2947:, which was not designed for writing Middle Dutch so different scribes used different methods of representing the sounds of their language in writing. The traditions of neighbouring scribes and their languages led to a multitude of ways to write Middle Dutch. Consequently, spelling was not standardised but was highly variable and could differ by both time and place as various "trends" in spelling waxed and waned. Furthermore, a word could be found spelled differently in different occurrences within the same text. There was the matter of personal taste, and many writers thought it was more aesthetic to follow French or Latin practice, leading to sometimes rather unusual spellings.
4376:
2484:. It was an influential dialect during most of the Middle Ages, during the so-called "Brabantian expansion" in which the influence of Brabant was extended outwards into other areas. Compared to the other dialects, Brabantian was a kind of "middle ground" between the coastal areas on one hand, and the Rhineland and Limburg on the other. Brabantian Middle Dutch has the following characteristics compared to other dialects:
1757:, developed from Old Dutch long vowels. The opening diphthong pronunciation was probably widespread, and perhaps once universal, as it is nowadays still found in both West Flemish and in Limburgish, at opposite ends of the Middle Dutch language area. In the general area in between, including standard Dutch, the vowels merged with the "soft-long" vowels during the early modern Dutch period.
3698:. The weakening of unstressed syllables merged many different Old Dutch classes of nominal declension. The result was a general distinction between strong and weak nouns. Eventually even these started to become confused, with the strong and weak endings slowly beginning to merge into a single declension class by the beginning of the modern Dutch period.
4429:
moods, which had largely been determined by the vowel of the inflectional suffix in Old Dutch. In Middle Dutch, with all unstressed vowels merging into one, the subjunctive became distinguished from the indicative only in the singular but was identical to it in the plural, and also in the past tense
3006:
Modern dictionaries tend to represent words in a normalised spelling to form a compromise between the variable spellings on one hand and to represent the sounds of the language consistently. Thus, normalised spellings attempt to be a general or "average" spelling but still being accurate and true to
3015:
The general practice was to write long vowels with a single letter in an open syllable and with two letters in a closed syllable. Which two letters were used varied among texts. Some texts, especially those in the east, do not do so and write long vowels with a single letter in all cases (as is the
2404:
Middle Dutch was not a single homogeneous language. The language differed by area, with different areas having a different pronunciation and often using different vocabulary. The dialect areas were affected by political boundaries. The sphere of political influence of a certain ruler also created a
3710:
or, for some neuter nouns, with no ending. Most strong nouns were masculine or neuter. Feminines in this class were former i-stems, and could lack an ending in the dative singular, a remnant of the late Old Dutch inflection. In some rare occasions, the genitive singular was also endingless. Some
1436:
Long vowels and diphthongs cannot be clearly distinguished in Middle Dutch, as many long vowels had or developed a diphthongal quality, while existing diphthongs could also develop into monophthongs. Sometimes, this occurred only in restricted dialects, other developments were widespread.
1864:
being the result of lengthening. These two vowels were distinguished only in
Limburgish and Low Rhenish at the eastern end, and in western Flemish and coastal Hollandic on the western end. The relative backness of the two vowels was opposite in the two areas that distinguished them.
2958:
pronouns and articles were frequently joined to the preceding or following word. Scribes wrote in their own dialect, and their spelling reflected the pronunciation of that particular scribe or of some prestige dialect by which the scribe was influenced. The modern Dutch word
4680:, found in classes 1 and 2, was a bit more robust, but also eventually waned in the development to modern Dutch. Consequently, the distinction was mostly lost. Class 3, which retained a clear distinction that did not rely on vowel length, was levelled in favour of the
2405:
sphere of linguistic influence, with the language within the area becoming more homogeneous. Following, more or less, the political divisions of the time, several large dialect groups can be distinguished. However, the borders between them were not strong, and a
2278:
Word-final schwa was restored in the past singular of weak verbs, to avoid homophony with the present third-person singular because of word-final devoicing. However, it was lost in all irregular weak verbs, in which this homophony was not an issue: irregular
2580:, the East Flemish dialects have also been grouped with the latter. Flemish had been influential during the earlier Middle Ages (the "Flemish expansion") but lost prestige to the neighbouring Brabantian in the 13th century. Its characteristics are:
5384:
Middle Dutch retained weak verbs as the only productive class of verbs. While Old Dutch still had two different classes of weak verbs (and remnants of a third), this distinction was lost in Middle Dutch with the weakening of unstressed syllables.
894:
The consonants of Middle Dutch differed little from those of Old Dutch. The most prominent change is the loss of dental fricatives. In addition the sound was phonemicised during this period, judging from loanwords that retain to this day.
2219:. But the diphthongal pronunciation was still perceived as unrefined and 'southern' by educated speakers in the sixteenth century, showing that the change had not yet spread to all areas and layers of Dutch society by that time.
4438:
The seven classes of strong verb common to the
Germanic languages were retained. The four principal parts were the present tense, first- and third-person singular past tense, remaining past tense, and the past participle.
3915:
The
Germanic distinction between strong and weak, or indefinite and definite inflection, was fairly minimal in Middle Dutch, appearing only in the masculine and neuter nominative singular. These forms received an
3715:
in the singular also; these were primarily former ja-stems, which were masculine or neuter. A few were former i-stems with short stems. Nouns of this type tended to be drawn into the weak inflection by analogy.
3920:
ending when a definite word (demonstrative, article) preceded, and had no ending otherwise. Adjectives were uninflected when connected through a copula. Thus, even for feminine nouns, no ending appeared:
5413:. These verbs had undergone umlaut in the present tense, but the umlaut-triggering vowel was syncopated in the past tense already in Old Dutch, preventing umlaut from taking hold there. Thus,
1631:
Many details of the exact phonetics are uncertain, and seemed to have differed by dialect. The overall system is clear, however, as almost all the vowels remain distinct in modern
Limburgish:
877:
in certain environments, particularly inflectional endings. This phonemicises the soft-long vowels produced by open syllable lengthening, which can now also occur in closed syllables. E.g.
675:. Old Dutch (original) long vowels are called "sharp-long" and indicated with a circumflex (â, ê, î, ô). Lengthened vowels are "soft-long" and are indicated with a macron (ā, ē, ī, ō).
3706:
The strong nouns generally originated from the Old Dutch a-stem, i-stem and u-stem inflections. They mostly had a nominative singular with no ending, and a nominative plural in
1300:
Most notable in the Middle Dutch vowel system, when compared to Old Dutch, is the appearance of phonemic rounded front vowels, and the merger of all unstressed short vowels.
3003:, reflect an early tendency to write the underlying phonemic value. However, by and large, spelling was phonetic, which is logical as people usually read texts out loud.
4656:
In classes 6 and 7, there was no distinction between the two different vowels of the past tense. In classes 4 and 5, the difference was primarily one of length, since
1715:
seems to have been a monophthong or . Before velar and labial consonants, the pronunciation was a close . This is revealed by the distinction in spelling between
482:). Unlike most other Germanic languages, umlaut was only phonemicised for short vowels in all but the easternmost areas; long vowels and diphthongs are unaffected.
5400:
appeared whenever the preceding stem ended in a voiceless consonant. This phenomenon remains in modern Dutch. Unsyncopated forms, which retain the fuller suffix
2651:+ consonant, often also with lengthening. The change is generally limited to West Flemish before dentals, while before labials and velars it is more widespread.
1962:
followed by a dental consonant. In the eastern area, Limburg in particular, it was a remnant of the older diphthong as in High German, which had developed into
2429:
Flemish, Brabantic and
Hollandic are known as West Franconian, while Limburgic is known as East Franconian (not to be confused with the High German dialect
6598:
1919:
In all dialects between, the two vowels were not distinguished. The phonetic realisation ranged from back (in
Brabant) to front (Holland further inland).
4418:
verbs as the three main inflectional classes. Verbs were inflected in present and past tense, and in three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative.
2373:
The change was not applied consistently, and even in modern Dutch today many words have been retained in both forms. In some cases the forms with lost
8006:
2706:. It was less influential during most of the Middle Ages but became more so in the 16th century during the "Hollandic expansion", during which the
5919:, 1999, p. xvi: "Linguists usually distinguish between Old Dutch (c. 700–c. 1150), Middle Dutch (c. 1150–c. 1550), and Modern Dutch (after 1550)."
5906:, 1999, p. xvi: "Linguists usually distinguish between Old Dutch (c. 700–c. 1150), Middle Dutch (c. 1150–c. 1550), and Modern Dutch (after 1550)."
2950:
The spelling was generally phonetic, and words were written based on how they were spoken rather than based on underlying phonemes or morphology.
4027:
Middle Dutch pronouns differed little from their modern counterparts. The main differences were in the second person with the development of a
803:
This change does not occur in
Limburgish, which retains the distinction but undergoes its own round of vocalisation in modern times, producing
2240:. The result might have also been a short vowel (as in most Dutch dialects today), but they are known to have remained long at least before
6973:
6051:
6771:
1286:
4430:
of weak verbs. That led to a gradual decline in the use of the subjunctive, and it has been all but lost entirely in modern Dutch.
2409:
existed between them, with spoken varieties near the edges of each dialect area showing more features of the neighbouring areas.
1620:
The rounded front vowels in brackets only occurred in the eastern dialects, where umlaut of long vowels and diphthongs occurred.
8001:
2524:
of long vowels and diphthongs. This in turn led to stronger use of umlaut as a grammatical feature, in for example diminutives.
1686:
developed from Old Dutch opening diphthongs, but their exact character in Middle Dutch is unclear. The following can be said:
5994:
4710:. This is a remnant of older i-mutation in these forms. Umlaut is also sometimes found in the past subjunctive in the east.
6588:
4039:
gradually fell out of use during the Middle Dutch period. A new second person plural pronoun was created by contraction of
5396:
through syncope and thus came to be directly attached to the preceding stem. This triggered voicing assimilation, so that
4687:
In classes with a lengthened vowel in the present, the singular imperative often appears with a short vowel instead, e.g.
1136:
1122:
224:
7500:
671:: Short vowels in stressed open syllables become long. As a result, all stressed syllables in polysyllabic words become
2723:
275:. The various literary works of the time are often very readable for speakers of Modern Dutch since Dutch is a rather
8011:
6019:
2083:). It is unclear when this change happened, as the spelling does not seem to differentiate the two sounds (that is,
6044:
2729:â and ā merged and had a fronted articulation (which forms the basis for the modern standard Dutch pronunciation).
1049:
214:
2324:
The actual outcome of this change differed between dialects. In the more northern varieties and in
Holland, the
2133:). This change is found sporadically in Old Dutch already, but becomes more frequent in some Middle Dutch areas.
2927:
It had an eastern influence, with a more eastern-tinted orthography. Umlaut was a regular grammatical feature.
7867:
2267:. This did not apply consistently however, and sometimes both forms continued to exist side by side, such as
1837:, developed through the lengthening of Old Dutch short vowels in open syllables, but also frequently before
171:
7897:
7067:
7029:
7014:
2733:
1927:
remained from the corresponding Old Dutch diphthong. It occurred primarily in umlauting environments, with
1841:. They were simple monophthongs in all Middle Dutch dialects, with the exception of western Flanders where
1803:. It is possible that the two vowels merged under some conditions, while remaining distinct in other cases.
