Ordovician - Knowledge

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trilobite faunas from the trilobite fauna of Gondwana, and Gondwana developed distinct fauna in its tropical and temperature zones. The Tien Shan terrane maintained a biogeographic affinity with Gondwana, and the Alborz margin of Gondwana was linked biogeographically to South China. Southeast Asia's fauna also maintained strong affinities to Gondwana's. North China was biogeographically connected to Laurentia and the Argentinian margin of Gondwana. A Celtic biogeographic province also existed, separate from the Laurentian and Baltican ones. However, tropical articulate brachiopods had a more

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period. Locally, some regressions occurred, but the sea level rise continued in the beginning of the Late Ordovician. Sea levels fell steadily due to the cooling temperatures for about 3 million years leading up to the Hirnantian glaciation. During this icy stage, sea level seems to have risen and dropped somewhat. Despite much study, the details remain unresolved. In particular, some researches interpret the fluctuations in sea level as pre-Hibernian glaciation, but sedimentary evidence of glaciation is lacking until the end of the period. There is evidence of

2530: 2393: 2074: 1659:(mountain-building) was not primarily due to continent-continent collisions. Instead, mountains arose along active continental margins during accretion of arc terranes or ribbon microcontinents. Accretion of new crust was limited to the Iapetus margin of Laurentia; elsewhere, the pattern was of rifting in back-arc basins followed by remerger. This reflected episodic switching from extension to compression. The initiation of new subduction reflected a global reorganization of tectonic plates centered on the amalgamation of Gondwana. 1978: 2487: 2499: 7880: 2296: 2332: 1967: 1954: 2374: 2412: 2320: 7869: 2564: 2468: 1594: 1178: 1163: 1143: 1128: 1108: 1093: 1078: 114: 1879: 5040: 2070:, with less diversity on different continents. During the Middle Ordovician, beta diversity began a significant decline as marine taxa began to disperse widely across space. Faunas become less provincial later in the Ordovician, partly due to the narrowing of the Iapetus Ocean, though they were still distinguishable into the late Ordovician. 5018: 2123:, corresponding to an increase in the stability of carbonate and thus a new abundance of calcifying animals. Brachiopods surged in diversity, adapting to almost every type of marine environment. Even after GOBE, there is evidence suggesting that Ordovician brachiopods maintained elevated rates of speciation. 2720:

As glaciers grew, the sea level dropped, and the vast shallow intra-continental Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many ecological niches. When they returned, they carried diminished founder populations that lacked many whole families of organisms. They then withdrew again with the next pulse

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There was vigorous tectonic activity along northwest margin of Gondwana during the Floian, 478 Ma, recorded in the Central Iberian Zone of Spain. The activity reached as far as Turkey by the end of Ordovician. The opposite margin of Gondwana, in Australia, faced a set of island arcs. The accretion of

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At the end of the second event, melting glaciers caused the sea level to rise and stabilise once more. The rebound of life's diversity with the permanent re-flooding of continental shelves at the onset of the Silurian saw increased biodiversity within the surviving Orders. Recovery was characterized

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system; and in all probability, much of the Shelve and the Caradoc area, whence Murchison first published its distinctive fossils — lay within the territory of the Ordovices; … Here, then, have we the hint for the appropriate title for the central system of the Lower Paleozoic. It should be called

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The Tremadoc corresponds to the ICS's Tremadocian. The Arenig corresponds to the Floian, all of the Dapingian and the early Darriwilian. The Llanvirn corresponds to the late Darriwilian. The Caradoc covers the Sandbian and the first half of the Katian. The Ashgill represents the second half of the

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Those species able to adapt to the changing conditions survived to fill the ecological niches left by the extinctions. For example, there is evidence the oceans became more deeply oxygenated during the glaciation, allowing unusual benthic organisms (Hirnantian fauna) to colonize the depths. These

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On the whole, the fauna that emerged in the Ordovician were the template for the remainder of the Palaeozoic. The fauna was dominated by tiered communities of suspension feeders, mainly with short food chains. The ecological system reached a new grade of complexity far beyond that of the Cambrian

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these arcs to the eastern margin of Gondwana was responsible for the Benambran Orogeny of eastern Australia. Subduction also took place along what is now Argentina (Famatinian Orogeny) at 450 Ma. This involved significant back arc rifting. The interior of Gondwana was tectonically quiet until the

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of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity with each change. Species limited to a single epicontinental sea on a given landmass were severely affected. Tropical lifeforms were hit particularly hard in the first wave of extinction, while cool-water species were hit worst in the second pulse.

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The Ordovician saw the highest sea levels of the Paleozoic, and the low relief of the continents led to many shelf deposits being formed under hundreds of metres of water. The sea level rose more or less continuously throughout the Early Ordovician, leveling off somewhat during the middle of the

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during the Sandbian, and possibly as early as the Darriwilian or even the Floian. The Dapingian and Sandbian saw major humidification events evidenced by trace metal concentrations in Baltoscandia from this time. Evidence suggests that global temperatures rose briefly in the early Katian (Boda

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Ordovician geography had its effect on the diversity of fauna; Ordovician invertebrates displayed a very high degree of provincialism. The widely separated continents of Laurentia and Baltica, then positioned close to the tropics and boasting many shallow seas rich in life, developed distinct

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in particular were rich and diverse, and experienced rapid diversification in many regions. Trilobites in the Ordovician were very different from their predecessors in the Cambrian. Many trilobites developed bizarre spines and nodules to defend against predators such as primitive

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were different from those of either the Cambrian or the Silurian systems, and placed them in a system of their own. The Ordovician received international approval in 1960 (forty years after Lapworth's death), when it was adopted as an official period of the Paleozoic Era by the

2233:, dates from the Middle Ordovician. During the Middle Ordovician there was a large increase in the intensity and diversity of bioeroding organisms. This is known as the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution. It is marked by a sudden abundance of hard substrate trace fossils such as 2101:

evolved to become swimming forms. Some trilobites even developed shovel-like snouts for ploughing through muddy sea bottoms. Another unusual clade of trilobites known as the trinucleids developed a broad pitted margin around their head shields. Some trilobites such as

1629:(present-day northern Europe) were separated from Gondwana by over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of ocean. These smaller continents were also sufficiently widely separated from each other to develop distinct communities of benthic organisms. The small continent of 2824:

Korochantseva, Ekaterina; Trieloff, Mario; Lorenz, Cyrill; Buykin, Alexey; Ivanova, Marina; Schwarz, Winfried; Hopp, Jens; Jessberger, Elmar (2007). "L-chondrite asteroid breakup tied to Ordovician meteorite shower by multiple isochron 40 Ar- 39 Ar dating".

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evolved long eyestalks to assist in detecting predators whereas other trilobite eyes in contrast disappeared completely. Molecular clock analyses suggest that early arachnids started living on land by the end of the Ordovician. Although solitary

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Rasmussen, Christian M. Ø.; Ullmann, Clemens V.; Jakobsen, Kristian G.; Lindskog, Anders; Hansen, Jesper; Hansen, Thomas; Eriksson, Mats E.; Dronov, Andrei; Frei, Robert; Korte, Christoph; Nielsen, Arne T.; Harper, David A.T. (May 2016).

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of the Late Ordovician argues that the mass extinction was a single protracted episode lasting several hundred thousand years, with abrupt changes in water depth and sedimentation rate producing two pulses of last occurrences of species.

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cephalopods. Cephalopods diversified from shallow marine tropical environments to dominate almost all marine environments. Graptolites, which evolved in the preceding Cambrian period, thrived in the oceans. This includes the distinctive

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Ebbestad, Jan Ove R.; Frýda, Jiří; Wagner, Peter J.; Horný, Radvan J.; Isakar, Mare; Stewart, Sarah; Percival, Ian G.; Bertero, Verònica; Rohr, David M.; Peel, John S.; Blodgett, Robert B.; Högström, Anette E. S. (November 2013).

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died out completely, except for possible rare Silurian forms. The Ordovician–Silurian extinction events may have been caused by an ice age that occurred at the end of the Ordovician Period, due to the expansion of the

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parent body. It is not associated with any major extinction event. A 2024 study found that craters from this event cluster in a distinct band around the Earth, and that the breakup of the parent body may have formed a

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epoch. Chitinozoans, which first appeared late in the Wuliuan, exploded in diversity during the Tremadocian, quickly becoming globally widespread. Several groups of endobiotic symbionts appeared in the Ordovician.

3196: : 1-15. From pp. 13-14: "North Wales itself — at all events the whole of the great Bala district where Sedgwick first worked out the physical succession among the rocks of the intermediate or so-called 1841:

was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician. Shallow clear waters over continental shelves encouraged the growth of organisms that deposit calcium carbonates in their shells and hard parts. The

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Event), depositing bioherms and radiating fauna across Europe. The early Katian also witnessed yet another humidification event. Further cooling during the Hirnantian, at the end of the Ordovician, led to the

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levels were very high at the Ordovician period's beginning. By the late Early Ordovician, the Earth cooled, giving way to a more temperate climate in the Middle Ordovician, with the Earth likely entering the

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Huff, Warren D.; Bergström, Stig M.; Kolata, Dennis R. (1992-10-01). "Gigantic Ordovician volcanic ash fall in North America and Europe: Biological, tectonomagmatic, and event-stratigraphic significance".

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It has been suggested that the Middle Ordovician meteorite bombardment played a crucial role in the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event, but this study shows that the two phenomena were unrelated

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Unlike Cambrian times, when calcite production was dominated by microbial and non-biological processes, animals (and macroalgae) became a dominant source of calcareous material in Ordovician deposits.

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erected a formal international system of subdivisions for the Ordovician Period and System. Pre-existing Baltoscandic, British, Siberian, North American, Australian, Chinese, Mediterranean and North-

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event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000 ppm to 4400 ppm). The dip may have been caused by a burst of volcanic activity that deposited new silicate rocks, which draw CO

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Young, Seth A.; Saltzman, Matthew R.; Ausich, William I.; Desrochers, André; Kaljo, Dimitri (2010). "Did changes in atmospheric CO2 coincide with latest Ordovician glacial–interglacial cycles?".

1674:. Laurentia was otherwise tectonically stable. An island arc accreted to South China during the period, while subduction along north China (Sulinheer) resulted in the emplacement of ophiolites. 2498: 5019:"A null biogeographic model for quantifying the role of migration in shaping patterns of global taxonomic richness and differentiation diversity, with implications for Ordovician biogeography" 3475:

Pollock, Jeffrey C.; Hibbard, James P.; Sylvester, Paul J. (May 2009). "Early Ordovician rifting of Avalonia and birth of the Rheic Ocean: U–Pb detrital zircon constraints from Newfoundland".

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in fossil brachiopods show its duration may have been only 0.5 to 1.5 million years. Other researchers (Page et al.) estimate more temperate conditions did not return until the late Silurian.

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selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. It has also been suggested that shielding of the sun's rays from the proposed Ordovician ring system, which also caused the

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Haack, Henning; Farinella, Paolo; Scott, Edward R. D.; Keil, Klaus (1996). "Meteoritic, Asteroidal, and Theoretical Constraints on the 500 MA Disruption of the L Chondrite Parent Body".

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marine fauna. Several animals also went through a miniaturization process, becoming much smaller than their Cambrian counterparts. Another change in the fauna was the strong increase in

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M. Marcilly, Chloé; Maffre, Pierre; Le Hir, Guillaume; Pohl, Alexandre; Fluteau, Frédéric; Goddéris, Yves; Donnadieu, Yannick; H. Heimdal, Thea; Torsvik, Trond H. (15 September 2022).

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Ramos, Victor A. (2018). "The Famatinian Orogen Along the Protomargin of Western Gondwana: Evidence for a Nearly Continuous Ordovician Magmatic Arc Between Venezuela and Argentina".

