461:, who was charged with retraining and restructuring the Carthaginian army. Xanthippus adopted the
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their own conscripted forces, large contingents of mercenaries and auxiliaries would be employed.
834:
568:
466:
823:
458:
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348:
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339:
Mago also set about a series of military reforms designed to strengthen Carthaginian power.
1571:
1496:
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665:
470:
243:
8:
954:
681:
Similar doubts were raised earlier because our only source on a Punic trader is the play
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112:
445:. Regulus then inflicted a crushing defeat on a hastily raised Carthaginian army at the
1372:
Wise, T. Armies of the Carthaginian Wars 265-146 BC. Osprey Publishing, 1982. pp 36-38.
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The idea that mercantile business and warlike spirit are contradictory dates to the
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919:
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against the Greek city-states in southern Italy, an alliance that would last until
286:
232:
128:
64:
977:(114 BC â 104 BC) Punics and bearers of Punic names were among the Roman enemies.
500:
to assume command of Carthage's land and naval forces in the struggle against the
1721:
966:
942:
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by the Romans and it required wealth and manpower to field a pike-armed phalanx.
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493:
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742:
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220:
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and is generally not shared by ancient sources, such as Virgil, who writes in
1744:
948:
730:
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rather its structure in a fundamental contrast to that of Rome. However, the
462:
360:
321:
313:
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159:
155:
135:
1231:
Die Gestaltung des römischen und karthagischen Staates bis zum Pyrrhuskrieg
974:
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474:
428:
206:. Carthage and Rome fought several major protracted conflicts known as the
163:
147:
936:
898:
752:, they are reported to have included Greeks, Iberians, Balearics, Gauls,
625:
278:
252:
requiring its army to be composed mainly of foreign troops, particularly
68:
324:, Carthage was growing in stature. Under Mago, Carthage allied with the
749:
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539:
317:
207:
151:
72:
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offices. Greek sources referred to the commander of Punic forces as a
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782:
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384:
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13 Lancel, Serge. Carthage: A History. Oxford. Blackwell, 1995. 117.
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in 480 BC, Carthage regularly began employing Iberian infantry and
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for javelin into pike by the wrong assertion that it means lance (
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Roberts, John. (2005). Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford.
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753:
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sic nam fore bello / egregiam et facilem victu per saecula gentem
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547:
504:. Though Carthage dominated the sea following its victory in the
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formation. The unit numbered around 2,500 soldiers according to
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736:
The reported causes for this conflict were that following the
1537:
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650:
621:
Carthaginian hoplite (Sacred Band, end of the 4th century BC)
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265:
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1423:
http://bostonleadershipbuilders.com/plutarch/marcellus.htm
601:, helmet, and breastplate. The hoplites also fought in a
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530:
Citizen soldiers of Carthage on parade, as envisaged by
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by 242 BC, Carthage had no ships to speak of in Sicily.
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1044:
1042:
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The Enemies of Rome: from Hannibal to Attila the Hun
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Karthago: Studien zu MilitÀr, Staat und Gesellschaft
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Karthago: Studien zu MilitÀr, Staat und Gesellschaft
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Karthago: Studien zu MilitÀr, Staat und Gesellschaft
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armor, bronze helmets, Iberian-style swords, and an
492:In 247 BC, after eighteen years of fighting in the
174:of the military was initially held by the civilian
1039:
612:
434:decisively defeated the Carthaginian navy at the
1742:
1712:Î 438 â An Unidentified Fragment of Diodorus",
721:, tend to stress Carthage's reliance on foreign
1163:Diodorus Siculus 24.10, Polybius 1.73.1, 1.72.3
1708:Rance, P, "Hannibal, Elephants and Turrets in
1017:The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265-146BC
111:was one of the largest military forces in the
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1266:
354:
316:. Though still economically dependent on its
702:Mercenaries of the ancient Iberian peninsula
509:conquered considerable territory by 241 BC.
372:to support Carthaginian spearmen in Sicily.
247:A recreation of a Carthaginian military unit
1719:
1642:, Weidenfeld & Nicolson - London, 1993
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303:
1263:
775:
1682:Livy: The Rise of Rome: Books One to Five
1590:Learn how and when to remove this message
1482:Adrian Goldsworthy - The Fall of Carthage
1050:Pyrrhus of Epirus by Jeff Champion, p 107
586:and conscripts from subject territories.