1088:
1056:
6341:
3671:
3659:
3648:
3638:
3629:
3616:
3610:
3600:
3585:
3568:
3564:
3550:
3536:
3521:
3506:
3492:
3478:
3464:
3450:
3436:
3422:
3408:
3393:
3378:
3339:
3323:
3315:
3309:
3298:
3288:
3279:
3261:
3243:
3228:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3176:
3158:
3140:
3122:
3107:
3093:
3079:
3064:
3050:
3036:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2819:
2793:. It was not clearly tied to one political area, instead being divided among various areas, including the
2770:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2595:
2585:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2500:
2374:
2359:
2355:
2325:
2314:
2301:
2248:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2213:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2175:
2137:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2072:
2068:
2060:
2053:
2046:
2039:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1897:
1886:
1878:
1874:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1796:
1778:
1762:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1712:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1587:
1580:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1518:
1512:
1506:
1489:
1483:
1478:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1408:
1398:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1360:
1355:
1262:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1223:
1217:
1207:
1199:
1193:
1189:
1185:
874:
867:
860:
853:
846:
839:
832:
825:
821:
817:
808:
804:
797:
793:
789:
751:
743:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
707:
698:
688:
662:
658:
654:
650:
643:
639:
635:
631:
628:
624:
617:
610:
602:
593:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
540:
536:
529:
522:
515:
508:
501:
497:
490:
486:
479:
475:
471:
467:
454:
447:
440:
429:
425:
424:
In word-initial position, some northern dialects also show a change from a falling to a rising diphthong (
418:
411:
404:
400:
396:
389:
382:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
350:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
309:
305:
301:
297:
8016:
7877:
7737:
7087:
7046:
7036:
6037:
2806:
2212:
The diphthongal quality of these vowels became stronger over time, and eventually the former merged with
1072:
678:
Lengthened vowels initially have the same vowel quality as the short variants, so this produces , , , , .
1966:
elsewhere. L-vocalization occurred only in the modern period in
Limburgish, and the distinction between
6253:
5930:
1129:
988:
981:
546:
This change did not (fully) occur in the southwestern (Flemish) dialects. Hence, these dialects retain
4406:
Middle Dutch mostly retained the Old Dutch verb system. Like all
Germanic languages, it distinguished
3912:
Middle Dutch adjectives inflected according to the gender, case and number of the noun they modified.
7594:
2951:
2032:
1284:
1273:
1250:
1227:
1174:
1095:
1065:
668:
268:
589:
In Flemish, this change also affected cases that escaped the lowering in the previous change, hence
7872:
7826:
7821:
7745:
7355:
7339:
7218:
7077:
6968:
6963:
4387:
97:
7811:
7755:
7750:
7670:
7343:
7293:
6593:
6411:
6167:
6095:
6083:
5884:
1022:
1015:
997:
276:
245:
87:
77:
7933:
7653:
7051:
7816:
7298:
7264:
6882:
6698:
6558:
6398:
6293:
4415:
2430:
1950:
has two different origins. In the vast majority of the Middle Dutch area, it developed through
1104:
898:
For descriptions of the sounds and definitions of the terms, follow the links on the headings.
3168:
ee (frequently in open syllables, especially in Flanders), ie (occasionally in some dialects)
3135:
In discussions about pronunciation, originally-long a is represented as â, lengthened a as ā.
7996:
7974:
7938:
7206:
7199:
7151:
6921:
6892:
6861:
6824:
6749:
6506:
6419:
6280:
6242:
4035:
slowly gained use as a respectful second-person singular form. The original singular pronoun
2786:
1849:. They might have been close-mid but also perhaps open-mid , and , as in modern Limburgish.
1275:
1211:
1154:
1114:
954:
947:
7439:
6314:
7943:
7923:
7892:
7765:
7625:
7371:
7189:
6781:
6608:
6570:
6565:
6439:
6386:
6144:
4407:
2812:
2707:
2521:
1252:
92:
7599:
8:
7882:
7118:
7072:
7006:
6759:
6406:
6319:
6117:
2782:
1036:
7429:
7274:
6521:
2247:
Beginning in late Middle Dutch and continuing into the early Modern Dutch period, schwa
7928:
7852:
7780:
7770:
7725:
7487:
7414:
7311:
7156:
7131:
7126:
7019:
6847:
6732:
6553:
6331:
6326:
6305:
6266:
6070:
6060:
4411:
4243:
2802:
2722:
presence in the area. This became more apparent closer to the coast and further north (
2577:
2561:
2477:
1916:
during Middle Dutch, first in Low Rhenish, then later also in Limburgish further south.
1266:
1229:
1203:
919:
82:
7082:
6013:
3853:
204:
7902:
7701:
7617:
7610:
7565:
7509:
7269:
7259:
7242:
7237:
7141:
6903:
6703:
6664:
6644:
6482:
6374:
6356:
6208:
5990:
4647:
4623:
4599:
4569:
4545:
4539:
4509:
4485:
2931:
2920:
2797:(which was south of modern Limburg). It was also the most divergent of the dialects.
2790:
2703:
2406:
1594:
1529:
1501:
1427:
was a back in most varieties, but front probably occurred in some western dialects.
1081:
1008:
968:
934:
924:
264:
126:
5404:, are sometimes found, especially with stems ending in a labial or velar consonant.
220:
7857:
7648:
7582:
7538:
7533:
7493:
7482:
7474:
7279:
7247:
7194:
7183:
7096:
6805:
6744:
6534:
6516:
6351:
6112:
6104:
4593:
4515:
4426:
3733:
3695:
2794:
2573:
2565:
2481:
1146:
914:
909:
7694:
684:
Lengthened , , remain distinct from the previously diphthongised long mid vowels.
7887:
7847:
7680:
7587:
7570:
7555:
7550:
7543:
7252:
7161:
7146:
7101:
6953:
6916:
6908:
6887:
6874:
6854:
6840:
6603:
6580:
6511:
6501:
6493:
6273:
4422:
4028:
3727:
3721:
2912:
2599:
1270:
941:
929:
694:
This introduces many length alternations in grammatical paradigms, e.g. singular
672:
463:
69:
5421:. These verbs tended to be reinterpreted as strong verbs in later Middle Dutch;
1943:). Limburgish preserved the diphthong wherever it was preserved in High German.
7968:
7862:
7842:
7794:
7686:
7560:
7230:
6997:
6936:
6715:
6672:
6629:
6546:
6541:
6430:
6380:
6231:
6182:
6137:
6130:
2944:
1951:
1690:
In eastern Brabant, and all of Limburg, the pronunciation remained diphthongal.
785:
143:
53:
5973:
Kurzer Grundriß der germanischen Philologie bis 1500: Band 1: Sprachgeschichte
4706:
in the second- and third-person singular present indicative forms, instead of
7990:
7918:
7760:
7516:
7467:
7284:
7223:
7136:
7041:
6979:
6926:
6810:
6737:
1338:
1281:
1042:
974:
609:. (11th or 12th century) Long vowels seem to have remained as such, at least
292:
Several phonological changes occurred leading up to the Middle Dutch period.
42:
5409:
2848:
represents a back vowel, and vowel length in closed syllables is not marked.
2520:
Tended towards Rhinelandic and/or Limburgish in the easternmost areas, with
2035:
were not affected. This therefore resulted in alternations such as singular
601:
Vowel reduction: Vowels in unstressed syllables are weakened and merge into
7787:
7211:
7175:
7108:
6931:
6754:
6727:
6710:
6613:
6195:
6174:
2553:
2549:
253:
150:
7434:
1411:
is not certain, and may have varied between actual and a lower or even .
267:, but all dialects were mutually intelligible. During that period, a rich
188:
7604:
7577:
7395:
7303:
6985:
6946:
6529:
6224:
6188:
6123:
2916:
2224:
Following the previous change, monophthongisation of opening diphthongs:
1497:
1473:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1350:
1332:
1327:
1321:
1316:
433:
7449:
4421:
The weakening of unstressed vowels affected the distinction between the
4375:
2826:
where other Middle Dutch dialects have monophthongized these to ê and ô.
1814:. In western Brabant, this implies a close monophthongal pronunciation .
7444:
7424:
6789:
6459:
6160:
5931:"A. van Loey, Middelnederlandse spraakkunst. Deel II. Klankleer · dbnl"
4333:
4321:
4270:
4252:
2715:
1575:
1466:
1393:
1343:
1181:
252:. It was spoken and written between 1150 and 1500. Until the advent of
2168:(comparative, agent noun) suffix when attached to a word ending in -r.
7630:
7378:
7024:
6941:
6722:
6677:
6649:
6475:
6029:
6025:
Spoken examples of Old Dutch, Middle Dutch and Old Frisian (in Dutch)
5975:, Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin, 1970, p. 253ff., here p. 255f.
5917:
A History of Science in the Netherlands: Survey, Themes and Reference
5904:
A History of Science in the Netherlands: Survey, Themes and Reference
2699:
2576:. Though due to their intermediary position between West Flemish and
2557:
2251:
was slowly lost word-finally and in some other unstressed syllables:
1553:
1525:
1371:
820:+ dental consonant. This did not occur in all dialects, and in some,
272:
249:
197:
181:
163:
131:
7454:
2182:, which reintroduces stressed light syllables in polysyllabic words.
7419:
6767:
4354:
4297:
2719:
1931:
appearing otherwise. Some dialects, particularly further west, had
232:
2492:
2164:. In modern Dutch, this change has become grammaticalised for the
775:
762:
7460:
7056:
6958:
228:
4664:
were not distinguished in most dialects. The difference between
2994:
2972:
2911:
Kleverlandish ("Kleverlands") was spoken around the area of the
2881:
2875:
2869:
2863:
702:
6763:
4342:
4312:
4282:
3851:
The following table shows the inflection of the masculine noun
3719:
The following table shows the inflection of the masculine noun
2964:
2955:
2919:. It represented a transitional dialect between Limburgish and
2801:
Generally, a strong "southeastern" influence, tying it more to
2569:
2377:
were perceived as uneducated and disappeared again, such as in
6681:
2805:
in some respects ("Colognian expansion"). The effects of the
2318:
2710:
took place in the south. It shows the following properties:
1708:, however, as no rhyme pairs between these vowels are found.
5915:
Klaas van Berkel, Albert van Helden, Lodewijk Palm (eds.):
5902:
Klaas van Berkel, Albert van Helden, Lodewijk Palm (eds.):
2740:("mouth") where more southwestern areas retain the nasal:
231:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
6024:
2605:
Opening diphthong articulation of ê and ô, often spelled
2317:
begins to disappear when between a non-short vowel and a
1985:
2419:
Brabantic in Brussels, Leuven, Antwerp, Mechelen, Breda,
2328:
was simply lost, along with any schwa that followed it:
2105:
plus another consonant, merging with original Old Dutch
1990:
Phonological changes that occurred during Middle Dutch:
1184:
varieties of most consonants still occurred. Geminated
613:
is known to have remained in certain suffixes (such as
315:
Voiceless fricatives become voiced syllable-initially:
16:
West Germanic language of the High and Late Middle Ages
3622:
ch (Flanders, Brabant), k (eastern, in all positions)
2815:
affects all vowels and is morphologically significant.