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from the Ordovician of Wisconsin have been found with an age of about 460 million years ago, a time when the land flora most likely only consisted of plants similar to non-vascular

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by an unusual number of "Lazarus taxa", disappearing during the extinction and reappearing well into the Silurian, which suggests that the taxa survived in small numbers in

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In the Middle Ordovician, the trilobite-dominated Early Ordovician communities were replaced by generally more mixed ecosystems, in which brachiopods, bryozoans, molluscs,

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may have first appeared late in the period. About 100 times as many meteorites struck the Earth per year during the Ordovician compared with today in a period known as the

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Wilson, M. A.; Palmer, T. J. (2001). "Domiciles, not predatory borings: a simpler explanation of the holes in Ordovician shells analyzed by Kaplan and Baumiller, 2000".

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Nance, R. Damian; Gutiérrez-Alonso, Gabriel; Keppie, J. Duncan; Linnemann, Ulf; Murphy, J. Brendan; Quesada, Cecilio; Strachan, Rob A.; Woodcock, Nigel H. (March 2012).

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Vandenbroucke, Thijs R. A.; Armstrong, Howard A.; Williams, Mark; Paris, Florentin; Sabbe, Koen; Zalasiewicz, Jan A.; Nõlvak, Jaak; Verniers, Jacques (15 August 2010).

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graptolite fauna, which was distributed widely during peak sea levels in the Sandbian. Some new cystoids and crinoids appeared. It was long thought that the first true

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Korochantseva, Ekaterina V.; Trieloff, Mario; Lorenz, Cyrill A.; Buykin, Alexey I.; Ivanova, Marina A.; Schwarz, Winfried H.; Hopp, Jens; Jessberger, Elmar K. (2007).

4538:"Epipelagic chitinozoan biotopes map a steep latitudinal temperature gradient for earliest Late Ordovician seas: Implications for a cooling Late Ordovician climate" 2192:

brachiopods, bryozoans, planktonic graptolites and conodonts, and many types of molluscs and echinoderms, including the ophiuroids ("brittle stars") and the first

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Pohl, Alexandre; Donnadieu, Yannick; Le Hir, Guillaume; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Dumas, Christophe; Alvarez-Solas, Jorge; Vandenbroucke, Thijs R. A. (28 May 2016).

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Torsvik, Trond H.; Rehnström, Emma F. (March 2001). "Cambrian palaeomagnetic data from Baltica: implications for true polar wander and Cambrian palaeogeography".

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Towards the end of the period, Gondwana began to drift across the South Pole. This contributed to the Hibernian glaciation and the associated extinction event.

4134:"Secular oscillations in the carbonate mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms driven by tectonically forced shifts in seawater chemistry" 7249: 2552:

were common in the Late Cambrian (perhaps earlier) and in the Ordovician. Terrestrial plants probably evolved from green algae, first appearing as tiny non-

3567:"Condensation and phosphatization of the Middle and Upper Ordovician limestones on the Malopolska Block (Poland): Response to paleoceanographic conditions" 945:, dominated the oceans, with members of the latter group probably starting their establishment on land during this time, becoming fully established by the 3290:

Wang, X.; Stouge, S.; Chen, X.; Li, Z.; Wang, C. (2009). "Dapingian Stage: standard name for the lowermost global stage of the Middle Ordovician Series".

5207:"Ordovician of North Iran: New lithostratigraphy, palaeogeography and biogeographical links with South China and the Mediterranean peri-Gondwana margin" 2352: 3357: 2523:, atrypid brachiopods, preserved in their original positions on a trepostome bryozoan from the Cincinnatian (Upper Ordovician) of southeastern Indiana 2392: 6407: 6359: 6331: 6286: 6253: 6094: 6038: 5812: 5338: 4595: 4567: 4542: 4430: 4245: 4220: 4138: 3586: 1558:

and Ashgill) epochs. The corresponding rocks of the Ordovician System are referred to as coming from the Lower, Middle, or Upper part of the column.

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is a proposed shower of meteors that occurred during the Middle Ordovician Epoch, about 467.5 ± 0.28 million years ago, due to the break-up of the

1268: 4332:"A paired apatite and calcite clumped isotope thermometry approach to estimating Cambro-Ordovician seawater temperatures and isotopic composition" 4616: 4308: 5791:"The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event: Reviewing two decades of research on diversity's big bang illustrated by mainly brachiopod data" 4591:"Conodont apatite δ18O values from a platform margin setting, Oklahoma, USA: Implications for initiation of Late Ordovician icehouse conditions" 2411: 2319: 3405: 6781:

Kershaw, Stephen; Chitnarin, Anisong; Noipow, Nitipon; Forel, Marie-Béatrice; Junrattanamanee, Thitikan; Charoenmit, Jeerasak (10 June 2019).

2331: 1652:. Most of the terranes of central Asia were part of an equatorial archipelago whose geometry is poorly constrained by the available evidence. 5696:

Bergström, Stig M.; Bergström, Jan; Kumpulainen, Risto; Ormö, Jens; Sturkell, Erik (2007). "Maurits Lindström – A renaissance geoscientist".

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Bergmann, Kristin D.; Finnegan, Seth; Creel, Roger; Eiler, John M.; Hughes, Nigel C.; Popov, Leonid E.; Fischer, Woodward W. (1 March 2018).

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Life continued to flourish during the Ordovician as it did in the earlier Cambrian Period, although the end of the period was marked by the

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appeared. The planktonic graptolites remained diverse, with the Diplograptina making their appearance. One of the earliest known armoured

1613:. The Panthalassic Ocean, centered in the northern hemisphere, covered over half the globe. At the start of the period, the continents of 7133: 2667:

The most commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of cold conditions in the late Katian, followed by an

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Jones, David S.; Brothers, R. William; Ahm, Anne-Sofie Crüger; Slater, Nicholas; Higgins, John A.; Fike, David A. (9 December 2019).

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became an important process, particularly in the thick calcitic skeletons of corals, bryozoans and brachiopods, and on the extensive

1891: 954: 934: 6783:"Microbialites and associated facies of the Late Ordovician system in Thailand: paleoenvironments and paleogeographic implications" 4426:"Orbital-scale climate changes detected in Lower and Middle Ordovician cyclic limestones using oxygen isotopes of conodont apatite" 3157: 544: 486: 4180:

Stanley, S. M.; Hardie, L. A. (1999). "Hypercalcification; paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentology".

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Period. At that time all complex multicellular organisms lived in the sea, and about 49% of genera of fauna disappeared forever;

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The extinctions occurred approximately 447–444 million years ago and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following

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volume of as much as 1,140 cubic kilometres (270 cu mi). Remarkably, this appears to have had little impact on life.

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Porada, P.; Lenton, T. M.; Pohl, A.; Weber, B.; Mander, L.; Donnadieu, Y.; Beer, C.; Pöschl, U.; Kleidon, A. (November 2016).

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The Ashgill Epoch, the last epoch of the British Ordovician, is made of four ages: the Hirnantian Age, the Rawtheyan Age, the

7072: 6836: 6314: 5218: 5001: 4952: 4644: 3855: 3399: 2634: 5889:"Patterns of turnover in Middle and Upper Ordovician brachiopods of the eastern United States: a test of coordinated stasis" 7235: 6249:"Early diversification of Ordovician chitinozoans on Baltica: New data from the Jägala waterfall section, northern Estonia" 3783: 2196:. Nevertheless, the arthropods remained abundant; all the Late Cambrian orders continued, and were joined by the new group 1581:

The Rawtheyan, the second last of the Ashgill ages, was from c. 449 Ma to c. 445 Ma. It is in the Katian Age of the ICS's

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faunas of the Cambrian were succeeded by those that dominated the rest of the Paleozoic, such as articulate brachiopods,

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and lichens, which colonized land in the middle to late Ordovician, may have increased weathering enough to draw down CO

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Though stromatolites had declined from their peak in the Proterozoic, they continued to exist in localised settings.

843: 17: 7090: 5334:"The palaeogeography of early Ordovician Iapetus terranes: an integration of faunal and palaeomagnetic constraints" 1945:, as the end of the Late Ordovician was one of the coldest times in the last 600 million years of Earth's history. 7048: 3781:

Glen, R. A.; Meffre, S.; Scott, R. J. (March 2007). "Benambran Orogeny in the Eastern Lachlan Orogen, Australia".

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drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it, which have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of

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Steemans, P.; Herisse, A. L.; Melvin, J.; Miller, M. A.; Paris, F.; Verniers, J.; Wellman, C. H. (2009-04-17).

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Finney, Stanley C.; Bergström, Stig M. (1986). "Biostratigraphy of the Ordovician Nemagraptus gracilis Zone".

5675: 4093:"Sea level, carbonate mineralogy, and early diagenesis controlled δ13C records in Upper Ordovician carbonates" 1681:

of the Millburg/Big Bentonite bed, at about 454 Ma, was the largest in the last 590 million years. This had a

7913: 5242:"South East Asia as a part of an Ordovician Gondwanaland—a palaeobiogeographic test of a tectonic hypothesis" 2730: 1890:

For most of the Late Ordovician life continued to flourish, but at and near the end of the period there were

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Ghobadi Pour, M.; Popov, L. E.; Álvaro, J. J.; Amini, A.; Hairapetian, V.; Jahangir, H. (23 December 2022).

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Melott, Adrian; et al. (2004). "Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction?".

5840: 5383: 2201: 6309: 6248: 6074: 5790: 4590: 4537: 4215: 3566: 7908: 7258: 5593:"A Paleozoic Stem Group to Mite Harvestmen Revealed through Integration of Phylogenetics and Development" 5570: 5433: 2042: 533: 4374: 4042:"L-chondrite asteroid breakup tied to Ordovician meteorite shower by multiple isochron 40Ar-39Ar dating" 7119: 6036:

Kröger, Björn; Yun-Bai, Zhang (March 2009). "Pulsed cephalopod diversification during the Ordovician".

2686: 2169: 1803: 1798: 5166: 4268: 6593:"High potential for weathering and climate effects of non-vascular vegetation in the Late Ordovician" 5120: 2067: 1973:

slab from the Liberty Formation (Upper Ordovician) of Caesar Creek State Park near Waynesville, Ohio.

627: 615: 3379: 2003:(also known as the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event) was no less remarkable; marine faunal 3150: 1725: 5552: 3952:; Wieler, Rainer (2004). "Fast delivery of meteorites to Earth after a major asteroid collision". 7531: 7526: 6355:"Diverse early endobiotic coral symbiont assemblage from the Katian (Late Ordovician) of Baltica" 5063: 4703: 3378:

Goldman, D.; Sadler, P.M.; Leslie, S.A.; Melchin, M.J.; Agterberg, F.P.; Gradstein, F.M. (2020),

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had just rifted from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the

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Map of Earth as it appeared 460 million years ago during the Middle Ordovician, Darriwilian stage

6454: 5735:"Early–Middle Ordovician brachiopod diversification in the middle Yangtze region of South China" 5333: 5241: 4993: 4987: 4740:

Fortey, Richard A.; Cocks, L. Robin M. (2005). "Late Ordovician global warming—The Boda event".

5938: 5893: 5023: 607: 6403:"The earliest bryozoan parasite: Middle Ordovician (Darriwilian) of Osmussaar Island, Estonia" 5379:"Impacts of spatial and environmental differentiation on early Palaeozoic marine biodiversity" 4779:"Did Cooling Oceans Trigger Ordovician Biodiversification? Evidence from Conodont Thermometry" 4467:

Goldberg, Samuel L.; Present, Theodore M.; Finnegan, Seth; Bergmann, Kristin D. (2021-02-09).

3885:"Refined Ordovician timescale reveals no link between asteroid breakup and biodiversification" 3883:

Lindskog, A.; Costa, M. M.; Rasmussen, C.M.Ø.; Connelly, J. N.; Eriksson, M. E. (2017-01-24).

2862:"Refined Ordovician timescale reveals no link between asteroid breakup and biodiversification" 2860:

Lindskog, A.; Costa, M. M.; Rasmussen, C.M.Ø.; Connelly, J. N.; Eriksson, M. E. (2017-01-24).

