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because not only does it disperse the seeds, but it also protects them. There is also a variety of dispersal methods that are used by different plants. The origins of these modes of dispersal have been found to be a more recent evolutionary change. Of the methods of dispersal, the plants that use animals have not changed in many ways from the original trait. Due to this, it may be assumed that animal dispersal is an efficient form of dispersal, however there has been no evidence that it increases dispersal distances. Therefore, the question remains of what evolutionary mechanism causes such dramatic diversity. It has been found, however, that simple changes within developmental regulatory genes can cause large alterations within the anatomical structure of the fruit. Even without knowing the mechanism involved in the biodiversity of fruit, it is clear that this diversity is important to the continuation of plant populations.
355:
213:. Simple fruits are formed from a single ovary and may contain one or many seeds. They can be either fleshy or dry. In fleshy fruit, during development, the pericarp and other accessory structures become the fleshy portion of the fruit. The types of fleshy fruits are berries, pomes, and drupes. In berries, the entire pericarp is fleshy but this excludes the exocarp which acts as more as a skin. There are berries that are known as pepo, a type of berry with an inseparable rind, or
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712:, "fruit") is the fleshy middle layer of the pericarp of a fruit; it is found between the epicarp and the endocarp. It is usually the part of the fruit that is eaten. For example, the mesocarp makes up most of the edible part of a peach, and a considerable part of a tomato. "Mesocarp" may also refer to any fruit that is fleshy throughout.
248:
There is a shared method of seed dispersal within fleshy fruits. These fruits depend on animals to eat the fruits and disperse the seeds in order for their populations to survive. Dry fruits also develop from the ovary, but unlike the fleshy fruits they do not depend on the mesocarp but the endocarp
539:
In fleshy fruits, the pericarp is typically made up of three distinct layers: the epicarp (also known as exocarp), which is the outermost layer; the mesocarp, which is the middle layer; and the endocarp, which is the inner layer surrounding the ovary or the seeds. In a citrus fruit, the epicarp and
322:
found that within the family, fleshy fruits had evolved independently at least 12 times. This means that fleshy fruits were not passed on to following generations but that this form of fruit was selected for in different species. This may imply that fleshy fruit is a favorable and beneficial trait
31:
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There is a wide variety in the structures of fruit across the different species of plants. Evolution has selected for certain traits in plants that would increase their fitness. This diversity arose through the selection of advantageous methods for seed protection and dispersal in different
253:. Dry fruits depend more on physical forces, like wind and water. Dry fruits' seeds can also perform pod shattering, which involve the seed being ejected from the seed coat by shattering it. Some dry fruits are able to perform seed pod explosions, such as
257:, resulting the seed to be dispersed over long distances. Like fleshy fruits, dry fruits can also depend on animals to spread their seeds by adhering to animal's fur and skin, this is known as epizoochory. Types of dry fruits include
273:. Dry fruits can also be separated into dehiscent and indehiscent fruits. Dry dehiscent fruits are described as a fruit where the pod has an increase in internal tension to allow seeds to be released. These include the
681:. This hormonally controlled progression in development is responsible for the fruit's change of color from green to yellow upon ripening. Citrus flavedo may be scraped off the fruit to create
654:
In citrus fruits, the flavedo constitutes the peripheral surface of the pericarp. It is composed of several cell layers that become progressively thicker in the internal part; the
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term for the outermost layer of the pericarp (or fruit). The epicarp forms the tough outer skin of the fruit, if there is one. The epicarp is sometimes called the
866:
The dead pericarp of dry fruits represents an elaborated layer that is capable of storing active proteins and other substances for increasing survival rate of
1202:"Dead Pericarps of Dry Fruits Function as Long-Term Storage for Active Hydrolytic Enzymes and Other Substances That Affect Germination and Microbial Growth"
2478:
301:. Dry indehiscent fruit differ in that they do not have this mechanism and simply depend on physical forces. Examples of species indehiscent fruit are
241:. The edible part of the strawberry is formed from the receptacle of the flower. Due to this difference the strawberry is known as a false fruit or an
209:. Multiple fruits are formed from the fused ovaries of multiple flowers or inflorescence. An example of multiple fruits are the fig, mulberry, and the
318:
environments. It is known that dry fruits were present before fleshy fruits and fleshy fruits diverged from them. A study looking at the family
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are single-seed simple fruits wherein the pericarp (ovary wall) and seed coat are fused into one layer. This type of fruit is called a
110:
of grasses are single-seed simple fruits wherein the pericarp and seed coat are fused into one layer. This type of fruit is called a
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is an example of a pome. Lastly, drupes are known for being one-seeded with a fleshy mesocarp; an example of this would be the
1184:
1157:
1062:
Bremer R, Eriksson O (September 1992). "Evolution of fruit characters and dispersal modes in the tropical family
Rubiaceae".