3202:. Normalisation generally undoes the umlaut of older
244:
is a collective name for a number of closely related
5417:
had the first- and third-person singular past tense
4326:
3928:
Some adjectives, namely the former ja-stems, had an
3194:
are perhaps the most common, but normalisation uses
2785:
was spoken by the people in the provinces of modern
1761:
In southern Flanders, southern Brabant and Holland,
1750:, termed "sharp-long" and denoted with a circumflex
1700:, which may indicate a monophthongal pronunciation.
3694:Middle Dutch nouns inflected for number as well as
2393:
does exist, but is rather archaic in modern Dutch).
687:In most dialects, lengthened merges with original
6020:Grammatical information on Middle Dutch (in Dutch)
5407:Some former class 1 weak verbs retained so-called
3287:ou (Flanders), u, ue (both in Limburg), o (before
3274:In discussions about pronunciation, written as ô.
3256:In discussions about pronunciation, written as ō.
3206:, which was only present in the eastern dialects.
3171:In discussions about pronunciation, written as ê.
3153:In discussions about pronunciation, written as ē.
1180:During the first part of the Middle Dutch period,
691:, but in some, a distinction in backness develops.
436:. Cf. the accusative second-person plural pronoun
378:further east. This results in later pairs such as
3221:ii (actually graphical variant of ij), ie (rare)
7988:
3656:gh (before e, i, y, only in some normalisations)
2488:Merger of â and ā, articulated as a back vowel.
2304:because it would become indistinguishable from
1830:, termed "soft-long" and denoted with a macron
1421:could have also been and , as in modern Dutch.
768:
755:
2209:, probably beginning around the 14th century.
1852:There were two open vowels, with "sharp-long"
1793:), suggesting a merger between these phonemes.
6045:
4699:by analogy with the weak verbs, also occurs.
3844:throughout the plural. The singular ended in
2412:Middle Dutch has four major dialects groups:
1431:
1220:could have been either dental or alveolar .
287:
3840:Weak nouns were characterised by the ending
2862:in words ending in a single consonant, e.g.
2185:Early diphthongisation of long high vowels:
2171:Shortening of geminate consonants, e.g. for
681:and are then lowered to and respectively.
466:for back vowels, resulting in a new phoneme
271:developed, which had not yet existed during
2818:Retention of the older Germanic diphthongs
2329:
2296:
6052:
6038:
5987:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
5969:Altniederländisch und Mittelniederländisch
3932:even in the strong and copular form, e.g.
2416:Flemish in Flanders and Zeeuws in Zeeland,
1711:In the coastal areas (Flanders, Holland),
504:in some areas. This created pairs such as
3184:o, oe, eu (rare), u, uu (both very rare)
2313:During the 15th century at the earliest,
1726:In western Brabant, the pronunciation of
1627:only occurred in the Limburgish dialects.
623:Diphthongisation of the long mid vowels:
8007:Languages attested from the 12th century
5388:The past tense was formed with a suffix
4359:
4347:
4310:
4287:
4275:
4263:
4260:
4241:
3578:sk, ssc(h) (medially), s (occasionally)
2967:") for example was sometimes written as
586:This change did not occur in Limburgish.
370:. The outcome is dialect-specific, with
4702:The eastern dialects occasionally show
3132:ai (occasionally, in closed syllables)
2140:in various clusters of sonorants. E.g.
1730:was more close, probably monophthongal
225:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
7989:
6059:
2855:as the second-person singular pronoun.
1986:Changes during the Middle Dutch period
1696:is frequently found written with just
7723:
7337:
6081:
6033:
4194:Note: There are several other forms.
2751:for the second-person plural pronoun.
2497:for the second-person plural pronoun.
2436:In a finer classification there are:
5989:(2. ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
4370:
3016:predominant rule in modern German).
2736:. Seen in some place names, such as
579:remained syllable-finally or before
407:. Compare southeastern Middle Dutch
6614:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
4031:. The second-person plural pronoun
2954:was reflected in the spelling, and
2632:("fire") where other dialects have
2591:Unrounding of rounded front vowels.
2422:Hollandic in the county of Holland,
2091:could both represent either sound).
1234:when it occurred before the velars
1192:, retained in modern Limburgish as
374:found in more western dialects and
13:
7973:Languages between parentheses are
7338:
5984:
5971:, in: Ludwig Erich Schmitt (ed.),
4695:. An alternative form, with final
2844:Orthography is also more eastern.
1974:was preserved, being reflected as
1856:developed from the Old Dutch long
14:
8028:
6007:
3350:Occurs in place of ô in Limburg.
3334:Occurs in place of ê in Limburg.
2354:. In the southeast, intervocalic
1799:is sometimes found to rhyme with
1704:never merged with the long vowel
1153:
1135:
1128:
1121:
1103:
1094:
1087:
1071:
1064:
1055:
1048:
1021:
1014:
996:
987:
980:
953:
946:
5956:An Introduction to Middle Dutch.
5928:
4374:
2943:Middle Dutch was written in the
2906:
902:Middle Dutch consonant phonemes
715:Dental fricatives become stops:
5958:Berlin and New York, 1993, p. 1
5425:itself gave rise to the modern
4433:
3701:
3356:
1651:appear in modern Limburgish as
1303:
649:Non-phonemic lowering of short
7977:of the language on their left.
5978:
5961:
5948:
5922:
5909:
5896:
4197:
2938:
2568:and areas around the towns of
2013:from the language altogether.
1:
8002:History of the Dutch language
7868:Germanic substrate hypothesis
7724:
5878:
5379:
3907:
3835:
2777:
2732:Occasional occurrence of the
2548:Flemish, consisting today of
2472:
889:
816:Lengthening of vowels before
257:
57:
7898:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
6589:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
5954:Colette M. van Kerckvoorde:
5429:, mirroring strong class 3.
4305:
4302:
4290:
4257:
3575:sc (in some normalisations)
3253:oe, a (Rhinelandic), oi, oy
2734:Ingvaeonic nasal-spirant law
2694:
2690:+ consonant in West Flemish.
2628:, thus giving forms such as
2480:was spoken primarily in the
2009:. This eliminated the sound
282:
248:dialects whose ancestor was
7:
7878:High German consonant shift
5392:, which generally lost its
4051:(literally, 'you people').
4022:
3236:ye (rare), i (fairly rare)
3010:
2841:(remained as a back vowel).
2807:High German consonant shift
2399:
1177:as in Old and Modern Dutch.
746:(originating from Germanic
395:Various dialects also show
263:, there was no overarching
10:
8033:
6416:Westlauwers–Terschellings
6069:According to contemporary
6014:Middle Dutch text database
5882:
3684:
2999:. Some spellings, such as
2543:
2509:Early diphthongization of
1935:in all environments (thus
1892:In the eastern varieties,
1432:Long vowels and diphthongs
1309:Middle Dutch short vowels
1249:was realized as a plosive
288:Differences with Old Dutch
7960:
7911:
7835:
7804:
7736:
7732:
7719:
7668:
7641:
7595:Southern Schleswig Danish
7526:
7407:
7363:
7354:
7350:
7333:
7174:
7117:
7005:
6996:
6901:
6873:
6832:
6823:
6798:
6780:
6691:
6663:
6637:
6628:
6579:
6492:
6467:
6458:
6397:
6292:
6241:
6216:
6207:
6103:
6094:
6090:
6077:
6067:
5868:gesent, gesendet, gesant
5857:
5852:
5844:
5836:
5755:
5674:
5669:
5661:
5637:
5632:
5624:
5616:
5535:
5454:
5449:
5441:
5358:
5353:
5345:
5337:
5256:
5175:
5170:
5162:
5138:
5133:
5125:
5117:
5036:
4955:
4950:
4942:
4918:
4913:
4905:
4897:
4816:
4735:
4730:
4722:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4112:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4072:
4069:
4066:
4061:
4058:
4056:
3995:
3976:
3971:
3968:
2952:Final-obstruent devoicing
1810:occasionally rhymes with
1441:Middle Dutch long vowels
1397:
1359:
1295:
1175:final-obstruent devoicing
1173:All obstruents underwent
1145:
1113:
1035:
967:
940:
906:
669:Open syllable lengthening
269:Medieval Dutch literature
211:
195:
179:
161:
156:
140:
119:
66:
48:
37:
26:
21:
8012:Low Franconian languages
7873:West Germanic gemination
7827:Ancient Belgian language
7822:Germanic parent language
7766:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
6888:Austrian Standard German
6082:
5985:ed, Keith Brown (2007).
5889:
4366:
3689:
3198:to avoid confusion with
2564:, northern parts of the
739:. (around 12th century)
731:, merging with existing
550:"sun" where others have
470:(from earlier Old Dutch
347:. (10th or 11th century)
5885:Middle Dutch literature
4646:
4622:
4598:
4592:
4568:
4544:
4538:
4514:
4508:
4484:
3873:Nominative, Accusative
3852:
3765:Nominative, Accusative
3732:
3726:
3720:
2995:
2973:
2882:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2809:are occasionally found.
2718:influence from earlier
2539:, in western varieties.
2493:
1623:The rounded back vowel
776:
770:
763:
757:
703:
7934:Preterite-present verb
7817:Proto-Germanic grammar
7771:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
6883:German Standard German
6559:East Frisian Low Saxon
2598:, with the occasional
2425:Limburgic in the East.
2330:
2297:
1946:The closing diphthong
1923:The closing diphthong
1226:had a velar allophone
403:, while others retain
213:This article contains
7939:Grammatischer Wechsel
6922:Namibian Black German
6893:Swiss Standard German
6862:Early New High German
6420:Mainland West Frisian
6281:Harlingerland Frisian
3939:"the lady is small".
3658:cg(h) (for geminated
3386:i, y, ij (very rare)
2358:instead often became
2109:(< Proto-Germanic
1904:was front or central
1845:later developed into
1765:appears spelled with
312:already in Old Dutch.
7944:Indo-European ablaut
7924:Germanic strong verb
7893:Germanic spirant law
7030:Southeast Limburgish
6526:Gelders-Overijssels
6155:Irish Middle English
6145:Early Modern English
3925:"the lady is good".
2833:(did not merge with
2584:Fronted realisation
2560:, was spoken in the
1885:was central or back
1407:The exact height of
575:. In some dialects,
335:from Proto-Germanic
7912:Synchronic features
7883:Germanic a-mutation
7836:Diachronic features
7186:in the broad sense
7119:East Central German
7073:Lorraine Franconian
7047:Transylvanian Saxon
7007:West Central German
6782:East Low Franconian
6692:West Low Franconian
4047:('people') forming
3934:die vrouwe is clein
3308:ue (usually before
3115:a (rare and early)
2089:⟨sch⟩
2081:⟨sch⟩
1442:
1310:
903:
543:when not umlauted.