6597: 5171: 5167:"Palaeontological evidence bearing on global Ordovician–Silurian continental reconstructions" 4967: 2752: 2717:

and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time.

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An Ordovician strophomenid brachiopod with encrusting inarticulate brachiopods and a bryozoan

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between Gondwana and Avalonia. Avalonia collided with Baltica towards the end of Ordovician.

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Age, and the Pusgillian Age. These ages make up the time period from c. 450 Ma to c. 443 Ma.

1228: 578: 5734: 5502:"Patterns, processes and likely causes of the Ordovician trilobite radiation in South China" 4059: 2920: 2838: 1717:

for a period of about 40 million years, with frequent falling debris causing these craters.

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180 m; rising to 220 m in Caradoc and falling sharply to 140 m in end-Ordovician glaciations

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Garwood, Russell J.; Sharma, Prashant P.; Dunlop, Jason A.; Giribet, Gonzalo (5 May 2014).

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Middle Ordovician fossiliferous shales and limestones at Fossil Mountain, west-central Utah

2000: 1645: 1233: 4913: 4269:"Understanding the early Paleozoic carbon cycle balance and climate change from modelling" 2958: 2176:

In the Early Ordovician, trilobites were joined by many new types of organisms, including

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Planet Earth : Cosmology, Geology, & the Evolution of Life & the Environment

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Trotter, J. A.; Williams, I. S.; Barnes, C. R.; Lecuyer, C.; Nicoll, R. S. (2008-07-25).

4375:"Temporal variations in tempestite thickness may be a geologic record of atmospheric CO2" 3049: 2625:

that, taken together, comprise the second largest of the five major extinction events in

1847: 1765:, calcitic cements, and invertebrate faunas with dominantly calcitic skeletons. Biogenic 1622: 1582: 6964: 6865: 6743: 6669: 6610: 6558: 6420: 6368: 6266: 6207: 6129: 6051: 5752: 5655: 4873: 4856:"Onset of main Phanerozoic marine radiation sparked by emerging Mid Ordovician icehouse" 4796: 4755: 4657: 4604: 4555: 4486: 4443: 4349: 4233: 4151: 4018: 3967: 3900: 3796: 3759: 3640: 3490: 3092: 3004: 7025: 6984: 6950: 6763: 6728:

Redecker, D.; Kodner, R.; Graham, L. E. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the Ordovician".

6699: 6627: 6592: 6570: 6520: 6278: 6224: 6189: 6141: 6006: 5955: 5857: 5764: 5715: 5667: 5506: 5451: 4890: 4860: 4855: 4824: 4681: 4513: 4468: 4114: 4073: 4068: 4041: 3987: 3925: 3884: 3808: 3652: 3502: 3391: 3112: 2939: 2894: 2861: 2846: 2801: 2774: 1996: 1855: 1851: 1843: 1737:

shell dissolved on the sea floor, leaving a cemented mold for biological encrustation (

903: 6310:"Tremadocian (Early Ordovician) chitinozoan biostratigraphy of South China: An update" 5501: 5288:"Biogeography of Ordovician and Silurian gastropods, monoplacophorans and mimospirids" 5184: 4778: 4160: 4133: 3682:

van Staal, C.R.; Hatcher, R.D. Jr. (2010). "Global setting of Ordovician orogenesis".

1542:

The Ordovician Period in Britain was traditionally broken into Early (Tremadocian and

7660: 7624: 7029: 6832: 6802: 6782: 6755: 6730: 6703: 6691: 6656: 6632: 6574: 6528: 6524: 6402: 6354: 6282: 6229: 6145: 5861: 5835: 5768: 5719: 5671: 5616: 5523: 5455: 5351: 5307: 5287: 5259: 5140: 5068: 4997: 4948: 4895: 4816: 4808: 4783: 4742: 4685: 4518: 4500: 4396: 4379: 4300: 4118: 3979: 3930: 3912: 3851: 3812: 3746: 3699: 3506: 3430: 3395: 3305: 3271: 3116: 3104: 2899: 2881: 2806: 2583:), playing a crucial role in facilitating the colonization of land by plants through 2073: 2036: 2032: 1754: 1385: 1201: 568: 320: 6988: 6767: 6010: 5959: 5378: 4828: 4077: 3656: 1977: 7754: 7629: 7598: 7395: 7015: 6976: 6968: 6869: 6794: 6747: 6681: 6673: 6622: 6614: 6562: 6512: 6468: 6424: 6372: 6327: 6323: 6308:

Liang, Yan; Servais, Thomas; Tang, Peng; Lu, Jianbo; Wang, Wenhui (December 2017).

6270: 6219: 6211: 6194: 6133: 6086: 6055: 5998: 5947: 5902: 5849: 5804: 5756: 5707: 5659: 5606: 5515: 5447: 5400: 5392: 5347: 5299: 5255: 5180: 5136: 5132: 5087: 5077: 5032: 4885: 4877: 4800: 4759: 4715: 4671: 4661: 4608: 4559: 4508: 4490: 4447: 4388: 4353: 4290: 4282: 4237: 4155: 4104: 4063: 4022: 3991: 3971: 3954: 3949: 3920: 3904: 3843: 3800: 3763: 3691: 3644: 3578: 3533: 3494: 3387: 3301: 3263: 3096: 3044: 3008: 2954: 2889: 2873: 2842: 2796: 2788: 2626: 2622: 2453: 1456: 1258: 1151: 1066: 1041: 895: 861: 775: 588: 303: 7068: 6751: 6137: 5206: 4704:"Trace elements indicating humid climatic events in the Ordovician–early Silurian" 7854: 7850: 7846: 7723: 7619: 7557: 7452: 7421: 7390: 7106: 7094: 6897: 6873: 6428: 6376: 6274: 6090: 6059: 5808: 5597: 4974: 4719: 4612: 4563: 4452: 4425: 4241: 4216:"Ordovician and Silurian sea-water chemistry, sea level, and climate: A synopsis" 3582: 2737: 2587:, which makes mineral nutrients available to plant cells; such fossilized fungal 2557: 2553: 2439:, Maysvillian (Upper Ordovician) near Madison, Indiana (scale bar is 5.0 mm) 1663: 1551: 914:

in the Cambrian and Silurian systems, respectively. Lapworth recognized that the

857: 339: 41: 7879: 3847: 3349: 3079:

Haq, B. U.; Schutter, SR (2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes".

1597:

Paleogeographic map of the Earth in the middle Ordovician, 470 million years ago

7873: 7692: 7562: 7457: 7426: 5434:"Ordovician faunas, island arcs and ophiolites in the Scandinavian Caledonides" 4589:

Rosenau, Nicholas A.; Hermann, Achim D.; Leslie, Stephen A. (15 January 2012).

4474:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4286: 3267: 3135: 3130: 2744:

and exposed terrestrial and marine surface-dwelling life to deadly ultraviolet

2508:

encrusting a gastropod; Cincinnatian (Upper Ordovician) of southeastern Indiana

2185: 2119:-forming corals appeared in the early Ordovician, including the earliest known 1793: 1555: 1329: 907: 887: 708: 7227: 6972: 6798: 6516: 6472: 6002: 5906: 5711: 5611: 5592: 5396: 4702:

Kiipli, Enli; Kiipli, Tarmo; Kallaste, Toivo; Pajusaar, Siim (December 2017).

4358: 4331: 3804: 3695: 3538: 3521: 3498: 1995:

fauna, which has persisted until the present day. Though less famous than the

1942: 1655:

The period was one of extensive, widespread tectonism and volcanism. However,

7897: 7593: 7583: 7552: 7515: 7447: 7416: 6902: 6806: 6651: 5698: 5527: 5459: 5311: 5144: 5082: 4985: 4812: 4504: 4400: 4304: 3916: 3319: 3275: 3013: 2988: 2885: 2661: 2282:

on a cobble from the Kope Formation in northern Kentucky with the cyclostome

2276: 2181: 2165: 2078: 2016: 2012: 1966: 1953: 1914: 1903: 1863: 1830: 1641: 1618: 966: 899: 868: 729: 716: 700: 656: 643: 72: 7099: 6677: 4804: 4495: 3100: 7884: 7815: 7665: 7588: 6759: 6695: 6636: 6233: 5760: 5620: 4899: 4820: 4676: 4522: 4026: 3983: 3934: 3108: 2903: 2810: 2792: 2725:

organisms were cosmopolitan in distribution and present at most latitudes.

2714: 2251: 2212: 2120: 2047: 1859: 1667: 1376: 973:. It has been theorized that this increase in impacts may originate from a 631: 6686: 3648: 2215:

and echinoderms all flourished, tabulate corals diversified and the first

7810: 7679: 7655: 7500: 7295: 7190: 7169: 6955: 5795: 4666: 4639: 2741: 2645: 2549: 2359: 2245: 2224: 2208: 2153: 2035:

communities. Their success epitomizes the greatly increased diversity of

2020: 2008: 1867: 1746: 1714: 1709: 1634: 1503: 1498: 1408: 1403: 1390: 1171: 1121: 974: 950: 911: 381: 354: 47: 6618: 6215: 5405: 3975: 3908: 2877: 2563: 2325:

Outcrop of Upper Ordovician limestone and minor shale, central Tennessee

2313:

Outcrop of Upper Ordovician rubbly limestone and shale, southern Indiana

2031:. Articulate brachiopods, in particular, largely replaced trilobites in 7805: 7765: 7708: 7505: 7379: 7279: 7211: 7087: 7052: 7020: 7003: 6075:"New Middle Ordovician (Darriwilian) faunas from the Sultanate of Oman" 6073:

Heward, A. P.; Fortey, R. A.; Miller, C. G.; Booth, G. A. (June 2023).

5092: 4295: 2940:"Global Stratotype Section and Point for base of the Ordovician System" 2672: 2584: 2580: 2458: 2417: 2364: 2343: 2338: 2256: 2235: 2229: 2149: 2136: 2116: 2094: 2055: 2024: 1937: 1930: 1922: 1819: 1656: 1610: 1563: 1287: 1273: 1263: 1071: 1048: 962: 685: 444: 408: 92: 7868: 4881: 3429:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 102. 2709:, may have also led to the glaciation. As the southern supercontinent 7820: 7770: 7744: 7703: 7650: 7495: 7471: 7352: 7342: 7331: 7185: 7049:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" 6980: 5853: 5834:

Zhan, Renbin; Rong, Jiayu; Cheng, Jinghui; Chen, Pengfei (May 2005).

4763: 4109: 4092: 2745: 2694: 2653: 2649: 2596: 2399: 2380: 2197: 2140: 2128: 2089: 2052: 2039:

shell-secreting organisms in the Ordovician compared to the Cambrian.

1988: 1958: 1934: 1910: 1907: 1766: 1734: 1614: 1438: 1430: 1194: 1136: 942: 891: 876: 865: 372: 230: 97: 7111: 5519: 3519: 3250:

Tomkins, Andrew G.; Martin, Erin L.; Cawood, Peter A. (2024-11-15).

7780: 7775: 7739: 7639: 7572: 7541: 7436: 7405: 7366: 7316: 7290: 7266: 7201: 5663: 5635: 5303: 4986:

Cooper, John D.; Miller, Richard H.; Patterson, Jacqueline (1986).

4535: 2710: 2679: 2657: 2641: 2477: 2283: 2193: 2177: 2161: 2132: 2124: 2112: 1983: 1918: 1899: 1895: 1838: 1815: 1770: 1730: 1690: 1678: 1630: 1602: 1601:

During the Ordovician, the southern continents were assembled into

1395: 1353: 1187: 1101: 1034: 990: 946: 938: 880: 872: 611: 390: 294: 256: 87: 82: 67: 62: 52: 5987:"Diversity and evolutionary rates of Cambro-Ordovician nautiloids" 5789:

Harper, David A. T.; Zhan, Ren-Bin; Jin, Jisuo (March–June 2015).