1172:Bagnall, Nigel, The Punic Wars, p 92-94
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1668:Scipio Africanus: greater than Napoleon
865:The prow of a Punic ship, known as the
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1698:, Thames & Hudson - London, 2004
913:
696:Mercenaries in the forces of Carthage
639:According to the historian A. Heuss:
1561:, as they are easily broken. Please
1521:
928:Second Sicilian War, 410 BC â 340 BC
856:
496:, the Carthaginian Senate appointed
939:, 280 BC â 275 BC, allied with Rome
931:Third Sicilian War, 315 BC â 307 BC
359:After the Punic defeats during the
216:destruction of the city of Carthage
214:resulted in the complete and total
13:
1684:, OUP - Oxford and New York, 1998
1628:, Cassell & Co - London, 2000
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1015:Goldsworthy, Adrian (March 2008).
14:
1762:
1501:History of Rome: The Numidian War
487:
364:Beginning with the reign of King
1726:. New York: Barnes & Noble.
1526:
1421:Plutarch, Life of Marcellus, 12
1086:The Foreign Wars: The Punic Wars
833:), probably a subspecies of the
181:Carthage's military battled the
134:The Carthaginian military was a
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1433:Polybius, "Historiai", 18.28-32
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613:Carthaginian military tradition
469:, developed during the time of
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185:over control of the island of
1:
1575:), or an abbreviated title.
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905:, in contrast to the largely
841:), which is smaller than the
336:expelled its Etruscan kings.
1607:, C. H. Beck - Munich, 1993
1497:"The Numidian War §1 and §5"
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849:) and the Indian elephants (
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7:
1670:, Da Capo - New York, 1994
1656:, Blackwell - Oxford, 1997
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10:
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925:First Sicilian War, 480 BC
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412:
406:
355:Growth of Mercenary Forces
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16:Military unit in antiquity
1455:Charles and Rhodan (2007)
922:, about 600 BC â 265 BC:
717:Ancient authors, such as
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78:
60:
50:
42:
34:
26:
21:
1473:Polybius, History Book 6
1203:, Book I, Chapter 33.5-7
482:Battle of Bagradas River
304:Establishment under Mago
193:soldier fighting in the
1565:by replacing them with
1557:Knowledge's style guide
1229:p. 7, quoting A. Heuss
835:African forest elephant
776:Formation and structure
569:Sacred Band of Carthage
281:into infantry service.
138:force, which comprised
1309:
1302:On The Perseus Project
1300:Polybius, Book 6, 52.
870:
824:North African elephant
714:
645:
636:
629:
622:
593:: heavy spear, sword,
534:
436:Battle of Cape Ecnomus
432:Marcus Atilius Regulus
419:In 256 BC, during the
409:Xanthippus of Carthage
349:Agathocles of Syracuse
248:
1720:Warry, John (1993) .
1381:Goldsworthy, Adrian,
1304:
1029:Polybius, Book 6, 52
864:
843:African bush elephant
709:
641:
635:
628:
620:
529:
413:Further information:
403:Reforms of Xanthippus
246:
22:Carthaginian Military
1751:Military of Carthage
1563:improve this article
1383:The fall of Carthage
987:Carthage Punic Ports
666:Age of Enlightenment
287:Carthaginian cavalry
1716:59.1 (2009) 91-111.
1714:Classical Quarterly
1666:Liddell Hart, B.H,
1654:Carthage: A History
1640:The History of Rome
1621:100.4 (2007) 363-89
1535:Constructs such as
597:shield, and bronze
532:Georges Rochegrosse
440:sacking the city of
366:Hanno the Navigator
1680:Luce, T.J. (tr.),
1401:Makroe, Glenn E.,
1214:Historical Library
914:Military campaigns
871:
847:Loxodonta africana
839:Loxodonta cyclotis
715:
637:
630:
623:
535:
506:Battle of Drepanum
310:Mago I of Carthage
249:
1603:Ameling, Walter,
1600:
1599:
1592:
1154:Appian Hispania 4
1143:978-1-4051-7600-2
969:, 149 BC â 146 BC
963:, 218 BC â 201 BC
957:, 237 BC â 218 BC
951:, 240 BC â 238 BC
945:, 264 BC â 241 BC
857:Carthaginian navy
756:, Italians (e.g.
711:Balearic slingers
395:, and especially
370:Balearic slingers
202:of the expanding
121:Iberian Peninsula
99:
98:
1758:
1737:
1638:Grant, Michael,
1624:Goldsworthy, A,
1595:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1567:named references
1530:
1529:
1522:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1489:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1399:
1393:
1379:
1373:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1355:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1310:
1298:
1292:
1281:Ameling, Walter
1279:
1273:
1270:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1234:
1225:Ameling, Walter
1223:
1217:
1210:
1204:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1180:
1170:
1164:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1135:
1129:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1107:
1104:
1098:
1095:
1089:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1037:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1012:
1006:
1003:
961:Second Punic War
955:Iberian conquest
920:Greek-Punic Wars
893:The sailors and
129:Balearic Islands
65:Greek-Punic Wars
46:Ancient Carthage
19:
18:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1741:
1740:
1734:
1652:Lancel, Serge,
1619:Classical World
1596:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1555:discouraged by
1531:
1527:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1505:
1503:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1400:
1396:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1299:
1295:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1233:in: RuK, p. 114
1224:
1220:
1211:
1207:
1196:
1192:
1188:Polybius 1.59.9
1187:
1183:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1136:
1132:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1080:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1040:
1028:
1024:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1000:
995:
983:
967:Third Punic War
943:First Punic War
916:
891:
859:
851:elephas maximus
778:
738:First Punic War
704:
698:
615:
571:
565:
524:
519:
494:First Punic War
490:
467:Macedonian army
449:near Carthage.