8017:Medieval languages
7929:Germanic weak verb
7738:Language subgroups
7088:Pennsylvania Dutch
7037:Moselle Franconian
7015:Central Franconian
6848:Middle High German
6599:Central Pomeranian
6554:Northern Low Saxon
6267:Wangerooge Frisian
6061:Germanic languages
5967:Adolphe van Loey,
4386:. You can help by
3923:die vrouwe is goet
3731:"deed" and neuter
3615:ck (for geminated
3605:k (before e, i, y)
3529:th (occasionally)
3196:⟨ue⟩
3188:⟨oe⟩
3150:ei (West Flemish)
2886:, etc. and before
2803:Middle High German
2702:was spoken in the
2611:⟨oe⟩
2607:⟨ee⟩
2562:County of Flanders
2085:⟨sc⟩
2077:⟨sc⟩
1860:, and "soft-long"
1767:⟨ie⟩
1721:⟨ou⟩
1717:⟨oe⟩
1440:
1308:
901:
824:was lengthened to
414:with modern Dutch
296:Earlier Old Dutch
7984:
7983:
7969:extinct languages
7956:
7955:
7952:
7951:
7903:Great Vowel Shift
7715:
7714:
7711:
7710:
7664:
7663:
7510:Greenlandic Norse
7329:
7328:
7325:
7324:
7321:
7320:
7260:Southern Bavarian
7243:Northern Bavarian
7219:Highest Alemannic
7170:
7169:
6904:standard variants
6819:
6818:
6665:Standard variants
6624:
6623:
6483:Middle Low German
6454:
6453:
6450:
6449:
6254:Saterland Frisian
5996:978-0-08-044299-0
5876:
5875:
5872:
5871:
5756:Subjunctive mood
5652:
5651:
5648:gemāect, gemāket
5536:Subjunctive mood
5377:
5376:
5373:
5372:
5322:droecht, droeget
5289:droechs, droeges
5257:Subjunctive mood
5241:droecht, droeget
5208:droechs, droeges
5153:
5152:
5037:Subjunctive mood
4933:
4932:
4817:Subjunctive mood
4654:
4653:
4416:preterite-present
4404:
4403:
4364:
4363:
4192:
4191:
4020:
4019:
3905:
3904:
3833:
3832:
3682:
3681:
3609:qu (representing
3593:z (occasionally)
3354:
3353:
3318:only in Limburg.
3192:⟨o⟩
2932:Middle Low German
2921:Middle Low German
2846:⟨u⟩
2708:Eighty Years' War
2704:County of Holland
2686:sometimes before
2407:dialect continuum
2129:(from Old French
2023:originating from
1783:⟨e⟩
1698:⟨i⟩
1617:
1616:
1404:
1403:
1335:
1324:
1210:were most likely
1202:were most likely
1167:
1166:
873:Syncope of schwa
607:⟨e⟩
462:Phonemisation of
265:standard language
239:
238:
221:rendering support
217:phonetic symbols.
8024:
7761:Elbe (Irminonic)
7734:
7733:
7721:
7720:
7649:Mainland Gutnish
7539:Swedish dialects
7501:Middle Icelandic
7475:Middle Norwegian
7364:Historical forms
7361:
7360:
7352:
7351:
7335:
7334:
7294:South Franconian
7280:Hutterite German
7248:Central Bavarian
7068:Rhine Franconian
7003:
7002:
6833:Historical forms
6830:
6829:
6745:Surinamese Dutch
6638:Historical forms
6635:
6634:
6468:Historical forms
6465:
6464:
6217:Historical forms
6214:
6213:
6101:
6100:
6092:
6091:
6079:
6078:
6054:
6047:
6040:
6031:
6030:
6001:
6000:
5982:
5976:
5965:
5959:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5926:
5920:
5913:
5907:
5900:
5837:Imperative mood
5675:Indicative mood
5656:
5655:
5617:Imperative mood
5455:Indicative mood
5436:
5435:
5432:
5431:
5354:drāecht, drāget
5338:Imperative mood
5319:drāecht, drāget
5286:drāechs, drāges
5238:drāecht, drāget
5216:drāecht, drāget
5205:drāechs, drāges
5176:Indicative mood
5157:
5156:
5118:Imperative mood
4956:Indicative mood
4937:
4936:
4898:Imperative mood
4736:Indicative mood
4717:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4442:
4441:
4399:
4396:
4378:
4371:
4221:Grammatical Case
4217:
4216:
4203:Definite Article
4054:
4053:
3942:
3941:
3860:
3859:
3740:
3739:
3725:"day", feminine
3673:
3661:
3650:
3640:
3631:
3618:
3612:
3602:
3587:
3570:
3566:
3552:
3538:
3523:
3508:
3494:
3480:
3466:
3452:
3438:
3424:
3410:
3395:
3380:
3370:Other spellings
3361:
3360:
3341:
3325:
3317:
3311:
3300:
3290:
3281:
3263:
3245:
3230:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3178:
3160:
3142:
3124:
3109:
3095:
3081:
3066:
3052:
3038:
3028:Other spellings
3019:
3018:
2998:
2976:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2873:
2867:
2847:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2825:
2821:
2795:Duchy of Limburg
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2747:Use of the form
2689:
2685:
2681:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2608:
2597:
2587:
2574:Boulogne-sur-Mer
2566:County of Artois
2538:
2534:
2530:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2491:Use of the form
2482:Duchy of Brabant
2376:
2361:
2357:
2333:
2327:
2316:
2303:
2300:
2295:did not become *
2250:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2215:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2177:
2139:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2062:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1949:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1802:
1798:
1784:
1780:
1768:
1764:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1589:
1582:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1491:
1485:
1480:
1443:
1439:
1426:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1400:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1362:
1357:
1331:
1320:
1311:
1307:
1290:
1279:
1265:was most likely
1264:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1219:
1209:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1157:
1139:
1132:
1125:
1107:
1098:
1091:
1084:
1075:
1068:
1059:
1052:
1045:
1025:
1018:
1011:
1000:
991:
984:
977:
957:
950:
904:
900:
876:
869:
862:
855:
848:
841:
834:
827:
823:
819:
810:
806:
800:before dentals.
799:
795:
791:
779:
773:
766:
760:
753:
750:) develops into
745:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
709:
706:
700:
690:
664:
660:
656:
652:
645:
641:
637:
633:
630:
626:
619:
612:
608:
604:
595:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
542:
538:
531:
524:
517:
510:
503:
499:
492:
488:
481:
477:
473:
469:
456:
450:versus southern
449:
442:
431:
427:
420:
413:
406:
402:
398:
391:
384:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
356:
352:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
311:
307:
303:
299:
262:
259:
207:
191:
184:
175:
174:
166:
146:
72:
62:
59:
19:
18:
8032:
8031:
8027:
8026:
8025:
8023:
8022:
8021:
7987:
7986:
7985:
7980:
7948:
7907:
7888:Germanic umlaut
7853:Holtzmann's law
7831:
7800:
7728:
7707:
7660:
7637:
7571:South Jutlandic
7556:Danish dialects
7522:
7403:
7346:
7317:
7299:East Franconian
7253:Viennese German
7166:
7147:Silesian German
7113:
7102:Central Hessian
6992:
6917:Namibian German
6906:
6897:
6875:Standard German
6869:
6855:New High German
6841:Old High German
6815:
6794:
6776:
6687:
6659:
6620:
6604:East Pomeranian
6594:Brandenburgisch
6581:East Low German
6575:
6502:Dutch Low Saxon
6494:West Low German
6488:
6446:
6412:Schiermonnikoog
6393:
6288:
6274:Wursten Frisian
6237:
6203:
6086:
6073:
6063:
6058:
6010:
6005:
6004:
5997:
5983:
5979:
5966:
5962:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5927:
5923:
5914:
5910:
5901:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5881:
5751:senden, sanden
5740:sendet, sandet
5729:senden, sanden
5707:sendes, sandes
5382:
4914:blijft, blivet
4882:blēeft, blēvet
4879:blijft, blivet
4849:blēefs, blēves
4846:blijfs, blives
4801:blēeft, blēvet
4798:blijft, blivet
4776:blijft, blivet
4768:blēefs, blēves
4765:blijfs, blives
4684:of the plural.
4457:
4452:
4436:
4400:
4394:
4391:
4384:needs expansion
4369:
4205:
4200:
4029:T-V distinction
4025:
3973:
3965:
3910:
3838:
3803:brôots, brôdes
3711:nouns ended in
3704:
3692:
3687:
3657:
3655:
3614:
3608:
3606:
3574:
3359:
3304:
3267:
3249:
3217:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3164:
3146:
3128:
3013:
2941:
2913:Duchy of Cleves
2909:
2845:
2791:Belgian Limburg
2780:
2761:Lack of umlaut
2697:
2654:Lack of umlaut
2620:developed into
2610:
2606:
2602:found in texts.