5549:"Palaeos Paleozoic : Ordovician : The Ordovician Period" 5483: 5481: 1648:

formed a deep embayment between Siberia and the Central Mongolian

7794: 7734: 7484: 7321: 7305: 6453:

Ritchie, Alexander; Gilbert-Tomlinson, Joyce (24 November 1976).

5695: 4039: 3292: 2823: 2668: 2421: 2403: 2384: 2220: 2189: 2059: 2028: 1926: 1883: 1823: 1811: 1750: 1649: 1626: 1606: 1593: 1223:

Approximate correlation of Ordovician regional series and stages

922: 113: 102: 77: 6922: 6498:"Patterns and processes in the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution" 6190:"The origin and early phylogenetic history of jawed vertebrates" 5836:"Early-Mid Ordovician brachiopod diversification in South China" 5733:

Song, Zhenyu; Xiao, Yunpeng; Xiao, Chuantao (19 February 2020).

4968:

Palaeos Paleozoic : Ordovician : The Ordovician Period

4852: 3663: 3186:"On the Tripartite Classification of the Lower Palaeozoic Rocks" 2461:) from northeastern Estonia; approximately 5 cm in diameter 7830: 7713: 7347: 7206: 7174: 6727: 5478: 4466: 3864: 3724: 2736:

An alternate extinction hypothesis suggested that a ten-second

2216: 1834: 1640:

Other geographic features of the Ordovician world included the

1543: 1461: 1420: 1294: 1177: 1162: 1156: 1142: 1127: 1107: 1092: 1086: 1077: 915: 704: 635: 447: 399: 363: 5566: 3882: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3446: 2938:

Cooper, Roger; Nowlan, Godfrey; Williams, S. H. (March 2001).

2859: 2671:, in the Hirnantian faunal stage, that ended the long, stable 1792:

comparable to those during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum.

871:. The Ordovician spans 41.6 million years from the end of the 835: 6851: 5332:

Harper, D.A.T.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Williams, S.H. (May 1996).

3712: 3252:"Evidence suggesting that earth had a ring in the Ordovician" 2630: 2592: 2588: 2572: 2157: 2108: 2004: 1025: 918: 6446: 5932:

Novack-Gottshall, Philip M.; Miller, Arnold I. (Fall 2003).

5204: 4776: 4701: 3216:"New type of meteorite linked to ancient asteroid collision" 1878: 778: 27:

Second period of the Paleozoic Era 485–444 million years ago

6780: 6652:"Origin and Radiation of the Earliest Vascular Land Plants" 6649: 6567:

10.1669/0883-1351(2001)016<0524:DNPBAS>2.0.CO;2

6455:"First Ordovician vertebrates from the Southern Hemisphere" 5952:

10.1666/0094-8373(2003)029<0576:CGAEDD>2.0.CO;2

5500:

Zhiyi, Zhou; Wenwei, Yuan; Zhiqiang, Zhou (19 March 2007).

5037:

10.1666/0094-8373(2008)034[0195:ANBMFQ]2.0.CO;2

4393:

10.1130/0091-7613(1989)017<0951:TVITTM>2.3.CO;2

4266: 4209: 3819: 3768:

10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0875:GOVAFI>2.3.CO;2

3601: 3546: 3443: 3350:"Latest version of international chronostratigraphic chart" 2083: 1762: 1007: 1003: 958: 817: 805: 799: 784: 5925: 5590: 5331: 4329: 3377: 2989:"The GSSP Method of Chronostratigraphy: A Critical Review" 2693:

out of the air as they erode. Another possibility is that

2567:

Colonization of land would have been limited to shorelines

832: 796: 6831:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 358, 360. 4637: 829: 793: 6452: 5284: 4640:"Glacial onset predated Late Ordovician climate cooling" 2156:) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in 1784:

The Early Ordovician climate was very hot, with intense

1000: 6401:

Vinn, O.; Wilson, M.A.; Mõtus, M.-A.; Toom, U. (2014).

6394: 6240: 6072: 5432:

Pedersen, R.B.; Bruton, D.L.; Furnes, H. (March 1992).

5062:

Cocks, L. Robin M.; Torsvik, Trond H. (December 2021).

4004: 3947: 3474: 2200:. The first evidence of land plants also appeared (see 6109: 5931: 4914:"Humble moss helped to cool Earth and spurred on life" 4697: 4695: 4090: 993:

regional stratigraphic schemes are also used locally.

6590: 6247:

Nõlvak, Jaak; Liang, Yan; Hints, Olle (1 July 2019).

6181: 5887:

Patzkowsky, Mark E.; Holland, Steven M. (Fall 1997).

4989:

A Trip Through Time: Principles of Historical Geology

4469:"A high-resolution record of early Paleozoic climate" 3205:

the Ordovician System, after this old British tribe."

2772: 844: 808: 6352: 6029: 5431: 4588: 4179: 2937: 2539:) from the Ordovician near Caney Springs, Tennessee 826: 814: 790: 781: 7088:

Ordovician fossils of the famous Cincinnatian Group

6586: 6584: 6544: 6495: 6491: 6489: 6400: 5633: 5499: 5165:Fortey, Richard A.; Cocks, L.Robin M. (June 2003). 4692: 3948:Heck, Philipp R.; Schmitz, Birger; Baur, Heinrich; 3742: 3249: 3151:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart v.2015/01" 2015:organisms. The trilobite, inarticulate brachiopod, 823: 787: 130: 6307: 5627: 4947:. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 87. 3326:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2020. 3078: 2678:The ice age was possibly not long-lasting. Oxygen 2160:reveal that they probably originated in the Early 2007:increased fourfold, resulting in 12% of all known 1773:, dissolved rapidly on the sea floor after death. 1550:(subdivided into Abereiddian and Llandeilian) and 898:in 1879 to resolve a dispute between followers of 7001: 6854:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6408:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6360:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6254:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6039:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5886: 5833: 5377:Penny, Amelia; Kröger, Björn (18 November 2019). 5339:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4992:. Columbus: Merrill Publishing Company. pp. 4596:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4543:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4431:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4221:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4139:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2633:that became extinct. The only larger one was the 2127:, which appeared during the Cambrian or even the 1818:as Africa and South America, which were near the 7895: 6581: 6538: 6486: 6301: 6246: 6118:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 5634:Taylor, P.D.; Berning, B.; Wilson, M.A. (2013). 5121:"Biogeography of Ordovician and Silurian faunas" 3681: 3624: 3289: 1962:, one of the largest predators of the Ordovician 1753:was the primary inorganic marine precipitate of 7257: 6187: 6115: 5119:Cocks, L. R. M.; Fortey, R. A. (January 1990). 5064:"Ordovician palaeogeography and climate change" 4205: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4197: 4195: 3780: 1862:, which was closed off by the Late Ordovician, 1822:at the time, facilitating the formation of the 1588: 485:Subdivision of the Ordovician according to the 7002:Holland, Steven M; Patzkowsky, Mark E (2015). 6885: 6883: 4175: 4173: 4171: 3840:The Evolution of the Chilean-Argentinean Andes 3425:Torsvik, Trond H.; Cocks, L. Robin M. (2017). 2621:The Ordovician came to a close in a series of 2424:in an Ordovician limestone, southern Minnesota 2097:and nautiloids while other trilobites such as 2082:, the earliest known eurypterid, and found in 1217: 957:considerably increased the diversity of life. 7243: 7127: 6346: 6035: 5788: 5636:"Reinterpretation of the Cambrian 'bryozoan' 5240:Burrett, Clive; Stait, Bryan (October 1985). 4419: 4417: 4131: 4084: 2775:"The microfossil record of early land plants" 6928: 6820: 5732: 5487: 5239: 5061: 4373:Brandt, Danita S.; Elias, Robert J. (1989). 4192: 3870: 3825: 3730: 3718: 3669: 3612: 3552: 3462: 3424: 996: 6934: 6880: 5541: 5376: 5164: 5118: 4739: 4372: 4168: 4125: 3842:. Springer Earth System Sciences: 133–161. 2927:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 1761:were thus very common, along with calcitic 802: 492:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago. 7250: 7236: 7134: 7120: 6845: 6079:Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 4979: 4414: 3288:Details on the Dapingian are available at 3030:"Series and Stages of the Silurian System" 1699: 1537: 7019: 6954: 6685: 6626: 6223: 5610: 5404: 5091: 5081: 4936: 4889: 4675: 4665: 4512: 4494: 4451: 4357: 4294: 4159: 4108: 4067: 3924: 3537: 3048: 3012: 2893: 2800: 1769:, like that composing the shells of most 955:Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event 5978: 3876: 3354:International Commission on Stratigraphy 3324:Subcommission on Ordovician Stratigraphy 3158:International Commission on Stratigraphy 2562: 2263:that appear in abundance at this time. 2072: 2041: 1976: 1965: 1952: 1877: 1779: 1724: 1592: 879:(million years ago) to the start of the 6906:, 8 March 2010 (retrieved 30 June 2014) 6826: 3941: 3143: 3027: 2131:, became common and varied, especially 14: 7896: 6940: 4423: 2675:conditions typical of the Ordovician. 2652:were greatly reduced, along with many 2168:(jawed fish) may have appeared in the 977:that formed around Earth at the time. 482: 7231: 7141: 7115: 7100:Ordovician (chronostratigraphy scale) 7004:"The stratigraphy of mass extinction" 6943:International Journal of Astrobiology 6496:Wilson, M. A.; Palmer, T. J. (2006). 6334:from the original on 13 November 2022 6315:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 6289:from the original on 13 November 2022 6188:Brazeau, M. D.; Friedman, M. (2015). 5984: 5868:from the original on 13 November 2022 5815:from the original on 13 November 2022 5567:"A Guide to the Orders of Trilobites" 4942: 4645:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 4570:from the original on 29 December 2022 3837: 3564: 3245: 3243: 3241: 2986: 2617:Ordovician–Silurian extinction events 935:Ordovician–Silurian extinction events 7066: 5466:from the original on 14 October 2023 5221:from the original on 14 October 2023 5016: 4924:from the original on 5 November 2018 4729:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 4631: 3784:Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 3522:"A brief history of the Rheic Ocean" 3060:from the original on 19 January 2022 2968:from the original on 11 January 2021 2610: 1933:were also heavily affected, and the 1886:depicting Ordovician flora and fauna 1749:geochemistry in which low-magnesium 1670:collided with Laurentia to form the 457: 431: 7849:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 7046: 6919:(Cambridge University Press) p. 491 6097:from the original on 17 August 2023 6017:from the original on 13 August 2023 5966:from the original on 13 August 2023 5292:Geological Society, London, Memoirs 5247:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5125:Geological Society, London, Memoirs 4943:Dixon, Dougal; et al. (2001). 4311:from the original on 7 October 2023 4274:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4248:from the original on 17 August 2023 4047:Meteoritics & Planetary Science 3256:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2827:Meteoritics & Planetary Science 864:, the second of six periods of the 24: 7853:= megaannum (millions years ago); 6891:High-carbon ice age mystery solved 5740:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 5452:10.1111/j.1365-3121.1992.tb00475.x 5358:from the original on 16 April 2024 5266:from the original on 22 April 2024 4069:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00221.x 3392:10.1016/b978-0-12-824360-2.00020-6 3238: 2987:Lucas, Sepncer (6 November 2018). 2847:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00221.x 1850:, and other minor oceans included 1605:, which reached from north of the 1002:The Ordovician subdivisions with " 25: 7925: 7857:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 7040: 5913:from the original on 23 July 2023 5537:– via Wiley Online Library. 4619:from the original on 7 April 2019 3628:Journal of the Geological Society 3478:Journal of the Geological Society 3427:Earth history and palaeogeography 3226:from the original on 3 April 2019 2635:Permian–Triassic extinction event 928:International Geological Congress 7878: 7867: 6995: 6909: 5551:. April 11, 2002. Archived from 5413:from the original on 3 June 2023 5100:from the original on 14 May 2023 5043:from the original on 19 May 2023 4132:Stanley, S.; Hardie, L. (1998). 3589:from the original on 22 May 2023 3330:from the original on 11 May 2022 3306:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2009.00169.x 2773:Wellman, C.H.; Gray, J. (2000). 2528: 2513: 2497: 2485: 2466: 2444: 2429: 2410: 2391: 2379:Outcrop of Ordovician kukersite 2372: 2351: 2330: 2318: 2306: 2294: 2268: 1176: 1161: 1141: 1126: 1106: 1091: 1076: 953:are known from this period. The 886:The Ordovician, named after the 774: 112: 45: 7075:from the original on 2016-03-06 6774: 6721: 6710:from the original on 2021-08-15 6643: 6435:from the original on 2018-08-18 6383:from the original on 2018-08-18 6353:Vinn, O.; Mõtus, M.-A. (2012). 6170:from the original on 2022-07-03 6152: 6066: 5880: 5827: 5782: 5726: 5689: 5678:from the original on 2019-06-07 5584: 5573:from the original on 2019-02-18 5559: 5493: 5425: 5370: 5325: 5278: 5233: 5198: 5158: 5112: 5055: 5010: 4961: 4906: 4846: 4835:from the original on 2022-10-06 4770: 4733: 4582: 4529: 4460: 4424:Elrick, Maya (1 October 2022). 4366: 4337:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4323: 4260: 4033: 3998: 3831: 3774: 3736: 3675: 3618: 3565:Trela, Wieslaw (15 July 2005). 3558: 3513: 3468: 3418: 3408:from the original on 2023-01-06 3371: 3360:from the original on 2014-05-30 3342: 3312: 3282: 3208: 3178: 3167:from the original on 2015-04-02 2959:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i1/005 2398:Bryozoan fossils in Ordovician 1720: 980: 7084:An Ordovician reef in Vermont. 6328:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2017.08.008 5137:10.1144/GSL.MEM.1990.012.01.08 5017:Heim, Noel A. (8 April 2016). 3386:, Elsevier, pp. 631–694, 3123: 3072: 3050:10.18814/epiiugs/1985/v8i2/005 3021: 2980: 2931: 2913: 2853: 2817: 2766: 2748:and initiated global cooling. 1826:of the Hirnantian glaciation. 849:-ee-ən, -⁠doh-, -⁠ 430: 13: 1: 7296:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 7069:"Chazy Reef at Isle La Motte" 6752:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920 6138:10.1144/GSL.SP.1986.020.01.06 5985:Crick, Rex M. (Spring 1981). 5185:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00115-0 4161:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00109-6 2759: 2602: 1917:completely died out, and the 1814:during the Hirnantian on the 1745:The Ordovician was a time of 1741:of Franklin County, Indiana). 754:Atmospheric and climatic data 6874:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.02.033 6429:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.08.021 6377:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.028 6275:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.04.002 6160:"12.7: Vertebrate Evolution" 6091:10.1016/j.pgeola.2023.02.004 6060:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.12.015 5841:Science China Earth Sciences 5809:10.1016/j.palwor.2015.03.003 5384:Nature Ecology and Evolution 5352:10.1016/0031-0182(95)00079-8 5260:10.1016/0012-821X(85)90100-1 4720:10.1016/j.chemer.2017.05.002 4613:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.12.003 4564:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.11.026 4453:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111209 4242:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.08.001 4210:Munnecke, Axel; Calner, M.; 3583:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.05.005 2751:Recent work considering the 2202:evolutionary history of life 1729:External mold of Ordovician 1589:Paleogeography and tectonics 1206: 1053: 906:, who were placing the same 7: 7259:Geological history of Earth 6827:Stanley, Steven M. (1999). 3848:10.1007/978-3-319-67774-3_6 2480:from the Ordovician of Iowa 1218:Global/regional correlation 965:, continued to evolve, and 759:Sea level above present day 483: 225: 10: 7930: 7532:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 7527:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 7291:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 6915:Emiliani, Cesare. (1992). 6816:– via Springer Link. 4287:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117717 4214:; Servais, Thomas (2010). 3268:10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118991 2993:Frontiers in Earth Science 2687:late Ordovician glaciation 2629:in terms of percentage of 2614: 2437:Vinlandostrophia ponderosa 2111:date back to at least the 1804:Late Ordovician glaciation 1733:showing that the original 1569: 1257: 40:485.4 ± 1.9 – 443.8 ± 1.5 7844: 7829: 7816:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 7793: 7753: 7722: 7691: 7678: 7666:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 7638: 7607: 7571: 7540: 7514: 7483: 7470: 7435: 7404: 7378: 7365: 7330: 7304: 7278: 7265: 7149: 6973:10.1017/S1473550404001910 6799:10.1007/s10347-019-0579-y 6517:10.1080/10420940600850505 6473:10.1080/03115517708527770 6003:10.1017/S0094837300003997 5907:10.1017/S0094837300019825 5712:10.1080/11035890701292065 5612:10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.039 5397:10.1038/s41559-019-1035-7 4359:10.1016/j.gca.2017.11.015 3805:10.1080/08120090601147019 3539:10.1016/j.gsf.2011.11.008 3499:10.1144/0016-76492008-088 3136:Dictionary.com Unabridged 3028:Holland, C. (June 1985). 