421:First Punic War
417:
415:First Punic War
411:
405:
357:
306:
301:
241:
172:Supreme command
117:northern Africa
102:
92:
85:
71:
67:
55:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1764:
1754:
1753:
1739:
1738:
1732:
1717:
1706:
1692:
1678:
1664:
1650:
1636:
1626:The Punic Wars
1622:
1615:
1598:
1597:
1534:
1532:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1448:
1435:
1426:
1414:
1394:
1374:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1338:
1329:
1327:Polybius, 1.66
1320:
1311:
1293:
1274:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1235:
1218:
1205:
1190:
1181:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1130:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1090:
1074:
1062:
1052:
1038:
1022:
1007:
997:
996:
994:
991:
990:
989:
982:
979:
971:
970:
964:
958:
952:
946:
940:
934:
933:
932:
929:
926:
915:
912:
890:
887:
858:
855:
777:
774:
764:), Sicilians,
700:Main article:
697:
694:
614:
611:
567:Main article:
564:
561:
523:
520:
518:
515:
502:Roman Republic
498:Hamilcar Barca
489:
488:Hamilcar Barca
486:
447:Battle of Adys
425:Roman Republic
407:Main article:
404:
401:
356:
353:
305:
302:
300:
297:
240:
237:
221:Hamilcar Barca
204:Roman Republic
144:heavy infantry
100:
97:
96:
90:Hamilcar Barca
87:
81:
80:
76:
75:
62:
58:
57:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
39:
36:
32:
31:
28:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1763:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1735:
1733:1-56619-463-6
1729:
1725:
1724:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1704:0-500-25124-X
1701:
1697:
1694:Matyszak, P,
1693:
1691:
1690:0-19-282296-9
1687:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1676:0-306-80583-9
1673:
1669:
1665:
1663:
1662:1-55786-468-3
1659:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1648:0-297-81710-8
1645:
1641:
1637:
1635:
1634:0-304-35284-5
1631:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1614:
1613:3-406-37490-5
1610:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1594:
1591:
1583:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1559:for footnotes
1558:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1533:
1524:
1523:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1479:
1470:
1461:
1452:
1445:
1442:Warry, John.
1439:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1411:0-520-22614-3
1408:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1391:0-253-33546-9
1388:
1384:
1378:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1290:3-406-37490-5
1287:
1284:
1278:
1269:
1267:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1215:
1209:
1202:
1201:
1200:The Histories
1194:
1185:
1179:
1178:0-312-34214-4
1175:
1169:
1160:
1151:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1127:
1121:
1115:Emery, 35-38.
1112:
1103:
1094:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1071:
1066:
1056:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1036:
1034:
1026:
1019:. p. 32.
1018:
1011:
1002:
998:
988:
985:
984:
978:
976:
968:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
949:Mercenary War
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:
930:
927:
924:
923:
921:
918:
917:
911:
908:
904:
900:
896:
886:
884:
880:
875:
868:
863:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
829:
825:
819:
815:
813:
809:
804:
800:
794:
790:
786:
784:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
746:
744:
739:
734:
732:
731:Mercenary War
726:
724:
720:
712:
708:
703:
693:
690:
686:
685:
679:
678:
675:
671:
667:
662:
659:
658:
653:
652:
644:
640:
634:
627:
619:
610:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
587:
583:
581:
576:
570:
560:
557:
552:
549:
545:
541:
533:
528:
514:
510:
507:
503:
499:
495:
485:
483:
478:
476:
472:
468:
465:model of the
464:
463:combined arms
460:
456:
450:
448:
444:
441:
437:
433:
430:
426:
422:
416:
410:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
362:
361:Sicilian Wars
352:
350:
346:
340:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:Mediterranean
311:
296:
293:
292:Mercenary War
288:
282:
280:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
245:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
217:
213:
212:last of which
209:
205:
201:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
164:war elephants
162:, as well as
161:
160:heavy cavalry
157:
153:
149:
148:siege engines
145:
141:
137:
136:combined arms
132:
130:
126:
122:
119:and southern
118:
114:
113:ancient world
110:
109:
101:Military unit
95:
91:
88:
82:
77:
74:
70:
66:
63:
59:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
30:550 BCâ146 BC
29:
25:
20:
1722:
1713:
1709:
1695:
1681:
1667:
1653:
1639:
1625:
1618:
1604:
1586:
1580:January 2024
1577:
1570:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1504:. Retrieved
1500:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1464:Rance (2009)
1460:
1451:
1446:. pp. 98-99.