2600:hypercorrection
2546:
2527:Lack of umlaut
2475:
2431:East Franconian
2402:
2291:), but regular
2287:(present tense
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2033:final devoicing
1988:
1782:
1766:
1720:
1716:
1697:
1460:
1451:
1434:
1330:
1319:
1306:
1298:
1080:
1041:
1007:
973:
918:
892:
606:
496:Syllable-final
290:
285:
260:
219:Without proper
203:
187:
180:
170:
169:
162:
147:
142:
136:
122:
115:
73:
70:Language family
68:
60:
56:around 1500 or
52:developed into
17:
12:
11:
5:
8030:
8020:
8019:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7982:
7981:
7979:
7978:
7971:
7961:
7958:
7957:
7954:
7953:
7950:
7949:
7947:
7946:
7941:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7921:
7915:
7913:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7839:
7837:
7833:
7832:
7830:
7829:
7824:
7819:
7814:
7812:Proto-Germanic
7808:
7806:
7802:
7801:
7799:
7798:
7791:
7784:
7776:
7775:
7774:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7753:
7748:
7742:
7740:
7730:
7729:
7717:
7716:
7713:
7712:
7709:
7708:
7706:
7705:
7698:
7691:
7687:Crimean Gothic
7676:
7674:
7666:
7665:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7658:
7657:
7656:
7651:
7642:
7639:
7638:
7636:
7635:
7634:
7633:
7623:
7622:
7621:
7614:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7591:
7590:
7585:
7575:
7574:
7573:
7563:
7561:Insular Danish
7558:
7548:
7547:
7546:
7544:Rinkebysvenska
7541:
7530:
7528:
7524:
7523:
7521:
7520:
7513:
7506:
7505:
7504:
7497:
7485:
7480:
7479:
7478:
7471:
7464:
7458:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7411:
7409:
7405:
7404:
7402:
7401:
7400:
7399:
7392:
7390:Old East Norse
7387:
7385:Old West Norse
7375:
7367:
7365:
7358:
7348:
7347:
7331:
7330:
7327:
7326:
7323:
7322:
7319:
7318:
7316:
7315:
7308:
7307:
7306:
7296:
7291:
7290:
7289:
7288:
7287:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7267:
7265:South Tyrolean
7257:
7256:
7255:
7245:
7235:
7234:
7233:
7228:
7227:
7226:
7216:
7215:
7214:
7207:High Alemannic
7204:
7203:
7202:
7197:
7180:
7178:
7172:
7171:
7168:
7167:
7165:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7123:
7121:
7115:
7114:
7112:
7111:
7106:
7105:
7104:
7094:
7093:
7092:
7091:
7090:
7085:
7075:
7065:
7064:
7063:
7062:
7061:
7060:
7059:
7049:
7044:
7034:
7033:
7032:
7027:
7011:
7009:
7000:
6998:Central German
6994:
6993:
6991:
6990:
6989:
6988:
6983:
6976:
6971:
6966:
6956:
6951:
6950:
6949:
6939:
6937:Barossa German
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6913:
6911:
6899:
6898:
6896:
6895:
6890:
6885:
6879:
6877:
6871:
6870:
6868:
6867:
6866:
6865:
6851:
6844:
6836:
6834:
6827:
6821:
6820:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6813:
6808:
6802:
6800:
6796:
6795:
6793:
6792:
6786:
6784:
6778:
6777:
6775:
6774:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6741:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6720:
6719:
6718:
6716:French Flemish
6708:
6707:
6706:
6695:
6693:
6689:
6688:
6686:
6685:
6675:
6669:
6667:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6641:
6639:
6632:
6630:Low Franconian
6626:
6625:
6622:
6621:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6585:
6583:
6577:
6576:
6574:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6562:
6561:
6551:
6550:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6538:
6537:
6532:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6498:
6496:
6490:
6489:
6487:
6486:
6479:
6471:
6469:
6462:
6456:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6448:
6447:
6445:
6444:
6443:
6442:
6437:
6436:
6435:
6434:
6433:
6431:Westereendersk
6425:
6414:
6409:
6403:
6401:
6395:
6394:
6392:
6391:
6390:
6389:
6384:
6377:
6372:
6371:
6370:
6365:
6362:
6354:
6349:
6348:
6347:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6329:
6324:
6323:
6322:
6317:
6309:
6298:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6287:
6286:
6285:
6284:
6277:
6270:
6258:
6257:
6256:
6247:
6245:
6239:
6238:
6236:
6235:
6232:Middle Frisian
6228:
6220:
6218:
6211:
6205:
6204:
6202:
6201:
6200:
6199:
6192:
6180:
6179:
6178:
6171:
6164:
6152:
6151:
6150:
6149:
6148:
6138:Modern English
6134:
6131:Middle English
6127:
6120:
6109:
6107:
6098:
6088:
6087:
6075:
6074:
6068:
6065:
6064:
6057:
6056:
6049:
6042:
6034:
6028:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6009:
6008:External links
6006:
6003:
6002:
5995:
5977:
5960:
5947:
5921:
5908:
5894:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5883:Main article:
5880:
5877:
5874:
5873:
5870:
5869:
5866:
5863:
5860:
5859:
5855:
5854:
5851:
5847:
5846:
5843:
5839:
5838:
5834:
5833:
5830:
5827:
5823:
5822:
5819:
5816:
5812:
5811:
5808:
5805:
5801:
5800:
5797:
5794:
5790:
5789:
5786:
5785:sents, sendes
5783:
5779:
5778:
5775:
5772:
5768:
5767:
5764:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5753:
5752:
5749:
5746:
5742:
5741:
5738:
5735:
5731:
5730:
5727:
5724:
5720:
5719:
5716:
5713:
5709:
5708:
5705:
5704:sents, sendes
5702:
5698:
5697:
5694:
5691:
5687:
5686:
5683:
5680:
5677:
5676:
5672:
5671:
5668:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5653:
5650:
5649:
5646:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5635:
5634:
5631:
5627:
5626:
5623:
5619:
5618:
5614:
5613:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5602:
5599:
5596:
5592:
5591:
5588:
5585:
5581:
5580:
5577:
5574:
5570:
5569:
5566:
5563:
5559:
5558:
5555:
5552:
5548:
5547:
5544:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5533:
5532:
5529:
5526:
5522:
5521:
5518:
5515:
5511:
5510:
5507:
5504:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5493:
5489:
5488:
5485:
5482:
5478:
5477:
5474:
5471:
5467:
5466:
5463:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5452:
5451:
5448:
5444:
5443:
5440:
5381:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5370:
5367:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5356:
5355:
5352:
5348:
5347:
5344:
5340:
5339:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5328:
5324:
5323:
5320:
5317:
5313:
5312:
5309:
5306:
5302:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5291:
5290:
5287:
5284:
5280:
5279:
5276:
5273:
5269:
5268:
5265:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5254:
5253:
5250:
5247:
5243:
5242:
5239:
5236:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5225:
5221:
5220:
5217:
5214:
5210:
5209:
5206:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5188:
5187:
5184:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5173:
5172:
5169:
5165:
5164:
5161:
5154:
5151:
5150:
5147:
5144:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5132:
5128:
5127:
5124:
5120:
5119:
5115:
5114:
5111:
5108:
5104:
5103:
5100:
5097:
5093:
5092:
5089:
5086:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5075:
5071:
5070:
5069:bonts, bondes
5067:
5066:bints, bindes
5064:
5060:
5059:
5056:
5053:
5049:
5048:
5045:
5042:
5039:
5038:
5034:
5033:
5030:
5027:
5023:
5022:
5019:
5016:
5012:
5011:
5008:
5005:
5001:
5000:
4997:
4994:
4990:
4989:
4988:bonts, bondes
4986:
4985:bints, bindes
4983:
4979:
4978:
4975:
4972:
4968:
4967:
4964:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4953:
4952:
4949:
4945:
4944:
4941:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4927:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4916:
4915:
4912:
4908:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4899:
4895:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4884:
4883:
4880:
4877:
4873:
4872:
4869:
4866:
4862:
4861:
4858:
4855:
4851:
4850:
4847:
4844:
4840:
4839:
4836:
4833:
4829:
4828:
4825:
4822:
4819:
4818:
4814:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4802:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4780:
4777:
4774:
4770:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4759:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4748:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4737:
4733:
4732:
4729:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4672:, and between
4652:
4651:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4635:
4632:
4628:
4627:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4611:
4608:
4604:
4603:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4574:
4573:
4566:
4563:
4560:
4557:
4554:
4550:
4549:
4536:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4520:
4519:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4482:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4466:
4465:
4464:Example verbs
4462:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4446:
4435:
4432:
4402:
4401:
4381:
4379:
4368:
4365:
4362:
4361:
4358:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4338:
4337:
4329:
4328:
4325:
4317:
4316:
4308:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4293:
4292:
4289:
4286:
4278:
4277:
4274:
4266:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4248:
4247:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4199:
4196:
4190:
4189:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4137:
4134:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4111:
4108:
4105:
4102:
4099:
4095:
4094:
4091:
4088:
4084:
4083:
4080:
4077:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4064:
4063:
4060:
4057:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4014:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3987:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3978:
3975:
3970:
3967:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3945:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3902:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3891:
3888:
3885:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3869:
3866:
3863:
3837:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3791:dāechs, dāges
3789:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3703:
3700:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3652:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3635:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3571:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3313:
3306:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3285:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3012:
3009:
3007:the language.
2945:Latin alphabet
2940:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2928:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2827:
2816:
2810:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2730:
2727:
2724:West Friesland
2696:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2677:
2676:in some words.
2667:
2652:
2637:
2614:
2603:
2592:
2589:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2525:
2518:
2507:
2498:
2489:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2457:East Brabantic
2455:
2454:West Brabantic
2449:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2371:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2245:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2201:except before
2183:
2169:
2136:Epenthesis of
2134:
2092:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2056:versus plural
2042:versus plural
1987:
1984:
1982:respectively.
1952:l-vocalization
1921:
1920:
1917:
1890:
1869:On the coast,
1816:
1815:
1804:
1794:
1736:
1735:
1724:
1709:
1691:
1671:respectively.
1629:
1628:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1537:
1532:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1509:
1504:
1494:
1493:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1455:
1446:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1422:
1412:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1325:
1314:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1239:
1215:
1197:
1188:was a plosive
1178:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1151:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1140:
1133:
1126:
1119:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1101:
1099:
1092:
1085:
1077:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1060:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1019:
1012:
1004:
1003:
1001:
994:
992:
985:
978:
971:
965:
964:
962:
960:
958:
951:
944:
938:
937:
932:
927:
922:
912:
907:
891:
888:
887:
886:
871:
814:
813:
812:
786:L-vocalisation
783:
782:
781:
713:
712:
711:
692:
685:
682:
679:
666:
647:
621:
599:
598:
597:
587:
557:
556:
555:
533:
494:
483:
460:
459:
458:
443:> northern
422:
357:
348:
331:(merging with
313:
289:
286:
284:
281:
256:after 1500 or
237:
236:
223:, you may see
209:
208:
201:
193:
192:
185:
177:
176:
167:
159:
158:
157:Language codes
154:
153:
148:
144:Writing system
141:
138:
137:
135:
134:
125:
123:
120:
117:
116:
114:
113:
112:
111:
110:
109:
108:
107:
106:
105:
98:Low Franconian
76:
74:
67:
64:
63:
50:
46:
45:
39:
35:
34:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8029:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7994:
7992:
7976:
7972:
7970:
7966:
7963:
7962:
7959:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7919:Germanic verb
7917:
7916:
7914:
7910:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7858:Sievers's law
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7840:
7838:
7834:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7809:
7807:
7805:Reconstructed
7803:
7797:
7796:
7792:
7790:
7789:
7785:
7783:
7782:
7778:
7777:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7758:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7743:
7741:
7739:
7735:
7731:
7727:
7722:
7718:
7704:
7703:
7699:
7697:
7696:
7692:
7689:
7688:
7683:
7682:
7678:
7677:
7675:
7673:
7672:
7667:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7646:
7644:
7643:
7640:
7632:
7629:
7628:
7627:
7624:
7620:
7619:
7618:Middle Danish
7615:
7613:
7612:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7580:
7579:
7576:
7572:
7569:
7568:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7557:
7554:
7553:
7552:
7549:
7545:
7542:
7540:
7537:
7536:
7535:
7532:
7531:
7529:
7525:
7519:
7518:
7514:
7512:
7511:
7507:
7503:
7502:
7498:
7496:
7495:
7494:Old Icelandic
7491:
7490:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7477:
7476:
7472:
7470:
7469:
7468:Old Norwegian
7465:
7462:
7459:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7417:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7410:
7406:
7398:
7397:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7382:
7381:
7380:
7376:
7374:
7373:
7369:
7368:
7366:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7336:
7332:
7314:
7313:
7309:
7305:
7302:
7301:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7286:
7285:Gottscheerish
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7262:
7261:
7258:
7254:
7251:
7250:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7241:
7240:
7239:
7236:
7232:
7229:
7225:
7224:Walser German
7222:
7221:
7220:
7217:
7213:
7210:
7209:
7208:
7205:
7201:
7198:
7196:
7193:
7192:
7191:
7190:Low Alemannic
7188:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7181:
7179:
7177:
7173:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7152:High Prussian
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7137:Erzgebirgisch
7135:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7124:
7122:
7120:
7116:
7110:
7107:
7103:
7100:
7099:
7098:
7095:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7080:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7069:
7066:
7058:
7055:
7054:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7042:Luxembourgish