2740:could have destroyed the 2363:borings in an Ordovician 2342:borings in an Ordovician 2068:cosmopolitan distribution 2051:, a large filter-feeding 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1474: 1468: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1444: 1437: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1407: 1402: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1328: 1323: 1320: 1304: 1301: 1293: 1283: 1277: 1267: 1150: 1115: 1065: 1060: 997:ICS (global) subdivisions 961:, the world's first true 758: 753: 745: 696: 681:Upper boundary definition 680: 672: 622: 616:Iapetognathus fluctivagus 604:Lower boundary definition 603: 595: 584: 574: 564: 559: 551: 539: 529: 524: 516: 508: 503: 128: 123: 111: 37: 32: 7811:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 7656:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 7501:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 7353:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 7343:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 6929:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 5488:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 5083:10.1016/j.gr.2020.09.008 4973:21 December 2007 at the 3871:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3826:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3731:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3719:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3670:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3613:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3553:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3463:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3384:Geologic Time Scale 2020 3184:Charles Lapworth (1879) 3014:10.3389/feart.2018.00191 2544: 1948: 1943:first terrestrial plants 1894:that seriously affected 1799:Early Palaeozoic Ice Age 1790:sea surface temperatures 937:. Invertebrates, namely 133: 7806:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 7771:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 7766:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 7709:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 7599:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 7506:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 7317:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 6678:10.1126/science.1169659 5644:Journal of Paleontology 5211:Bulletin of Geosciences 4805:10.1126/science.1155814 4496:10.1073/pnas.2013083118 4060:2007M&PS...42..113K 3380:"The Ordovician Period" 3320:"The Ordovician Period" 3101:10.1126/science.1161648 2839:2007M&PS...42..113K 2707:Ordovician meteor event 2506:Protaraea richmondensis 2451:The Ordovician cystoid 1971:Fossiliferous limestone 1873: 1706:Ordovician meteor event 1700:Ordovician meteor event 1538:British stages and ages 971:Ordovician meteor event 470:Ordovician meteor event 216:−445 — 206:−450 — 196:−455 — 186:−460 — 176:−465 — 166:−470 — 156:−475 — 146:−480 — 136:−485 — 7776:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 7745:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 7704:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 7651:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 7496:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 7322:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 7155:Lower/Early Ordovician 7047:Ogg, Jim (June 2004). 5761:10.1139/cjes-2019-0141 4945:Atlas of Life on Earth 4027:10.1006/icar.1996.0010 2793:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612 2780:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2701:levels. The drop in CO 2568: 2346:, southeastern Indiana 2086: 2062: 1991: 1974: 1963: 1892:mass-extinction events 1887: 1742: 1598: 7781:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 7740:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 7661:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 7348:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 7161:Upper/Late Ordovician 7067:Mehrtens, Charlotte. 6598:Nature Communications 5555:on December 21, 2007. 5172:Earth-Science Reviews 3889:Nature Communications 3696:10.1130/2010.2466(01) 3649:10.1144/jgs.158.2.321 2866:Nature Communications 2753:sequence stratigraphy 2585:mycorrhizal symbiosis 2577:arbuscular mycorrhiza 2571:Among the first land 2566: 2504:The heliolitid coral 2261:carbonate hardgrounds 2076: 2045: 1980: 1969: 1956: 1881: 1780:Climate and sea level 1759:Carbonate hardgrounds 1739:Waynesville Formation 1728: 1683:dense rock equivalent 1672:Appalachian Mountains 1596: 1244:North American series 690:Akidograptus ascensus 7914:1879 in paleontology 7821:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 7714:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 7594:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 7584:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 6829:Earth System History 6363:. 321–322: 137–141. 4667:10.1002/2016PA002928 4599:. 315–316: 172–180. 3684:Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 3672:, pp. 102, 106. 3526:Geoscience Frontiers 2925:www.stratigraphy.org 2402:oil shale, northern 2146:Nemagraptus gracilis 2001:Ordovician radiation 1846:covered much of the 1668:volcanic island arcs 1646:Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean 1247:North American stage 626:Greenpoint section, 7876: • 7865: • 7863:Geologic time scale 7625:Middle (458–470 Ma) 7589:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 7558:Middle (383–393 Ma) 7453:Middle (237–247 Ma) 7422:Middle (164–174 Ma) 6965:2004IJAsB...3...55M 6931:, pp. 122–123. 6866:2010PPP...296..376Y 6744:2000Sci...289.1920R 6738:(5486): 1920–1921. 6670:2009Sci...324..353S 6619:10.1038/ncomms12113 6611:2016NatCo...712113P 6559:2001Palai..16..524W 6421:2014PPP...414..129V 6369:2012PPP...321..137V 6267:2019PPP...525...14N 6216:10.1038/nature14438 6208:2015Natur.520..490B 6130:1986GSLSP..20...47F 6052:2009PPP...273..174K 5753:2020CaJES..57..999S 5656:2013JPal...87..984T 4920:. 2 February 2012. 4874:2016NatSR...618884R 4797:2008Sci...321..550T 4756:2005Geo....33..405F 4658:2016PalOc..31..800P 4605:2012PPP...315..172R 4556:2010PPP...294..202V 4487:2021PNAS..11813083G 4444:2022PPP...603k1209E 4350:2018GeCoA.224...18B 4234:2010PPP...296..389M 4212:Harper, David A. T. 4152:1998PPP...144....3S 4019:1996Icar..119..182H 3976:10.1038/nature02736 3968:2004Natur.430..323H 3909:10.1038/ncomms14066 3901:2017NatCo...814066L 3873:, pp. 103–105. 3797:2007AuJES..54..385G 3760:1992Geo....20..875H 3733:, pp. 106–109. 3641:2001JGSoc.158..321T 3571:Sedimentary Geology 3491:2009JGSoc.166..501P 3190:Geological Magazine 3093:2008Sci...322...64H 3005:2018FrEaS...6..191L 2878:10.1038/ncomms14066 2280:Cystaster stellatus 1921:were much reduced. 1848:Northern Hemisphere 1583:Geologic Time Scale 1224: 1011: 746:Upper GSSP ratified 726: / 697:Upper boundary GSSP 673:Lower GSSP ratified 657:49.6829°N 57.9653°W 653: / 623:Lower boundary GSSP 596:Time span formality 7909:Geological periods 7874:Geology portal 7735:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 7630:Early (470–485 Ma) 7563:Early (393–419 Ma) 7458:Early (247–252 Ma) 7427:Early (174–201 Ma) 7396:Early (100–145 Ma) 7391:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 7105:2022-10-06 at the 7093:2009-01-03 at the 7021:10.1111/pala.12188 6896:2015-04-23 at the 6164:Biology LibreTexts 5507:Geological Journal 5490:, p. 112-113. 4861:Scientific Reports 4481:(6): e2013083118. 2921:"Chart/Time Scale" 2569: 2104:Asaphus kowalewski 2087: 2063: 1997:Cambrian explosion 1992: 1975: 1964: 1888: 1844:Panthalassic Ocean 1743: 1599: 1305:Chientangkiangian 1222: 1001: 904:Roderick Murchison 730:55.4400°N 3.2700°W 575:Stratigraphic unit 565:Chronological unit 552:Time scale(s) used 7891: 7890: 7789: 7788: 7755:Paleoproterozoic 7674: 7673: 7620:Late (444–458 Ma) 7553:Late (359–383 Ma) 7466: 7465: 7448:Late (201–237 Ma) 7417:Late (145–164 Ma) 7361: 7360: 7282:(present–2.58 Ma) 7270:(present–66.0 Ma) 7225: 7224: 7220: 7219: 7158:Middle Ordovician 7143:Ordovician Period 6838:978-0-7167-2882-5 6202:(7548): 490–497. 5069:Gondwana Research 5003:978-0-675-20140-7 4954:978-0-7607-1957-2 4882:10.1038/srep18884 4791:(5888): 550–554. 3950:Halliday, Alex N. 3857:978-3-319-67773-6 3721:, pp. 93–94. 3401:978-0-12-824360-2 2787:(1398): 717–732. 2623:extinction events 2611:End of the period 2556:forms resembling 2521:Zygospira modesta 2289:in the background 2275:Upper Ordovician 1755:calcium carbonate 1562:Katian, plus the 1535: 1534: 1386:Middle Ordovician 1215: 1214: 1211: 1204: 1197: 1190: 1117:Middle Ordovician 1056: 1051: 1044: 1037: 894:, was defined by 883:Period 443.8 Ma. 766: 765: 662:49.6829; -57.9653 585:First proposed by 525:Usage information 498: 497: 478: 477: 456: 455: 18:Middle Ordovician 16:(Redirected from 7921: 7885:World portal 7883: 7882: 7872: 7871: 7834: 7798: 7758: 7727: 7724:Mesoproterozoic 7696: 7689: 7688: 7684: 7643: 7612: 7576: 7545: 7519: 7488: 7481: 7480: 7476: 7440: 7409: 7383: 7376: 7375: 7371: 7335: 7309: 7283: 7276: 7275: 7271: 7252: 7245: 7238: 7229: 7228: 7152: 7151: 7136: 7129: 7122: 7113: 7112: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7063: 7061: 7060: 7051:. Archived from 7034: 7033: 7023: 6999: 6993: 6992: 6958: 6956:astro-ph/0309415 6938: 6932: 6926: 6920: 6913: 6907: 6887: 6878: 6877: 6860:(3–4): 376–388. 6849: 6843: 6842: 6824: 6818: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6778: 6772: 6771: 6725: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6715: 6689: 6647: 6641: 6640: 6630: 6588: 6579: 6578: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6527:. Archived from 6502: 6493: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6479: 6450: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6440: 6398: 6392: 6391: 6389: 6388: 6350: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6339: 6305: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6227: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6175: 6156: 6150: 6149: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6046:(1–2): 174–183. 6033: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6022: 5982: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5929: 5923: 5922: 5920: 5918: 5884: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5873: 5854:10.1360/03yd0586 5831: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5820: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5730: 5724: 5723: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5683: 5640:as an octocoral" 5631: 5625: 5624: 5614: 5605:(9): 1017–1023. 5588: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5514:(3–4): 297–313. 5497: 5491: 5485: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5408: 5391:(1): 1655–1660. 5374: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5346:(3–4): 297–312. 5329: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5254:(2–3): 184–190. 5237: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5179:(3–4): 245–307. 5162: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5095: 5085: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5014: 5008: 5007: 4983: 4977: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4893: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4764:10.1130/G21180.1 4737: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4699: 4690: 4689: 4679: 4669: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4550:(3–4): 202–219. 4533: 4527: 4526: 4516: 4498: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4421: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4298: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4228:(3–4): 389–413. 4207: 4190: 4189: 4177: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4112: 4110:10.1130/G46861.1 4088: 4082: 4081: 4071: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3928: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3835: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3791:(2–3): 385–415. 3778: 3772: 3771: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3577:(3–4): 219–236. 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3541: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3472: 3466: 3460: 3441: 3440: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3414: 3413: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3365: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3247: 3236: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3222:. 15 June 2016. 3212: 3206: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3172: 3166: 3160:. January 2015. 3155: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3059: 3052: 3034: 3025: 3019: 3018: 3016: 2984: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2967: 2944: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2897: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2821: 2815: 2814: 2804: 2770: 2532: 2517: 2501: 2489: 2470: 2454:Echinosphaerites 2448: 2433: 2414: 2395: 2376: 2355: 2334: 2322: 2310: 2298: 2272: 2227:") vertebrates, 1816:land we now know 1617:(in present-day 1457:Lower Ordovician 1324:Neichianshanian 1259:Upper Ordovician 1250:Australian stage 1225: 1221: 1207: 1200: 1193: 1186: 1180: 1165: 1152:Lower Ordovician 1145: 1130: 1110: 1095: 1080: 1067:Upper Ordovician 1054: 1047: 1040: 1033: 1024:Lower boundary ( 1012: 921:in the disputed 896:Charles Lapworth 852: 848: 842: 841: 838: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 820: 819: 816: 811: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 792: 789: 786: 783: 780: 741: 740: 738: 737: 736: 735:55.4400; -3.2700 731: 727: 724: 723: 722: 719: 668: 667: 665: 664: 663: 658: 654: 651: 650: 649: 646: 589:Charles Lapworth 472: 463: 458: 450: 437: 432: 411: 402: 393: 384: 375: 366: 357: 348: 333: 314: 288: 250: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 131: 116: 107: 44: 30: 29: 21: 7929: 7928: 7924: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7919: 7918: 7894: 7893: 7892: 7887: 7877: 7866: 7858: 7840: 7832: 7825: 7796: 7785: 7756: 7749: 7725: 7718: 7694: 7693:Neoproterozoic 7683:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 7682: 7681: 7680:Proterozoic Eon 7670: 7641: 7634: 7610: 7603: 7574: 7567: 7543: 7536: 7517: 7510: 7486: 7474: 7473: 7462: 7438: 7431: 7407: 7400: 7381: 7369: 7368: 7357: 7333: 7326: 7307: 7300: 7281: 7269: 7268: 7261: 7256: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7195: 7179: 7145: 7140: 7107:Wayback Machine 7095:Wayback Machine 7078: 7076: 7058: 7056: 7043: 7038: 7037: 7000: 6996: 6939: 6935: 6927: 6923: 6914: 6910: 6898:Wayback Machine 6888: 6881: 6850: 6846: 6839: 6825: 6821: 6811: 6809: 6779: 6775: 6726: 6722: 6713: 6711: 6648: 6644: 6589: 6582: 6543: 6539: 6531: 6500: 6494: 6487: 6477: 6475: 6451: 6447: 6438: 6436: 6399: 6395: 6386: 6384: 6351: 6347: 6337: 6335: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6290: 6245: 6241: 6186: 6182: 6173: 6171: 6158: 6157: 6153: 6114: 6110: 6100: 6098: 6071: 6067: 6034: 6030: 6020: 6018: 5983: 5979: 5969: 5967: 5930: 5926: 5916: 5914: 5885: 5881: 5871: 5869: 5832: 5828: 5818: 5816: 5787: 5783: 5773: 5771: 5747:(8): 999–1009. 5731: 5727: 5694: 5690: 5681: 5679: 5632: 5628: 5598:Current Biology 5589: 5585: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5564: 5560: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5532: 5530: 5520:10.1002/gj.1076 5498: 5494: 5486: 5479: 5469: 5467: 5430: 5426: 5416: 5414: 5375: 5371: 5361: 5359: 5330: 5326: 5316: 5314: 5283: 5279: 5269: 5267: 5238: 5234: 5224: 5222: 5203: 5199: 5189: 5187: 5163: 5159: 5149: 5147: 5117: 5113: 5103: 5101: 5060: 5056: 5046: 5044: 5015: 5011: 5004: 4984: 4980: 4975:Wayback Machine 4966: 4962: 4955: 4941: 4937: 4927: 4925: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4851: 4847: 4838: 4836: 4775: 4771: 4738: 4734: 4724: 4722: 4700: 4693: 4677:1854/LU-8057556 4636: 4632: 4622: 4620: 4587: 4583: 4573: 4571: 4534: 4530: 4465: 4461: 4422: 4415: 4405: 4403: 4371: 4367: 4328: 4324: 4314: 4312: 4265: 4261: 4251: 4249: 4208: 4193: 4178: 4169: 4130: 4126: 4089: 4085: 4038: 4034: 4003: 3999: 3962:(6997): 323–5. 