486:
1008:"Evolution of the fruit endocarp: molecular mechanisms underlying adaptations in seed protection and dispersal strategies"
1099:"Evolution of Rosaceae Fruit Types Based on Nuclear Phylogeny in the Context of Geological Times and Genome Duplication"
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237:. However, there are fruits where the fleshy portion is developed from tissues that are not the ovary, such as in the
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201:. Aggregate fruits are formed from a single compound flower and contain many ovaries or fruitlets. Examples include
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An
Introduction to Plant Structure and Development: Plant Anatomy for the Twenty-First Century
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would be an example of a hesperidium. The fleshy portion of the pomes is developed from the
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and like the berry most of the pericarp is fleshy but the endocarp is cartilaginous; an
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In some fruits, the edible portion is not derived from the ovary, but rather from the
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The internal region of the flavedo is rich in multicellular bodies with spherical or
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Xiang Y, Huang CH, Hu Y, Wen J, Li S, Yi T, Chen H, Xiang J, Ma H (February 2017).
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term for the inside layer of the pericarp (or fruit), which directly surrounds the
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1271:. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 254–260.
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Laboratory topics in botany : to accompany Raven
Biology of plants
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where it is the only part consumed, or thick and hard as in the
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When ripe, the flavedo cells contain carotenoids (mostly
666:, which in many cases are closed when the fruit is ripe.
127:
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A Text Book
Ofbotany: Plant Anatomy and Economic Botany
957:
677:, which, in a previous developmental stage, contained
189:
Fruits are found in three main anatomical categories:
68:. They are found in three main anatomical categories:
820:, it is the stony layer that surrounds the kernel of
962:(8th ed.). New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Co.
958:Evert RF, Eichhorn SE, Perry JB, Raven PH (2013).
903:
409:) only some layers of the pericarp are eaten. In
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828:, etc., and that is removed before consumption.
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904:Evert RF, Eichhorn SE, Raven PH (2012-03-02).
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34:Longitudinal section of a female flower of a
2397:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1200:Godwin J, Raviv B, Grafi G (December 2017).
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607:but also contains other components, such as
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936:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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735:and is commonly removed before eating. In
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1064:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
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527:Learn how and when to remove this message
2341:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
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376:that has been opened to show the pulp (
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155:It has been suggested that portions of
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723:, the mesocarp is also referred to as
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161: (Classification of fruits) be
99:from which tissues of the flower and
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461:adding citations to reliable sources
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1179:. Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
1076:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1992.tb00657.x
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2346:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
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839:. These segments are filled with
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1103:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1006:Dardick C, Callahan AM (2014).
1255:Rendle, Alfred Barton (1911).
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1152:. Cambridge University Press.
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731:. It is the inner part of the
603:Flavedo is mostly composed of
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1:
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781:. It may be membranous as in
391:of the internal structure of
2387:History of plant systematics
1974:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1173:Pandey SN, Chadha A (1993).
476:"Fruit" plant structure
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2203:Alternation of generations
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1012:Frontiers in Plant Science
908:(8th ed.). New York.
704:The mesocarp (from Greek:
692:shapes, which are full of
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556:Coconut's outermost layer
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358:A schematic picture of an
64:or ovaries of one or more
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2353:Cultivated plant taxonomy
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1146:Beck CB (22 April 2010).