7040:
7039:
7038:
7035:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7022:
7021:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7013:
7012:
7010:
7008:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6981:
6980:Klezmer-loshn
6977:
6975:
6974:Scots Yiddish
6972:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6961:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6948:
6945:
6944:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6914:
6912:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6880:
6878:
6876:
6872:
6864:
6863:
6859:
6858:
6857:
6856:
6852:
6850:
6849:
6845:
6843:
6842:
6838:
6837:
6835:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6822:
6812:
6811:Meuse-Rhenish
6809:
6807:
6804:
6803:
6801:
6797:
6791:
6788:
6787:
6785:
6783:
6779:
6773:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6742:
6739:
6738:Kleverlandish
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6717:
6714:
6713:
6712:
6709:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6700:
6699:Central Dutch
6697:
6696:
6694:
6690:
6683:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6662:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6642:
6640:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6627:
6615:
6612:
6611:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6582:
6578:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6556:
6555:
6552:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6507:Stellingwarfs
6505:
6504:
6503:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6495:
6491:
6485:
6484:
6480:
6478:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6470:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6457:
6441:
6438:
6432:
6429:
6428:
6427:Wood Frisian
6426:
6423:
6422:
6421:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6402:
6400:
6396:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6382:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6369:
6366:
6363:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6345:
6344:
6343:
6340:
6339:
6337:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6312:
6310:
6308:
6307:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6299:
6297:
6295:
6294:North Frisian
6291:
6283:
6282:
6278:
6276:
6275:
6271:
6269:
6268:
6264:
6263:
6262:
6259:
6255:
6252:
6251:
6249:
6248:
6246:
6244:
6240:
6234:
6233:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6206:
6198:
6197:
6193:
6191:
6190:
6186:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6177:
6176:
6172:
6170:
6169:
6165:
6163:
6162:
6158:
6157:
6156:
6153:
6147:
6146:
6142:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6135:
6133:
6132:
6128:
6126:
6125:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6111:
6110:
6108:
6106:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6096:Anglo-Frisian
6093:
6089:
6085:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6066:
6062:
6055:
6050:
6048:
6043:
6041:
6036:
6035:
6032:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6015:
6012:
6011:
5998:
5992:
5988:
5981:
5974:
5970:
5964:
5957:
5951:
5936:
5932:
5925:
5918:
5912:
5905:
5899:
5895:
5886:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5861:
5856:
5853:sent, sendet
5849:
5848:
5841:
5840:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5820:
5818:sent, sendet
5817:
5814:
5813:
5809:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5798:
5795:
5792:
5791:
5787:
5784:
5781:
5780:
5776:
5773:
5770:
5769:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5759:
5754:
5750:
5747:
5744:
5743:
5739:
5737:sent, sendet
5736:
5733:
5732:
5728:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5718:sende, sande
5717:
5715:sent, sendet
5714:
5711:
5710:
5706:
5703:
5700:
5699:
5696:sende, sande
5695:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5678:
5673:
5666:
5665:
5658:
5657:
5654:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5641:
5636:
5633:māect, māket
5629:
5628:
5621:
5620:
5615:
5611:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5600:
5598:māect, māket
5597:
5594:
5593:
5589:
5586:
5583:
5582:
5578:
5575:
5572:
5571:
5567:
5565:māecs, mākes
5564:
5561:
5560:
5556:
5553:
5550:
5549:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5534:
5530:
5527:
5524:
5523:
5519:
5517:māect, māket
5516:
5513:
5512:
5508:
5505:
5502:
5501:
5497:
5495:māect, māket
5494:
5491:
5490:
5486:
5484:māecs, mākes
5483:
5480:
5479:
5475:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5458:
5453:
5446:
5445:
5438:
5437:
5434:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5411:
5405:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5386:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5362:
5357:
5350:
5349:
5346:drach, drāge
5342:
5341:
5336:
5332:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5321:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5310:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5271:
5270:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5251:
5248:
5245:
5244:
5240:
5237:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5218:
5215:
5212:
5211:
5207:
5204:
5201:
5200:
5196:
5193:
5190:
5189:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5179:
5174:
5167:
5166:
5159:
5158:
5155:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5142:
5137:
5134:bint, bindet
5130:
5129:
5122:
5121:
5116:
5112:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5102:bont, bondet
5101:
5099:bint, bindet
5098:
5095:
5094:
5090:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5079:
5076:
5073:
5072:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5057:
5054:
5051:
5050:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5031:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5021:bont, bondet
5020:
5018:bint, bindet
5017:
5014:
5013:
5009:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4998:
4996:bint, bindet
4995:
4992:
4991:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4976:
4973:
4970:
4969:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4947:
4946:
4939:
4938:
4935:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4910:
4909:
4906:blijf, blive
4902:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4881:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4870:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4859:
4856:
4853:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4778:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4761:
4760:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4739:
4734:
4727:
4726:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4700:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4685:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4650:
4649:
4645:
4642:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4626:
4625:
4621:
4618:
4615:
4612:
4609:
4606:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4596:
4595:
4591:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4531:
4528:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4518:
4517:
4512:
4511:
4507:
4504:
4501:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4487:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4463:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4440:
4431:
4428:
4424:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4398:
4395:November 2010
4389:
4385:
4382:This section
4380:
4377:
4373:
4372:
4357:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4331:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4319:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4279:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4209:
4204:
4195:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4151:
4138:
4126:
4125:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4109:
4106:
4103:
4100:
4097:
4096:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4065:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4049:gullie/jullie
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4015:
4012:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4001:
3998:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3974:goede (defn)
3966:goede (defn)
3963:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3931:
3926:
3924:
3919:
3913:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3889:
3886:
3883:
3882:
3878:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3828:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3797:dâets, dâdes
3796:
3793:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3783:brôot, brôde
3782:
3779:
3776:
3773:
3770:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3723:
3717:
3714:
3709:
3699:
3697:
3678:
3675:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3643:
3636:
3633:
3628:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3607:c (elsewhere)
3604:
3599:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3572:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3549:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3535:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3505:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3463:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3449:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3421:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3407:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3338:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3322:
3321:
3314:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3286:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3227:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3209:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3068:
3063:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3017:
3008:
3004:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2946:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2915:, around the
2914:
2907:Kleverlandish
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2843:
2829:Retention of
2828:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2760:
2754:Retention of
2753:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2678:
2668:
2653:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2615:
2604:
2601:
2593:
2590:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2526:
2523:
2519:
2508:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2312:
2307:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2246:
2223:
2218:
2211:
2210:
2184:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2093:
2067:
2059:
2052:
2045:
2038:
2034:
2015:
2014:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1953:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1918:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1836:
1833:
1805:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1781:appears with
1776:
1772:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1725:
1710:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1672:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1610:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1586:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1545:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1517:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1423:
1413:
1406:
1405:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1312:
1301:
1288:
1283:
1277:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1221:
1218:/n,t,d,s,z,l/
1216:
1213:
1205:
1198:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1002:
999:
995:
993:
990:
986:
983:
979:
976:
972:
970:
966:
963:
961:
959:
956:
952:
949:
945:
943:
939:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
916:
913:
911:
908:
905:
899:
896:
884:
880:
872:
866:
859:
852:
845:
838:
831:
815:
811:respectively.
802:
801:
787:
784:
778:
772:
765:
759:
749:
742:The geminate
741:
740:
714:
705:
697:
693:
686:
683:
680:
677:
676:
674:
670:
667:
648:
622:
616:
600:
592:
588:
585:
584:
558:
553:
549:
545:
544:
534:
528:
521:
514:
507:
495:
485:Insertion of
484:
465:
461:
453:
446:
439:
435:
423:
417:
410:
394:
393:
388:
381:
358:
349:
314:
295:
294:
293:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
255:
251:
247:
246:West Germanic
243:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
216:
210:
206:
202:
200:
199:
194:
190:
186:
183:
178:
173:
168:
165:
160:
155:
152:
149:
145:
139:
133:
130:
129:
128:
124:
118:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
95:
94:
91:
90:
89:
88:West Germanic
86:
85:
84:
81:
80:
79:
78:Indo-European
75:
71:
65:
55:
51:
47:
44:
43:Low Countries
40:
36:
33:
29:
25:
20:
7997:Middle Dutch
7964:
7848:Verner's law
7793:
7788:Gotho-Nordic
7786:
7779:
7700:
7693:
7685:
7679:
7669:
7654:Fårö Gutnish
7616:
7609:
7515:
7508:
7499:
7492:
7473:
7466:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7377:
7370:
7310:
7212:Swiss German
7176:Upper German
7109:Amana German
7083:Volga German
7052:Hunsrückisch
6978:
6932:Unserdeutsch
6927:Berlinerisch
6860:
6853:
6846:
6839:
6799:Cover groups
6755:Mohawk Dutch
6750:Jersey Dutch
6728:East Flemish
6711:West Flemish
6655:Middle Dutch
6654:
6609:Low Prussian
6481:
6474:
6440:Terschelling
6424:Clay Frisian
6399:West Frisian
6387:Wiedingharde
6379:
6367:
6327:Heligolandic
6304:
6279:
6272:
6265:
6260:
6243:East Frisian
6230:
6223:
6196:Middle Scots
6194:
6187:
6173:
6166:
6159:
6154:
6143:
6136:
6129:
6122:
5986:
5980:
5972:
5968:
5963:
5955:
5950:
5940:21 September
5938:. Retrieved
5934:
5924:
5916:
5911:
5903:
5898:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5408:
5406:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5387:
5383:
5126:bint, binde
4707:
4703:
4701:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4686:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4655:
4437:
4434:Strong verbs
4420:
4405:
4392:
4388:adding to it
4383:
4353:
4341:
4332:
4320:
4311:
4296:
4281:
4269:
4251:
4242:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4211:
4207:
4202:
4201:
4193:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4026:
3972:goet (indef)
3964:goet (indef)
3935:
3933:
3929:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3914:
3911:
3857:"bow, arc".
3850:
3845:
3841:
3839:
3718:
3712:
3707:
3705:
3702:Strong nouns
3693:
3637:g, gh (when
3305:uu (closed)
3268:oo (closed)
3250:oo (closed)
3218:ij (closed)
3165:ee (closed)
3147:ee (closed)
3129:ae (closed)
3014:
3005:
3000:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2968:
2960:
2949:
2942:
2910:
2859:
2852:
2851:Full use of
2781:
2748:
2741:
2737:
2698:
2639:Lowering of
2633:
2629:
2554:East Flemish
2547:
2476:
2446:East Flemish
2443:West Flemish
2435:
2428:
2411:
2403:
2390:
2386:
2385:, both from
2382:
2378:
2367:
2363:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2305:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2216:
2172:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2057:
2050:
2043:
2036:
1989:
1979:
1975:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1922:
1912:merged into
1901:
1893:
1882:
1870:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1851:
1834:
1831:
1817:
1806:In Brabant,
1790:
1786:
1774:
1770:
1754:
1751:
1737:
1673:
1630:
1435:
1304:Short vowels
1299:
1168:
897:
893:
882:
878:
864:
857:
850:
843:
836:
829:
747:
695:
614:
590:
559:Fronting of
551:
547:
535:Lowering of
526:
519:
512:
505:
493:and a vowel.