3946: 3942: 3881: 3877: 3869: 3865: 3858: 3836: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3779: 3775: 3754:(10): 875–878. 3741: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3706: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3602: 3592: 3590: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3518: 3514: 3473: 3469: 3461: 3444: 3437: 3423: 3419: 3411: 3409: 3402: 3376: 3372: 3363: 3361: 3348: 3347: 3343: 3333: 3331: 3318: 3317: 3313: 3287: 3283: 3248: 3239: 3229: 3227: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3183: 3179: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3153: 3149: 3148: 3144: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3087:(5898): 64–68. 3077: 3073: 3063: 3061: 3057: 3032: 3026: 3022: 2985: 2981: 2971: 2969: 2965: 2942: 2936: 2932: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2858: 2854: 2822: 2818: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2738:gamma-ray burst 2704: 2700: 2692: 2627:Earth's history 2619: 2613: 2605: 2547: 2540: 2533: 2524: 2518: 2509: 2502: 2493: 2490: 2481: 2476:, a trepostome 2471: 2462: 2449: 2440: 2434: 2425: 2415: 2406: 2396: 2387: 2377: 2368: 2367:, southern Ohio 2356: 2347: 2335: 2326: 2323: 2314: 2311: 2302: 2299: 2290: 2273: 2188:, and many new 2170:Late Ordovician 1951: 1876: 1788:conditions and 1782: 1723: 1702: 1664:Taconic orogeny 1591: 1572: 1540: 1220: 1006:" according to 999: 983: 967:those with jaws 858:geologic period 850: 846: 822: 813: 777: 773: 734: 732: 728: 725: 720: 717: 715: 713: 712: 711: 661: 659: 655: 652: 647: 644: 642: 640: 639: 638: 499: 494: 493: 491: 474: 473: 468: 461: 452: 451: 442: 435: 428: 427: 423: 422: 418: 417: 413: 412: 407: 404: 403: 398: 395: 394: 389: 386: 385: 380: 377: 376: 371: 368: 367: 362: 359: 358: 353: 350: 349: 345: 343: 341: 338: 335: 334: 330: 328: 326: 324: 322: 319: 316: 315: 311: 309: 307: 305: 302: 299: 298: 290: 289: 284: 282: 280: 278: 276: 274: 272: 270: 268: 264: 261: 260: 252: 251: 246: 244: 242: 240: 238: 236: 234: 232: 228: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 119: 106: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 39: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7927: 7917: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7889: 7888: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7802: 7800: 7791: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7784: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7762: 7760: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7731: 7729: 7720: 7719: 7717: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7700: 7698: 7686: 7676: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7647: 7645: 7636: 7635: 7633: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7616: 7614: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7580: 7578: 7569: 7568: 7566: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7549: 7547: 7538: 7537: 7535: 7534: 7529: 7523: 7521: 7516:Carboniferous 7512: 7511: 7509: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7492: 7490: 7478: 7468: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7461: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7444: 7442: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7413: 7411: 7402: 7401: 7399: 7398: 7393: 7387: 7385: 7373: 7363: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7339: 7337: 7334:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 7328: 7327: 7325: 7324: 7319: 7313: 7311: 7308:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 7302: 7301: 7299: 7298: 7293: 7287: 7285: 7273: 7263: 7262: 7255: 7254: 7247: 7240: 7232: 7223: 7222: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7198: 7196: 7194: 7193: 7188: 7182: 7180: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7166: 7163: 7162: 7159: 7156: 7150: 7147: 7146: 7139: 7138: 7131: 7124: 7116: 7110: 7109: 7097: 7085: 7064: 7042: 7041:External links 7039: 7036: 7035: 7014:(5): 903–924. 6994: 6933: 6921: 6908: 6879: 6844: 6837: 6819: 6773: 6720: 6687:1854/LU-697223 6642: 6580: 6553:(5): 524–525. 6537: 6534:on 2008-12-16. 6511:(3): 109–112. 6485: 6467:(4): 351–368. 6445: 6393: 6345: 6300: 6239: 6180: 6166:. 2016-10-05. 6151: 6108: 6085:(3): 251–268. 6065: 6028: 5997:(2): 216–229. 5977: 5946:(4): 576–604. 5924: 5901:(4): 420–443. 5879: 5848:(5): 662–675. 5826: 5803:(1–2): 75–85. 5781: 5725: 5688: 5664:10.1666/13-029 5650:(6): 984–990. 5626: 5583: 5558: 5540: 5492: 5477: 5446:(2): 217–222. 5424: 5369: 5324: 5304:10.1144/M38.15 5298:(1): 199–220. 5277: 5232: 5217:(4): 465–538. 5197: 5157: 5111: 5054: 5031:(2): 195–209. 5009: 5002: 4978: 4960: 4953: 4935: 4905: 4845: 4769: 4732: 4714:(4): 625–631. 4691: 4652:(6): 800–821. 4630: 4581: 4528: 4459: 4413: 4365: 4322: 4259: 4191: 4167: 4124: 4103:(2): 194–199. 4083: 4032: 3997: 3940: 3875: 3863: 3856: 3830: 3828:, p. 105. 3818: 3773: 3735: 3723: 3711: 3704: 3674: 3662: 3635:(2): 321–329. 3617: 3615:, p. 112. 3600: 3557: 3555:, p. 103. 3545: 3532:(2): 125–135. 3512: 3485:(3): 501–515. 3467: 3465:, p. 102. 3442: 3435: 3417: 3400: 3370: 3341: 3311: 3300:(3): 377–380. 3281: 3237: 3207: 3202:Lower Silurian 3198:Upper Cambrian 3192:, new series, 3177: 3142: 3139:(Online). n.d. 3122: 3071: 3043:(2): 101–103. 3020: 2979: 2930: 2912: 2852: 2833:(1): 113–130. 2816: 2764: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2702: 2698: 2690: 2615:Main article: 2612: 2609: 2604: 2601: 2575:may have been 2546: 2543: 2542: 2541: 2537:Amplexograptus 2534: 2527: 2525: 2519: 2512: 2510: 2503: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2484: 2482: 2472: 2465: 2463: 2450: 2443: 2441: 2435: 2428: 2426: 2416: 2409: 2407: 2397: 2390: 2388: 2378: 2371: 2369: 2357: 2350: 2348: 2336: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2293: 2291: 2274: 2267: 2099:Aeglina prisca 2017:archaeocyathid 2013:filter-feeding 1981:The trilobite 1950: 1947: 1875: 1872: 1866:, and the new 1794:Carbon dioxide 1781: 1778: 1722: 1719: 1701: 1698: 1590: 1587: 1571: 1568: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1528: 1527: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1501: 1495: 1494: 1493:Lancefieldian 1491: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1481: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1459: 1453: 1452: 1451:Castlemainian 1449: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1350: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1255: 1254: 1253:Chinese stage 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1238:British series 1236: 1231: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1205: 1198: 1191: 1183: 1182: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1159: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1124: 1119: 1113: 1112: 1104: 1098: 1097: 1089: 1083: 1082: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1045: 1038: 1030: 1029: 1022: 1019: 1016: 998: 995: 982: 979: 764: 763: 760: 756: 755: 751: 750: 747: 743: 742: 698: 694: 693: 682: 678: 677: 674: 670: 669: 624: 620: 619: 605: 601: 600: 597: 593: 592: 586: 582: 581: 576: 572: 571: 566: 562: 561: 557: 556: 555:ICS Time Scale 553: 549: 548: 541: 540:Regional usage 537: 536: 531: 530:Celestial body 527: 526: 522: 521: 518: 514: 513: 510: 509:Name formality 506: 505: 501: 500: 496: 495: 480: 479: 476: 475: 467: 466: 464: 454: 453: 441: 440: 438: 429: 425: 424: 420: 419: 415: 414: 406: 405: 397: 396: 388: 387: 379: 378: 370: 369: 361: 360: 352: 351: 337: 336: 318: 317: 301: 300: 292: 291: 263: 262: 254: 253: 227: 226: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 126: 125: 121: 120: 117: 109: 108: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7926: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7886: 7881: 7875: 7870: 7864: 7861: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7843: 7837: 7835: 7828: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7801: 7799: 7792: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7763: 7761: 7759: 7752: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7721: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7701: 7699: 7697: 7695:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 7690: 7687: 7685: 7677: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7644: 7637: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7613: 7606: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7581: 7579: 7577: 7570: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7546: 7539: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7522: 7520: 7513: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7493: 7491: 7489: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7472:Paleozoic Era 7469: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7443: 7441: 7434: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7414: 7412: 7410: 7403: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7386: 7384: 7382:(66.0–145 Ma) 7377: 7374: 7372: 7370:(66.0–252 Ma) 7364: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7340: 7338: 7336: 7329: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7314: 7312: 7310: 7303: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7264: 7260: 7253: 7248: 7246: 7241: 7239: 7234: 7233: 7230: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7165: 7164: 7160: 7157: 7154: 7153: 7148: 7144: 7137: 7132: 7130: 7125: 7123: 7118: 7117: 7114: 7108: 7104: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7092: 7089: 7086: 7074: 7070: 7065: 7055:on 2006-04-23 7054: 7050: 7045: 7044: 7031: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7008:Palaeontology 7005: 6998: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6937: 6930: 6925: 6918: 6912: 6905: 6904: 6903:New Scientist 6899: 6895: 6892: 6886: 6884: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6840: 6834: 6830: 6823: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6777: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6732: 6724: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6664:(5925): 353. 6663: 6659: 6658: 6653: 6646: 6638: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6599: 6594: 6587: 6585: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6541: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6499: 6492: 6490: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6461: 6456: 6449: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6397: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6361: 6356: 6349: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6316: 6311: 6304: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6255: 6250: 6243: 6235: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6196: 6191: 6184: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6155: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6069: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6040: 6032: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5981: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5928: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5890: 5883: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5842: 5837: 5830: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5797: 5792: 5785: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5741: 5736: 5729: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5700: 5692: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5639: 5630: 5622: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5587: 5572: 5568: 5562: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5508: 5503: 5496: 5489: 5484: 5482: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5428: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5385: 5380: 5373: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5340: 5335: 5328: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5281: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5243: 5236: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5201: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5173: 5168: 5161: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5131:(1): 97–104. 5130: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5058: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5025: 5020: 5013: 5005: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4990: 4982: 4976: 4972: 4969: 4964: 4956: 4950: 4946: 4939: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4849: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4780: 4773: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4744: 4736: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4698: 4696: 4687: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4646: 4641: 4634: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4585: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4544: 4539: 4532: 4524: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4463: 4454: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4432: 4427: 4420: 4418: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4369: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4326: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4263: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4222: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4196: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4174: 4172: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4146:(1–2): 3–19. 4145: 4141: 4140: 4135: 4128: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4054:(1): 113–30. 4053: 4049: 4048: 4043: 4036: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4013:(1): 182–91. 