1443:
1438:
1429:
1417:
1402:
1397:
1382:
1377:
1368:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1336:Emery 34-39.
1332:
1323:
1314:
1305:
1296:
1282:
1277:
1256:
1247:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1213:
1208:
1198:
1193:
1184:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1133:
1125:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1097:Emery, 20-21
1093:
1085:
1077:
1065:
1055:
1032:
1025:
1016:
1010:
1001:
975:Numidian War
972:
892:
882:
872:
867:Marsala Ship
850:
846:
838:
830:
827:
820:
816:
811:
808:thureophoroi
802:
798:
795:
791:
787:
779:
747:
735:
727:
716:
689:Sacred Bands
688:
682:
680:
673:
669:
663:
655:
649:
646:
642:
638:
588:
584:
574:
572:
555:
553:
536:
511:
491:
479:
451:
429:Roman Consul
418:
374:
358:
341:
338:
328:of northern
307:
283:
250:
223:and his son
180:
133:
106:military of
105:
103:
1572:quick guide
1403:Phoenicians
1260:Ameling, 2f
1216:xvi.80.4-5.
937:Pyrrhic War
889:Recruitment
831:pharaoensis
723:mercenaries
575:Sacred Band
563:Sacred Band
318:mother city
308:In 550 BC,
279:conscripted
152:skirmishers
69:Pyrrhic War
61:Engagements
1518:References
1506:2006-01-15
1405:, p 84-86
1363:Emery, 10.
1272:Ameling, 7
1251:Ameling, 3
1242:Ameling, 2
1212:Diodorus,
1197:Polybius,
1124:Polybius,
750:Punic wars
540:linothorax
471:Phillip II
459:Xanthippus
274:Phoenician
208:Punic Wars
86:commanders
79:Commanders
73:Punic Wars
1544:loc. cit.
1318:Ibid, 44.
1128:, Book I.
1126:Histories
1072:, 19, 1.1
993:Citations
907:mercenary
881:, or the
828:Loxodonta
783:Strategos
766:Numidians
762:Lucanians
517:Structure
423:with the
385:Numidians
381:Ligurians
326:Etruscans
258:Numidians
35:Disbanded
1745:Category
981:See also
903:citizens
874:Polybius
812:scutarii
758:Samnites
719:Polybius
684:Poenulus
657:symmachy
607:Diodorus
591:hoplites
522:Infantry
457:captain
397:Iberians
262:Iberians
239:Overview
225:Hannibal
200:military
176:Suffetes
168:chariots
127:and the
125:Sardinia
108:Carthage
94:Hannibal
1385:, p 32
1035:project
1033:Perseus
1031:On the
973:In the
897:of the
895:marines
810:called
799:longche
770:Libyans
754:Ligures
603:phalanx
599:greaves
548:thureos
455:Spartan
389:Libyans
299:History
254:Libyans
227:in the
195:phalanx
191:hoplite
84:Notable
43:Country
1730:
1702:
1688:
1674:
1660:
1646:
1632:
1611:
1493:Appian
1409:
1389:
1288:
1176:
1141:
1082:Appian
1070:Justin
1060:58-64.
899:fleets
879:Corvus
803:lancea
670:Aeneid
580:Africa
556:caetra
475:legion
427:, the
393:Greeks
345:Appian
272:. Its
270:Greeks
268:, and
233:Second
210:, the
187:Sicily
183:Greeks
38:146 BC
27:Active
1538:ibid.
743:Gisco
651:polis
595:aspis
544:aspis
443:Aspis
377:Gauls
330:Italy
266:Gauls
229:First
156:light
140:light
1728:ISBN
1710:Suda
1700:ISBN
1686:ISBN
1672:ISBN
1658:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1630:ISBN
1609:ISBN
1553:are
1550:idem
1547:and
1407:ISBN
1387:ISBN
1286:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1139:ISBN
1088:, 80
883:crow
729:the
573:The
334:Rome
322:Tyre
231:and
166:and
158:and
142:and
104:The
56:Navy
54:Army
51:Type
320:of
1747::
1541:,
1499:.
1495:.
1265:^
1084:,
1041:^
768:,
760:,
609:.
391:,
387:,
383:,
379:,
351:.
264:,
260:,
256:,
170:.
154:,
150:,
146:,
1736:.
1593:)
1587:(
1582:)
1578:(
1569:(
1509:.
1145:.
869:.
845:(
837:(
826:(
713:.
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