451:
444:
437:
415:
408:
386:
379:
291:
277:conservative
254:Modern Dutch
242:Middle Dutch
241:
240:
212:
196:
103:Middle Dutch
102:
54:modern Dutch
31:
27:
22:Middle Dutch
7863:Kluge's law
7843:Grimm's law
7626:Dalecarlian
7605:Perkerdansk
7578:East Danish
7396:Old Gutnish
7372:Proto-Norse
7312:Langobardic
7304:Vogtlandian
7132:Upper Saxon
6986:Lachoudisch
6947:Lotegorisch
6825:High German
6571:Westphalian
6566:Eastphalian
6530:Achterhooks
6407:Hindeloopen
6342:Bökingharde
6311:Föhr–Amrum
6225:Old Frisian
6189:Early Scots
6124:Old English
5858:Participle
5659:Infinitive
5638:Participle
5439:Infinitive
5359:Participle
5160:Infinitive
5139:Participle
4940:Infinitive
4919:Participle
4720:Infinitive
4427:subjunctive
4198:Determiners
4148:hem/hen/'n
4127:Accusative
4098:Nominative
3982:Accusative
3961:Nominative
3820:dâet, dâde
3367:Normalised
3271:oe, oi, oy
3025:Normalised
2977:, but also
2939:Orthography
2917:Lower Rhine
2624:instead of
2061:/lamː(ə)rə/
2049:, singular
1954:from older
1818:The vowels
1738:The vowels
1674:The vowels
1269:, either a
1212:labiodental
1115:Approximant
434:Old Frisian
308:merge into
261: 1550
227:instead of
121:Early forms
61: 1550
7991:Categories
7695:Burgundian
7611:Old Danish
7600:Gøtudanskt
7583:Bornholmsk
7445:Vestlandsk
7425:Kebabnorsk
7162:Halcnovian
7127:Thuringian
6790:Limburgish
6760:Stadsfries
6733:Brabantian
6460:Low German
6306:Eiderstedt
6161:Fingallian
5879:Literature
5826:3rd plur.
5815:2nd plur.
5804:1st plur.
5793:3rd sing.
5782:2nd sing.
5771:1st sing.
5745:3rd plur.
5734:2nd plur.
5723:1st plur.
5712:3rd sing.
5701:2nd sing.
5690:1st sing.
5606:3rd plur.
5595:2nd plur.
5584:1st plur.
5573:3rd sing.
5562:2nd sing.
5551:1st sing.
5525:3rd plur.
5514:2nd plur.
5503:1st plur.
5492:3rd sing.
5481:2nd sing.
5470:1st sing.
5410:Rückumlaut
5380:Weak verbs
5327:3rd plur.
5316:2nd plur.
5305:1st plur.
5294:3rd sing.
5283:2nd sing.
5272:1st sing.
5246:3rd plur.
5235:2nd plur.
5224:1st plur.
5213:3rd sing.
5202:2nd sing.
5191:1st sing.
5107:3rd plur.
5096:2nd plur.
5085:1st plur.
5074:3rd sing.
5063:2nd sing.
5052:1st sing.
5026:3rd plur.
5015:2nd plur.
5004:1st plur.
4993:3rd sing.
4982:2nd sing.
4971:1st sing.
4887:3rd plur.
4876:2nd plur.
4865:1st plur.
4854:3rd sing.
4843:2nd sing.
4832:1st sing.
4806:3rd plur.
4795:2nd plur.
4784:1st plur.
4773:3rd sing.
4762:2nd sing.
4751:1st sing.
4423:indicative
4334:Accusative
4322:Nominative
4271:Accusative
4253:Nominative
4136:hem/hen/'n
3947:Masculine
3908:Adjectives
3836:Weak nouns
3641:devoices)
3357:Consonants
3347:au (rare)
3312:), ui, uy
2934:influence.
2783:Limburgish
2778:Limburgish
2716:Ingvaeonic
2616:Old Dutch
2578:Brabantian
2478:Brabantian
2473:Brabantian
2451:Brabantic
2389:(the form
2047:/koːniŋːə/
1873:was front
1206:, whereas
890:Consonants
605:, spelled
516:/dou(w)ən/
279:language.
93:Istvaeonic
7975:varieties
7967:indicate
7781:Northwest
7726:Philology
7631:Elfdalian
7566:Jutlandic
7488:Icelandic
7463:(written)
7457:(written)
7435:Trøndersk
7415:Norwegian
7379:Old Norse
7200:Coloniero
7184:Alemannic
7157:Wymysorys
7025:Colognian
7020:Ripuarian
6942:Rotwelsch
6772:Midslands
6723:Zeelandic
6704:Hollandic
6678:Afrikaans
6650:Old Dutch
6476:Old Saxon
6375:Karrharde
6357:Goesharde
6338:Mainland
6071:philology
5865:sendende
5369:gedrāgen
5366:drāgende
5149:gebonden
5146:bindende
4929:geblēven
4926:blivende
4188:haer/'re
4164:Genitive
3990:Genitive
3950:Feminine
3884:Genitive
3865:Singular
3788:Genitive
3757:Singular
3751:Singular
3745:Singular
3737:"bread".
3401:uu, u, v
3299:/yː/,/uː/
2930:Stronger
2902:+ dental,
2700:Hollandic
2695:Hollandic
2558:Zeelandic
2468:Limburgic
2462:Hollandic
2379:Nederland
2079:or later
2075:(spelled
2040:/koːniŋk/
1896:was back
1777:), while
1322:unrounded
1182:geminated
1043:voiceless
1037:Fricative
975:voiceless
701:, plural
419:/ɦyʋə(n)/
283:Phonology
273:Old Dutch
250:Old Dutch
198:Glottolog
182:ISO 639-3
164:ISO 639-2
132:Old Dutch
7702:Vandalic
7645:Gutnish
7450:Vikværsk
7430:Sognamål
7420:Bergensk
7270:Cimbrian
7238:Bavarian
7195:Alsatian
7142:Lusatian
7078:Palatine
6768:Amelands
6645:Frankish
6535:Sallaans
6517:Gronings
6368:Southern
6361:Northern
6352:Halligen
6301:Insular
6118:dialects
5763:Present
5682:Present
5670:sendene
5645:mākende
5612:māecten
5601:māectet
5590:māecten
5568:māectes
5543:Present
5531:māecten
5520:māectet
5509:māecten
5487:māectes
5462:Present
5333:droegen
5311:droegen
5264:Present
5252:droegen
5230:droegen
5183:Present
5171:drāgene
5044:Present
4963:Present
4951:bindene
4824:Present
4743:Present
4731:blivene
4448:Present
4355:Genitive
4298:Genitive
4244:Singular
4101:ic, icke
4059:Singular
4023:Pronouns
3364:Phoneme
3303:u (open)
3266:o (open)
3248:o (open)
3216:i (open)
3163:e (open)
3145:e (open)
3127:a (open)
3022:Phoneme
2594:Loss of
2465:Utrechts
2440:Flemish
2400:Dialects
2391:Neerland
2302:/oːpənt/
2176:/bɪdːən/
2113:). E.g.
2044:coninghe
2031:through
1939:next to
1900:, while
1881:, while
1791:spieghel
1267:alveolar
1204:bilabial
920:Alveolar
771:smiththa
594:/ˈzynnə/
489:between
390:/dyːtsk/
383:/diətsk/
233:Help:IPA
205:midd1321
127:Frankish
83:Germanic
7965:Italics
7588:Scanian
7534:Swedish
7483:Faroese
7461:Nynorsk
7440:Valdris
7275:Mòcheno
7231:Swabian
7097:Hessian
7057:Hunsrik
6969:Western
6964:Eastern
6959:Yiddish
6909:creoles
6806:Bergish
6522:Drèents
6512:Tweants
6364:Central
6346:Mooring
6209:Frisian
6168:Kildare
6113:English
6016:(TITUS)
5832:senden
5829:senden
5821:sendet
5810:senden
5807:senden
5788:sendes
5748:senden
5726:senden
5667:Gerund
5662:senden
5579:māecte
5557:māecte
5498:māecte
5476:māecte
5450:mākene
5447:Gerund
5330:drāgen
5308:drāgen
5300:droege
5278:droege
5249:drāgen
5227:drāgen
5219:droech
5197:droech
5168:Gerund
5163:drāgen
5113:bonden
5110:binden
5091:bonden
5088:binden
5032:bonden
5029:binden
5010:bonden
5007:binden
4948:Gerund
4943:binden
4893:blēven
4890:bliven
4871:blēven
4868:bliven
4812:blēven
4809:bliven
4790:blēven
4787:bliven
4728:Gerund
4723:bliven
4453:1/3 sg
4214:= the)
4153:Dative
4139:haer/se
4062:Plural
4041:gij/jij
4016:goeden
4013:goeden
4010:goeden
4007:Dative
4002:goeder
3996:goeder
3985:goeden
3956:Plural
3953:Neuter
3895:Dative
3868:Plural
3829:brôden
3811:Dative
3760:Plural
3754:Plural
3748:Plural
3685:Grammar
2769:before
2720:Frisian
2714:Strong
2662:before
2647:before
2544:Flemish
2535:before
2180:/bɪdən/
2127:peinsen
2101:before
2058:lammere
1787:speghel
1595:Closing
1530:opening
1502:opening
1339:Central
1333:rounded
1200:/m,p,b/
1169:Notes:
969:Plosive
935:Glottal
925:Palatal
868:/woːrt/
854:/aːrdə/
840:/vaːrt/
828:. E.g.
758:withtha
708:/daːɣə/
704:dag(h)e
525:versus
511:versus
509:/dywən/
498:/uː(w)/
474:before
432:) like
412:/hiwən/
385:versus
229:Unicode
32:duutsch
7681:Gothic
7551:Danish
7455:Bokmål
6954:Yenish
6764:Bildts
6547:Veluws
6542:Urkers
6381:Strand
6105:Anglic
5993:
5929:DBNL.
5850:Plur.
5845:sende
5842:Sing.
5799:sende
5796:sende
5777:sende
5774:sende
5693:sende
5630:Plur.
5622:Sing.
5609:māken
5587:māken
5528:māken
5506:māken
5442:māken
5415:senden
5351:Plur.
5343:Sing.
5297:drāge
5275:drāge
5194:drāge
5131:Plur.
5123:Sing.
5080:bonde
5077:binde
5058:bonde
5055:binde
4974:binde
4911:Plur.
4903:Sing.
4860:blēve
4857:blive
4838:blēve
4835:blive
4779:blêef
4757:blêef
4754:blive
4648:slapen
4643:(any)
4634:(any)
4624:dragen
4600:liggen
4570:stelen
4546:binden
4540:helpen
4510:bieden
4496:ie, û
4486:bliven
4461:Ptcp.
4445:Class
4408:strong
4343:Dative
4313:Plural
4283:Dative
4236:Neuter
4231:Female
4113:het/'t
4093:Neut.
3999:goets
3993:goets
3977:goede
3969:goede
3901:bōgen
3890:bōgen
3887:bōgen
3879:bōgen
3826:brôde
3823:dâden
3817:dāgen
3806:brôde
3780:brôot
3373:Notes
3031:Notes
3011:Vowels
2993:, and
2969:maghet
2965:maiden
2956:clitic
2837:) and
2813:Umlaut
2742:-monde
2588:for â.