4012: 4008: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3956: 3951: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3879: 3872: 3867: 3859: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3785: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3748: 3739: 3732: 3727: 3720: 3715: 3707: 3705:9780813724669 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3678: 3671: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3629: 3621: 3614: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3554: 3549: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3516: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3479: 3471: 3464: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3438: 3436:9781107105324 3432: 3428: 3421: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3374: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3294: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3225: 3221: 3220:Science Daily 3217: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3163: 3159: 3152: 3146: 3138: 3137: 3132: 3126: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3024: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2983: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2916: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2896: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2781: 2776: 2769: 2765: 2757: 2754: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2732: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2696: 2688: 2683: 2681: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2618: 2608: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2565: 2561: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2538: 2535:Graptolites ( 2531: 2526: 2522: 2516: 2511: 2507: 2500: 2495: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2455: 2447: 2442: 2438: 2432: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2413: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2394: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2361: 2354: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2340: 2333: 2328: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2281: 2278: 2277:edrioasteroid 2271: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2247: 2242: 2241:Palaeosabella 2238: 2237: 2232: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2217:rugose corals 2214: 2213:tentaculitids 2210: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2186:rhynchonellid 2183: 2179: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2085: 2081: 2080: 2079:Pentecopterus 2075: 2071: 2069: 2061: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1990: 1986: 1985: 1979: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1960: 1955: 1946: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1915:Ptychopariida 1912: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1885: 1880: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1864:Iapetus Ocean 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1831:North America 1827: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1718: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1642:Tornquist Sea 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1619:North America 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1595: 1586: 1584: 1579: 1577: 1567: 1565: 1559: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1530: 1529: 1526:Skullrockian 1524: 1519: 1514: 1505: 1500: 1496: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1471: 1469:Blackhillsian 1463: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1440: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1405: 1399: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1355: 1351: 1348:Chatfieldian 1341: 1340: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1327: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1280: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1241:British stage 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1210: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1129: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1094: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1039: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1004:golden spikes 994: 992: 988: 985:In 2008, the 978: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 931: 929: 924: 920: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 900:Adam Sedgwick 897: 893: 890:tribe of the 889: 884: 882: 878: 875:Period 485.4 874: 870: 867: 863: 859: 855: 854: 840: 771: 761: 757: 752: 748: 744: 739: 710: 706: 702: 699: 695: 692: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 666: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 618: 617: 613: 609: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 587: 583: 580: 577: 573: 570: 567: 563: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 535: 532: 528: 523: 519: 517:Name ratified 515: 511: 507: 502: 490: 489:, as of 2021. 488: 481: 471: 465: 460: 459: 449: 446: 439: 434: 433: 410: 401: 392: 383: 374: 365: 356: 347: 332: 313: 297: 296: 287: 286: 259: 258: 249: 248: 132: 127: 122: 115: 110: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 43: 36: 31: 19: 7859: 7795:Archean Eon 7757:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 7642:(485–539 Ma) 7611:(444–485 Ma) 7608: 7575:(419–444 Ma) 7544:(359–419 Ma) 7518:(299–359 Ma) 7487:(252–299 Ma) 7475:(252–539 Ma) 7439:(201–252 Ma) 7408:(145–201 Ma) 7367:Mesozoic Era 7267:Cenozoic Era 7142: 7077:. Retrieved 7057:. Retrieved 7053:the original 7011: 7007: 6997: 6949:(1): 55–61. 6946: 6942: 6936: 6924: 6916: 6911: 6901: 6889:Jeff Hecht, 6857: 6853: 6847: 6828: 6822: 6812:13 September 6810:. Retrieved 6790: 6786: 6776: 6735: 6729: 6723: 6712:. Retrieved 6661: 6655: 6645: 6605:(1): 12113. 6602: 6596: 6550: 6546: 6540: 6529:the original 6508: 6504: 6476:. Retrieved 6464: 6458: 6448: 6437:. Retrieved 6412: 6406: 6396: 6385:. Retrieved 6358: 6348: 6336:. Retrieved 6319: 6313: 6303: 6291:. Retrieved 6258: 6252: 6242: 6199: 6193: 6183: 6172:. Retrieved 6163: 6154: 6124:(1): 47–59. 6121: 6117: 6111: 6099:. Retrieved 6082: 6078: 6068: 6043: 6037: 6031: 6019:. Retrieved 5994: 5991:Paleobiology 5990: 5980: 5968:. Retrieved 5943: 5939:Paleobiology 5937: 5927: 5915:. Retrieved 5898: 5894:Paleobiology 5892: 5882: 5870:. Retrieved 5845: 5839: 5829: 5817:. Retrieved 5800: 5794: 5784: 5772:. Retrieved 5744: 5738: 5728: 5706:(2): 65–70. 5703: 5697: 5691: 5680:. 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Retrieved 2953:(1): 19–28. 2950: 2946: 2933: 2924: 2915: 2907: 2869: 2865: 2855: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2784: 2778: 2768: 2750: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715:North Africa 2684: 2677: 2666: 2639: 2620: 2606: 2570: 2548: 2536: 2520: 2505: 2473: 2457:(an extinct 2452: 2436: 2358: 2337: 2286: 2279: 2252:Osprioneides 2250: 2244: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2206: 2182:strophomenid 2175: 2164:. The first 2154:Ostracoderms 2145: 2103: 2098: 2088: 2077: 2064: 2048:Aegirocassis 2046: 1993: 1982: 1957: 1889: 1860:Khanty Ocean 1856:Paleo-Tethys 1852:Proto-Tethys 1828: 1808: 1783: 1775: 1744: 1721:Geochemistry 1703: 1695: 1687: 1676: 1661: 1654: 1639: 1600: 1580: 1575: 1573: 1560: 1554:) and Late ( 1541: 1511:Xinchangian 1480:Bendigonian 1445:Whitlandian 1415:Abereiddian 1377:Whiterockian 1334:Streffordian 1318:Maysvillian 1278:Cincinnatian 1208: 1116: 1061: 984: 981:Subdivisions 949:. The first 932: 885: 769: 767: 688: 632:Newfoundland 614: 484: 293: 266: 265: 255: 229: 57: 7831:Hadean Eon 7609:Ordovician 7380:Cretaceous 7280:Quaternary 7191:Darriwilian 7170:Tremadocian 6478:12 November 6415:: 129–132. 6338:12 November 6322:: 149–163. 6293:12 November 5872:12 November 5819:12 November 5796:Palaeoworld 5774:22 November 5093:10852/83447 4623:29 December 4574:29 December 4387:(10): 951. 4296:10852/94890 3064:11 December 2742:ozone layer 2646:brachiopods 2550:Green algae 2418:Brachiopods 2383:, northern 2360:Petroxestes 2287:Corynotrypa 2246:Petroxestes 2225:ostracoderm 2209:cornulitids 2166:gnathostome 2150:vertebrates 2095:eurypterids 2025:cephalopods 2009:Phanerozoic 1938:cephalopods 1931:echinoderms 1923:Brachiopods 1904:graptolites 1902:forms like 1868:Rheic Ocean 1747:calcite sea 1715:ring system 1710:L chondrite 1635:Rheic Ocean 1546:), Middle ( 1521:Cressagian 1508:Migneintian 1499:Tremadocian 1485:Moridunian 1472:Chewtonian 1409:Darriwilian 1404:Darriwilian 1391:Darriwilian 1371:Aurelucian 1361:Gisbornian 1302:Richmondian 1172:Tremadocian 1122:Darriwilian 975:ring system 963:vertebrates 951:land plants 912:North Wales 733: / 684:FAD of the 660: / 628:Green Point 382:Darriwilian 355:Tremadocian 7904:Ordovician 7898:Categories 7833:(4–4.6 Ga) 7797:(2.5–4 Ga) 7726:(1–1.6 Ga) 7332:Paleogene 7212:Hirnantian 7079:2006-12-27 7059:2006-04-30 6714:2022-06-08 6460:Alcheringa 6439:2014-01-09 6387:2014-06-11 6174:2022-06-07 6021:8 December 5970:8 December 5682:2022-11-23 5577:2007-12-13 5439:Terra Nova 4839:2022-06-30 4750:(5): 405. 4438:: 111209. 4281:: 117717. 3412:2023-06-08 3364:2024-05-01 3262:: 118991. 3171:2015-05-30 2972:6 December 2760:References 2695:bryophytes 2673:greenhouse 2664:families. 2662:graptolite 2603:Microbiota 2597:bryophytes 2581:Glomerales 2558:liverworts 2459:echinoderm 2365:hardground 2344:hardground 2339:Trypanites 2257:Bioerosion 2236:Trypanites 2230:Arandaspis 2137:gastropods 2121:octocorals 2090:Trilobites 1908:trilobites 1900:planktonic 1820:South Pole 1786:greenhouse 1657:orogenesis 1611:South Pole 1564:Hirnantian 1516:Stairsian 1475:Yiyangian 1448:Rangerian 1435:Yapeenian 1358:Burrellian 1345:Mohawkian 1321:Eastonian 1315:Pusgillian 1310:Cautleyan 1288:Hirnantian 1274:Hirnantian 1264:Hirnantian 1229:ICS series 1181:485.4±1.9 1166:477.7±1.4 1146:470.0±1.4 1131:467.3±1.1 1111:458.4±0.9 1096:453.0±0.7 1081:445.2±1.4 1072:Hirnantian 1062:Ordovician 1049:Rhuddanian 1042:Llandovery 1021:Stage/age 943:arthropods 770:Ordovician 718:55°26′24″N 701:Dob's Linn 686:Graptolite 648:57°57′55″W 645:49°40′58″N 560:Definition 445:land plant 409:Hirnantian 124:Chronology 33:Ordovician 7860:See also: 7640:Cambrian 7573:Silurian 7542:Devonian 7437:Triassic 7406:Jurassic 7186:Dapingian 7030:129522636 6981:1808/9204 6807:0172-9179 6704:206518080 6575:130036115 6525:128831144 6283:135138918 6261:: 14–24. 6146:129733589 6101:16 August 5862:130038222 5769:213757467 5720:140593975 5672:129113026 5528:0072-1050 5460:0954-4879 5312:0435-4052 5145:0435-4052 5076:: 53–72. 4813:0036-8075 4686:133243759 4505:0027-8424 4401:0091-7613 4344:: 18–41. 4305:0012-821X 4252:16 August 4182:GSA Today 4119:213408515 3917:2041-1723 3895:: 14066. 3813:129843558 3507:129091590 3276:0012-821X 3117:206514545 2886:2041-1723 2872:: 14066. 2746:radiation 2654:trilobite 2650:bryozoans 2474:Prasopora 2422:bryozoans 2400:kukersite 2381:oil shale 2198:Phacopida 2194:sea stars 2141:nautiloid 2129:Ediacaran 2056:radiodont 2037:carbonate 2021:eocrinoid 1989:Wisconsin 1959:Endoceras 1935:endocerid 1927:bryozoans 1911:Agnostida 1896:conodonts 1767:aragonite 1735:aragonite 1615:Laurentia 1576:Cautleyan 1552:Llandeilo 1531:Warendan 1439:Dapingian 1431:Dapingian 1400:Llandeilo 1366:Turinian 1342:Cheneyan 1299:Rawtheyan 1284:Bolindian 1281:Gamachian 1234:ICS stage 1195:Furongian 1137:Dapingian 1055:443.8±1.5 991:Gondwanan 892:Ordovices 866:Paleozoic 721:3°16′12″W 504:Etymology 373:Dapingian 7485:Permian 7306:Neogene 7202:Sandbian 7103:Archived 7091:Archived 7073:Archived 6989:13124815 6894:Archived 6768:43553633 6760:10988069 6708:Archived 6696:19372423 6637:27385026 6433:Archived 6381:Archived 6332:Archived 6287:Archived 6234:25903631 6168:Archived 6095:Archived 6015:Archived 6011:83933056 5964:Archived 5960:85724505 5911:Archived 5866:Archived 5813:Archived 5676:Archived 5638:Pywackia 5621:24726154 5571:Archived 5464:Archived 5411:Archived 5356:Archived 5264:Archived 5219:Archived 5098:Archived 5041:Archived 4971:Archived 4922:Archived 4918:BBC News 4900:26733399 4833:Archived 4829:28224399 4821:18653889 4617:Archived 4568:Archived 4523:33526667 4309:Archived 4246:Archived 4078:54513002 3984:15254530 3935:28117834 3690:: 1–11. 3657:54656066 3587:Archived 3406:archived 3358:Archived 3328:Archived 3224:Archived 3162:Archived 3109:18832639 3055:Archived 3037:Episodes 2963:Archived 2947:Episodes 2904:28117834 2811:10905606 2711:Gondwana 2680:isotopes 2658:conodont 2642:Silurian 2554:vascular 2478:bryozoan 2284:bryozoan 2221:agnathan 2180:corals, 2178:tabulate 2162:Cambrian 2152:(fish — 2133:bivalves 2125:Molluscs 2113:Cambrian 2029:crinoids 1984:Isotelus 1919:Asaphida 1839:Gondwana 1829:As with 1824:ice caps 1812:glaciers 1771:molluscs 1691:Triassic 1679:ash fall 1650:terranes 1631:Avalonia 1603:Gondwana 1548:Llanvirn 1504:Tremadoc 1466:Ibexian 1425:Fennian 1396:Llanvirn 1354:Sandbian 1337:Edenian 1202:Stage 10 1188:Cambrian 1102:Sandbian 1035:Silurian 947:Devonian 939:molluscs 910:beds in 881:Silurian 873:Cambrian 612:Conodont 543:Global ( 391:Sandbian 295:Silurian 257:Cambrian 6961:Bibcode 6862:Bibcode 6740:Bibcode 6731:Science 6666:Bibcode 6657:Science 6628:4941054 6607:Bibcode 6555:Bibcode 6547:PALAIOS 6417:Bibcode 6365:Bibcode 6263:Bibcode 6225:4648279 6204:Bibcode 6126:Bibcode 6048:Bibcode 5917:23 July 5749:Bibcode 5652:Bibcode 4928:21 June 4891:4702064 4870:Bibcode 4793:Bibcode 4784:Science 4752:Bibcode 4743:Geology 4725:23 July 4654:Bibcode 4601:Bibcode 4552:Bibcode 4514:8017688 4483:Bibcode 4440:Bibcode 4380:Geology 4346:Bibcode 4230:Bibcode 4148:Bibcode 4097:Geology 4056:Bibcode 4015:Bibcode 3992:4393398 3964:Bibcode 3926:5286199 3897:Bibcode 3793:Bibcode 3756:Bibcode 3747:Geology 3637:Bibcode 3487:Bibcode 3293:Lethaia 3230:20 June 3089:Bibcode 3081:Science 3001:Bibcode 2999:: 191. 2895:5286199 2835:Bibcode 2802:1692785 2731:refugia 2669:ice age 2579:fungi ( 2404:Estonia 2385:Estonia 2060:Morocco 2053:hurdiid 1884:diorama 1751:calcite 1731:bivalve 1627:Baltica 1623:Siberia 1609:to the 1607:equator 1570:Ashgill 1556:Caradoc 1490:Tulean 1330:Caradoc 1269:Ashgill 1018:Series 1015:System 856:) is a 610:of the 462:← 436:← 221:– 211:– 201:– 191:– 181:– 171:– 161:– 151:– 141:– 7839: 7207:Katian 7175:Floian 7028: 6987: 6835: 6805: 6787:Facies 6766: 6758: 6702: 6694: 6635: 6625: 6573: 6523: 6505:Ichnos 6281: 6232: 6222: 6195:Nature 6144: 6009: 5958: 5860: 5767: 5718: 5670: 5619: 5526: 5458: 5417:3 June 5310: 5143: 5047:18 May 5000: 4951: 4898: 4888: 4827: 4819: 4811: 4684: 4521: 4511: 4503: 4399: 4303: 4188:: 1–7. 4117: 4076: 4007:Icarus 3990: 3982: 3955:Nature 3933: 3923: 3915: 3854: 3811: 3702: 3655: 3593:21 May 3505: 3433: 3398: 3334:7 June 3274: 3115: 3107: 2902: 2892: 2884: 2809: 2799: 2631:genera 2593:spores 2589:hyphae 2190:orthid 2139:, and 2109:corals 2027:, and 2019:, and 2005:genera 1999:, the 1906:. 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