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38:(courgette), showing the
27:Internal makeup of fruits
2213:Evolutionary development
327:Anatomy of simple fruits
1864:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1268:Encyclopædia Britannica
1025:10.3389/fpls.2014.00284
906:Raven Biology of plants
851:Anatomy of grass fruits
2479:by author abbreviation
2403:Plant taxonomy systems
2321:Botanical nomenclature
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658:layer is covered with
643:), bitter principles (
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2486:Botanical expeditions
1219:10.3390/plants6040064
1115:10.1093/molbev/msw242
793:fruits of the family
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555:
540:mesocarp make up the
371:
357:
335:Diagram of a typical
334:
33:
2657:Categories of fruits
2218:Evolutionary history
2208:Double fertilization
2060:Cellular respiration
843:, which contain the
584:, or, especially in
457:improve this section
313:Evolutionary history
169:into this section. (
138:Categories of fruits
1437:Non-vascular plants
605:cellulosic material
572:, "on" or "upon" +
114:. Examples include
1942:Surface structures
1737:Flower development
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403:and stone fruits (
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1987:
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662:and contains few
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417:of the flower in
395:. In berries and
380:) of the endocarp
339:(in this case, a
305:seeds, nuts, and
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16:(Redirected from
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2137:Succulent plants
2125:Prostrate shrubs
2008:Apical dominance
1993:Plant physiology
1954:Epicuticular wax
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442:This section
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2669:Simple fruit
2439:Horticulture
2429:Floriculture
2331:Correct name
2181:Reproduction
2171:Woody plants
2096:Plant growth
2055:Gas Exchange
2040:Phytomelanin
1918:Plant embryo
1668:Reproductive
1516:Phragmoplast
1266:
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1070:(1): 79–95.
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737:citron fruit
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675:chromoplasts
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637:chlorophylls
602:
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523:
517:October 2021
514:
504:
497:
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471:
455:Please help
443:
419:strawberries
404:
384:
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316:
247:
207:blackberries
188:
175:
165:from it and
156:
105:
82:
57:
56:
36:squash plant
2710:Drift fruit
2581:Hesperidium
2255:Pollen tube
2250:Pollinators
2240:Pollination
2235:Germination
2050:Respiration
2033:Chlorophyll
1879:Pedicellate
1813:Gametophyte
1732:Aestivation
1683:Antheridium
1678:Archegonium
1526:Plasmodesma
1503:Plant cells
1366:Paleobotany
1361:Ethnobotany
1346:Astrobotany
868:germinating
717:hesperidium
679:chlorophyll
671:xanthophyll
633:carotenoids
625:fatty acids
363:hesperidium
227:floral tube
215:hesperidium
203:raspberries
93:pomegranate
2638:Schizocarp
2277:Microspore
2267:Sporangium
2245:Artificial
1933:Sporophyte
1928:Sporophyll
1923:Receptacle
1818:Gynandrium
1688:Androecium
1597:Vegetative
1467:Angiosperm
1462:Gymnosperm
1356:Dendrology
886:References
641:flavonoids
487:newspapers
415:receptacle
307:dandelions
239:strawberry
118:, such as
95:, and the
89:mangosteen
2598:Caryopsis
2555:Types of
2474:Botanists
2392:Herbarium
2289:Megaspore
2187:Evolution
2130:Subshrubs
2098:and habit
2023:Nutrition
2018:Cellulose
2013:Bulk flow
1996:Materials
1959:Epidermis
1823:Gynoecium
1804:Endosperm
1799:Dispersal
1715:Staminode
1651:Sessility
1639:Cataphyll
1559:Mesophyll
1511:Cell wall
1452:Lycophyte
1432:Bryophyte
1386:Geobotany
1371:Phycology
1212:(4): 64.