2570:Calais
2522:umlaut
2331:luyden
2293:opende
2281:dachte
2253:vrouwe
2173:bidden
2162:bunder
2154:solder
2146:donder
2131:penser
2123:pensen
2054:/lamp/
2037:coninc
1941:cleine
1937:cleene
1785:(e.g.
1769:(e.g.
1296:Vowels
1241:After
1147:Rhotic
1082:voiced
1009:voiced
915:Dental
910:Labial
861:/wort/
847:/erθa/
833:/farθ/
777:smisse
618:/kiːn/
513:douwen
464:umlaut
387:duitsc
380:dietsc
38:Region
28:dietsc
7795:South
7746:North
7356:North
7340:North
6682:Kaaps
6673:Dutch
6320:Amrum
6261:Weser
6183:Scots
5890:Notes
5766:Past
5685:Past
5625:māke
5576:māke
5554:māke
5546:Past
5473:māke
5465:Past
5423:sande
5419:sande
5267:Past
5186:Past
5047:Past
4999:bant
4977:bant
4966:Past
4827:Past
4746:Past
4693:drach
4594:lesen
4580:ē, i
4526:e, i
4516:bugen
4458:rest
4367:Verbs
4182:onser
4176:harer
4173:sijns
4170:dijns
4167:mijns
4087:Masc.
3898:bōge
3876:bōge
3814:dāge
3800:dâde
3794:dāge
3777:dâde
3774:dâet
3771:dāge
3768:dach
3734:brôot
3690:Nouns
3072:j, y
2996:mecht
2987:maget
2979:meget
2974:maegt
2961:maagd
2865:blaet
2858:Long
2787:Dutch
2765:>
2738:-mude
2682:>
2672:>
2658:>
2531:>
2503:>
2494:g(h)i
2387:neder
2366:>
2350:>
2342:>
2334:>
2319:schwa
2306:opent
2298:opend
2289:denkt
2285:dacht
2283:>
2265:heeft
2263:>
2261:hevet
2257:vrouw
2255:>
2236:>
2228:>
2197:>
2189:>
2178:>
2160:>
2158:bunre
2152:>
2150:solre
2144:>
2142:donre
2125:>
2119:einde
2117:>
2097:>
2071:>
2005:>
1997:>
1964:/oɔ̯/
1948:/ɔu̯/
1933:/eɛ̯/
1929:/eɛ̯/
1925:/ɛi̯/
1847:/ei̯/
1812:/uo̯/
1808:/oɔ̯/
1797:/oɔ̯/
1779:/ie̯/
1775:steen
1771:stien
1763:/eɛ̯/
1748:/oɔ̯/
1744:/øœ̯/
1740:/eɛ̯/
1728:/uo̯/
1713:/uo̯/
1702:/ie̯/
1694:/ie̯/
1684:/uo̯/
1680:/yø̯/
1676:/ie̯/
1661:/iə̯/
1641:/eɛ̯/
1637:/iə̯/
1498:Close
1474:Close
1458:Front
1449:Front
1351:Close
1328:Front
1317:Front
1289:]
1285:[
1280:or a
1278:]
1274:[
1271:trill
1255:]
1251:[
1236:/k,ɣ/
1232:]
1228:[
1208:/f,v/
942:Nasal
930:Velar
883:hēeft
881:>
879:hēvet
865:wōort
863:>
851:āerde
849:>
844:ertha
837:vāert
835:>
830:farth
796:>
774:>
769:*
764:wisse
761:>
756:*
748:*-þj-
727:>
719:>
699:/dax/
673:heavy
657:>
634:>
615:-kijn
591:sunne
567:>
552:sonne
548:sunne
539:>
530:/nou/
518:, or
506:duwen
502:/ouw/
500:>
448:/jɔu/
430:/juː/
428:>
416:huwen
409:hiwen
399:>
362:>
353:>
343:>
327:>
319:>
151:Latin
7756:West
7751:East
7671:East
7527:East
7517:Norn
7408:West
7344:East
7342:and
6907:and
6902:Non-
6332:Sylt
6315:Föhr
6250:Ems
6175:Yola
6084:West
5991:ISBN
5942:2017
5935:DBNL
5427:zond
5402:-ed-
5390:-ed-
4676:and
4668:and
4660:and
4456:Past
4451:Past
4425:and
4414:and
4412:weak
4360:der
4348:den
4327:die
4306:des
4303:des
4291:den
4288:der
4276:den
4264:dat
4261:die
4258:die
4226:Male
4185:uwer
4159:hem
4156:haer
4090:Fem.
4082:3rd
4043:and
3854:bōge
3728:dâet
3722:dach
3696:case
3660:/ɡː/
3617:/kː/
3611:/kw/
3569:/sx/
3565:/sk/
3451:/n/,
3340:/ou/
3324:/ei/
3316:/uː/
3280:/uə/
3262:/oː/
3244:/ɔː/
3229:/iə/
3212:/iː/
3204:/oː/
3200:/uə/
3190:and
3177:/øː/
3159:/eː/
3141:/ɛː/
3123:/aː/
3001:magd
2991:magd
2983:magt
2880:for
2877:gaef
2871:blat
2868:for
2839:/uː/
2824:/ɔu/
2822:and
2820:/ɛi/
2789:and
2771:/xt/
2756:/ft/
2664:/xt/
2634:vuur
2630:vier
2626:/yː/
2622:/iə/
2618:/iu/
2609:and
2586:/æː/
2572:and
2556:and
2552:and
2550:West
2537:/xt/
2515:/yː/
2513:and
2511:/iː/
2505:/xt/
2501:/ft/
2383:neer
2381:and
2368:meej
2364:mede
2348:mede
2340:lade
2273:maat
2271:and
2269:mate
2238:/uː/
2234:/uə/
2230:/iː/
2226:/iə/
2214:/ɛi/
2205:and
2199:/ʏy/
2195:/yː/
2193:and
2191:/ɪi/
2187:/iː/
2115:ende
2111:/ɑi/
2107:/ɛi/
2099:/ɛi/
2087:and
2073:/sx/
2069:/sk/
2051:lamp
2027:and
2019:and
2007:/ŋː/
2003:/ŋɡ/
1999:/mː/
1995:/mb/
1978:and
1972:/al/
1970:and
1968:/ol/
1960:/al/
1958:and
1956:/ol/
1914:/oː/
1910:/ɑː/
1906:/aː/
1898:/ɑː/
1887:/ɑː/
1879:/æː/
1875:/aː/
1843:/eː/
1828:/oː/
1826:and
1824:/œː/
1820:/eː/
1801:/oː/
1789:for
1773:for
1746:and
1732:/uː/
1719:and
1706:/iː/
1682:and
1669:/aː/
1667:and
1665:/æː/
1657:/eː/
1653:/iː/
1649:/aː/
1647:and
1645:/eː/
1633:/iː/
1625:/uː/
1576:Open
1467:Back
1462:rnd.
1453:unr.
1417:and
1394:Open
1344:Back
1190:/ɡɡ/
858:wort
826:/aː/
809:/aː/
807:and
805:/ow/
798:/ou/
794:/al/
792:and
790:/ol/
752:/ss/
744:/θθ/
735:and
689:/aː/
644:/oɔ/
640:/øœ/
636:/eɛ/
632:/oː/
629:/øː/
625:/eː/
611:/iː/
577:/uː/
573:/yː/
565:/uː/
523:/ny/
491:/uː/
455:/yː/
441:/iu/
426:/iu/
405:/iw/
401:/yw/
397:/iw/
376:/yː/
372:/iə/
368:/iə/
364:/yː/
360:/iu/
355:/xt/
351:/ft/
310:/iə/
306:/io/
302:/ia/
298:/ie/
41:The
4689:les
4640:ie
4637:ie
4616:oe
4613:oe
4390:.
4212:dat
4208:die
4179:'es
4142:ons
4122:si
4119:ghi
4079:2nd
4076:1st
4073:3rd
4070:2nd
4067:1st
4045:lui
4033:ghi
3842:-en
3672:/h/
3651:,
3649:/ɣ/
3639:/ɣ/
3634:ch
3630:/x/
3601:/k/
3586:/z/
3573:sch
3551:/s/
3537:/d/
3522:/t/
3507:/v/
3493:/f/
3479:/b/
3465:/p/
3437:/m/
3423:/r/
3409:/l/
3394:/w/
3379:/j/
3344:ou
3331:ey
3328:ei
3310:/r/
3289:/j/
3284:oe
3233:ie
3181:ue
3108:/ə/
3094:/ʏ/
3080:/o/
3065:/ɪ/
3051:/e/
3037:/a/
2971:or
2900:/x/
2896:/s/
2892:/n/
2888:/l/
2883:gaf
2835:/o/
2831:/u/
2767:/e/
2763:/a/
2688:/r/
2684:/e/
2680:/o/
2674:/e/
2670:/i/
2660:/e/
2656:/a/
2649:/r/
2645:/a/
2643:to
2641:/e/
2596:/h/
2533:/e/
2529:/a/
2433:).
2375:/d/
2360:/j/
2356:/d/
2352:mee
2336:lui
2326:/d/
2315:/d/
2249:/ə/
2242:/r/
2207:/w/
2203:/r/
2166:-er
2138:/d/
2103:/n/
2095:/ɛ/
2029:/ɡ/
2025:/b/
2021:/k/
2017:/p/
2011:/ɡ/
1877:or
1839:/r/
1612:ɔu̯
1606:œy̯
1600:ɛi̯
1554:Mid
1547:oɔ̯
1541:øœ̯
1535:eɛ̯
1526:Mid
1519:uo̯
1513:yø̯
1507:ie̯
1425:/a/
1419:/o/
1415:/e/
1409:/ʏ/
1372:Mid
1282:tap
1263:/r/
1247:/ɣ/
1243:/n/
1224:/n/
1194:/ɡ/
1186:/ɣ/
875:/ə/
822:/e/
818:/r/
737:/d/
733:/t/
729:/t/
725:/θ/
721:/d/
717:/ð/
696:dag
663:/ʏ/
659:/ɪ/
655:/y/
651:/i/
603:/ə/
581:/w/
569:/y/
561:/u/
541:/o/
537:/u/
527:nou
487:/w/
480:/j/
478:or
476:/i/
472:/u/
468:/y/
445:jou
366:or
345:/ð/
341:/θ/
339:),
337:/b/
333:/v/
329:/v/
325:/f/
321:/z/
317:/s/
215:IPA
189:dum
172:dum
49:Era
7993::
5933:.
4697:-e
4691:,
4631:7
4619:â
4610:ā
4607:6
4597:,
4589:ē
4586:â
4583:a
4577:5
4565:ō
4562:â
4559:a
4556:ē
4553:4
4543:,
4535:o
4532:o
4529:a
4523:3
4513:,
4505:ō
4502:ō
4499:ô
4493:2
4481:ē
4478:ē
4475:ê
4472:î
4469:1
4410:,
4210:,
4133:di
4130:mi
4116:wi
4110:si
4107:hi
4104:du
4037:du
3930:-e
3918:-e
3848:.
3846:-e
3713:-e
3708:-e
3676:h
3662:)
3619:)
3590:s
3567:,
3555:s
3541:d
3526:t
3514:u
3511:v
3497:f
3483:b
3469:p
3455:n
3441:m
3427:r
3413:l
3398:w
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