1084:0024-4066
978:820489734
932:cite book
924:781446671
880:Gynoecium
861:caryopsis
775:botanical
673:) inside
656:epidermic
578:botanical
444:does not
320:Rubiaceae
303:sunflower
275:sweet pea
267:follicles
211:pineapple
112:caryopsis
97:pineapple
2725:Category
2705:Diaspore
2698:Function
2648:Syconium
2608:Follicle
2514:Category
2434:Forestry
2424:Agronomy
2417:Practice
2368:Cultivar
2363:Cultigen
2223:timeline
2115:Rosettes
2003:Aleurone
1979:Trichome
1896:Perianth
1708:Filament
1566:Meristem
1489:glossary
1351:Bryology
1238:29257090
1133:27856652
1044:25009543
874:See also
837:segments
811:apricots
803:cherries
797:such as
795:Rosaceae
763:Endocarp
758:endocarp
747:Endocarp
700:Mesocarp
690:pyriform
629:pigments
617:steroids
287:milkweed
263:capsules
255:wisteria
219:cucumber
18:Mesocarp
2643:Silique
2593:Capsule
2192:Ecology
1949:Cuticle
1779:Capsule
1769:Anatomy
1720:Tapetum
1644:Petiole
1619:Rhizome
1614:Rhizoid
1541:Tissues
1531:Vacuole
1521:Plastid
1323:Outline
1318:History
1265:(ed.).
1229:5750640
1124:5400374
1035:4070412
1018:: 284.
870:seeds.
857:grasses
826:walnuts
799:peaches
787:pyrenas
741:succade
664:stomata
649:enzymes
647:), and
645:limonin
599:Flavedo
590:flavedo
582:exocarp
558:Exocarp
548:Epicarp
501:scholar
465:removed
450:sources
387:is the
295:cabbage
291:mustard
283:alfalfa
279:soybean
259:achenes
171:Discuss
66:flowers
2633:Samara
2618:Loment
2613:Legume
2571:Achene
2557:fruits
2496:Plants
2399:(IAPT)
2152:Lianas
2120:Shrubs
2072:Starch
1964:Nectar
1884:Raceme
1850:Stigma
1838:Locule
1828:Carpel
1789:Pyrena
1727:Flower
1703:Anther
1698:Stamen
1693:Pollen
1415:groups
1307:Botany
1236:
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1206:Plants
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822:pecans
809:, and
783:citrus
756:Almond
725:albedo
588:, the
586:citrus
503:
496:
489:
482:
474:
406:Prunus
401:citrus
397:drupes
374:orange
360:orange
221:and a
197:, and
167:merged
124:barley
108:grains
76:, and
58:Fruits
52:petals
48:pistil
44:ovules
2603:Drupe
2576:Berry
2456:Lists
2373:Group
2296:Spore
2230:Flora
2147:Vines
2142:Trees
2105:Habit
2077:Sugar
1969:Stoma
1911:Sepal
1906:Petal
1901:Tepal
1889:Umbel
1874:Bract
1855:Style
1843:Ovule
1833:Ovary
1774:Berry
1764:Fruit
1757:Whorl
1624:Shoot
1422:Algae
1413:Plant
1261:. In
845:juice
807:plums
791:drupe
779:seeds
771:-carp
767:endo-
715:In a
710:-carp
706:meso-
574:-carp
566:Greek
508:JSTOR
494:books
393:fruit
345:fruit
341:peach
337:drupe
299:poppy
235:peach
231:apple
223:lemon
163:split
158:Fruit
120:wheat
62:ovary
40:ovary
2628:Pome
2586:Pepo
2378:Grex
2260:Self
1794:Seed
1656:Stem
1634:Leaf
1609:Root
1604:Bulb
1588:Wood
1549:Cork
1447:Fern
1234:PMID
1181:ISBN
1154:ISBN
1129:PMID
1080:ISSN
1040:PMID
974:OCLC
964:ISBN
938:link
920:OCLC
910:ISBN
818:nuts
733:peel
729:pith
683:zest
619:and
570:epi-
542:peel
480:news
448:any
446:cite
349:seed
347:and
297:and
271:nuts
249:for
205:and
132:rice
130:and
128:oats
106:The
101:stem
85:aril
50:and
2623:Nut
2067:Sap
1784:Nut
1629:Bud
1224:PMC
1214:doi
1119:PMC
1111:doi
1072:doi
1030:PMC
1020:doi
831:In
816:In
789:of
727:or
660:wax
459:by
269:or
173:)
91:or
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2727::
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1127:.
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1066:.
1052:^
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930:{{
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176:(
20:)
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