156:
317:
585:), which acts to regulate colour in a different way. The pohutukawa contains small petals also having bright large red clusters of stamens. Another attractive mechanism for flowers is the use of scents which are highly attractive to humans. One such example is the rose. On the other hand, some flowers produce the smell of rotting meat and are attractive to insects such as flies. Darkness is another factor that flowers have adapted to as nighttime conditions limit vision and colour-perception. Fragrancy can be especially useful for flowers that are pollinated at night by moths and other flying insects.
251:
27:
264:
190:
2472:
289:
275:
182:
131:
546:
attracting/repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable conditions for pollinating. Some pollinators include insects, birds, bats, and wind. In some petals, a distinction can be made between a lower narrowed, stalk-like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part referred to as the blade (or limb). Often, the claw and blade are at an angle with one another.
621:). This plant has its home under the ground acting the role of a parasite on the roots of forest trees. The dactylanthus has only its flowers pointing to the surface and the flowers lack colour but have the advantage of containing much nectar and a strong scent. These act as a useful mechanism in attracting the bat.
571:
Wind-pollinated flowers often have small, dull petals and produce little or no scent. Some of these flowers will often have no petals at all. Flowers that depend on wind pollination will produce large amounts of pollen because most of the pollen scattered by the wind tends to not reach other flowers.
545:
Furthermore, the shape and size of the flower/petals are important in selecting the type of pollinators they need. For example, large petals and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are large themselves. Collectively, the scent, colour, and shape of petals all play a role in
501:
of the same or nearby flowers. However, pollinators are rather selective in determining the flowers they choose to pollinate. This develops competition between flowers and as a result flowers must provide incentives to appeal to pollinators (unless the flower self-pollinates or is involved in wind
580:
Flowers have various regulatory mechanisms to attract insects. One such helpful mechanism is the use of colour guiding marks. Insects such as the bee or butterfly can see the ultraviolet marks which are contained on these flowers, acting as an attractive mechanism which is not visible towards the
518:
This is where the positioning of the flower petals are located on the flower is the corolla e.g. the buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain guidelines amongst the petals in aiding the pollinator towards the nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they
457:
The inception and further development of petals show a great variety of patterns. Petals of different species of plants vary greatly in colour or colour pattern, both in visible light and in ultraviolet. Such patterns often function as guides to pollinators and are variously known as
536:
Various colour traits are used by different petals that could attract pollinators that have poor smelling abilities, or that only come out at certain parts of the day. Some flowers can change the colour of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep away.
883:
Cares-Suarez, R, Poch, T, Acevedo, R.F, Acosta-Bravo, I, Pimentel, C, Espinoza, C, Cares, R.A, Munoz, P, Gonzalez, A.V, Botto-Mahan, C (2011) Do pollinators respond in a dose-dependent manner to flower herbivory?: An experimental assessment in Loasa tricolor (Loasaceae).
519:
wish to pollinate. Using incentives, flowers draw pollinators and set up a mutual relation between each other in which case the pollinators will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails).
581:
human eye. Many flowers contain a variety of shapes acting to aid with the landing of the visiting insect and also influence the insect to brush against anthers and stigmas (parts of the flower). One such example of a flower is the pohutukawa (
527:
The petals could produce different scents to allure desirable pollinators or repel undesirable pollinators. Some flowers will also mimic the scents produced by materials such as decaying meat, to attract pollinators to them.
410:
is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a single large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals. In some plants such as
898:
Chamberlain S.A; Rudgers J.A (2012). "How do plants balance multiple mutualists? Correlations among traits for attracting protective bodyguards and pollinators in cotton (Gossypium)".
933:
Toh, Conie; Mohd-Hairul, Ab. Rahim; Ain, Nooraini Mohd.; Namasivayam, Parameswari; Go, Rusea; Abdullah, Nur
Ashikin Psyquay; Abdullah, Meilina Ong; Abdullah, Janna Ong (2017-11-02).
502:
pollination). Petals play a major role in competing to attract pollinators. Henceforth pollination dispersal could occur and the survival of many species of flowers could prolong.
510:
Petals have various functions and purposes depending on the type of plant. In general, petals operate to protect some parts of the flower and attract/repel specific pollinators.
2302:
593:
Flowers are also pollinated by birds and must be large and colourful to be visible against natural scenery. In New
Zealand, such bird–pollinated native plants include: kowhai (
1124:
482:
are modified versions of each other. It appears that the mechanisms to form petals evolved very few times (perhaps only once), rather than evolving repeatedly from stamens.
2307:
605:). Flowers adapt the mechanism on their petals to change colour in acting as a communicative mechanism for the bird to visit. An example is the tree fuchsia (
165:'s actinomorphic flower with three petals and three sepals, that collectively present a good example of an undifferentiated perianth. In this case, the word "
2440:
1097:
1182:
Physics.org (2012). The
University of Adelaide. "Flightless parrots, burrowing bats helped parasitic Hades flower". Date Retrieved August 2013.
759:
490:
Pollination is an important step in the sexual reproduction of higher plants. Pollen is produced by the male flower or by the male organs of
71:, the non-reproductive portion of a flower. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, they are collectively called
2358:
935:"Floral micromorphology and transcriptome analyses of a fragrant Vandaceous Orchid, Vanda Mimi Palmer, for its fragrance production sites"
1122:
739:
107:
have well-distinguished sepals and petals. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as "petaloid", as in
259:, the Ivy-leaved Pelargonium : its floral structure is almost identical to that of geraniums, but it is conspicuously zygomorphic
2174:
30:
Diagram showing the parts of a mature flower. In this example, the perianth is separated into a calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals)
1208:
118:
Although petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal-pollinated flowers, wind-pollinated species, such as the
841:
2501:
609:), which are green when needing to be pollinated and turn red for the birds to stop coming and pollinating the flower.
2364:
769:
365:(meaning "ray-formed"). Many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane (i.e., symmetry is bilateral) and are termed
1259:
1140:
Donald R. Whitehead (1969). "Wind
Pollination in the Angiosperms: Evolutionary and Environmental Considerations".
1698:
1183:
471:
316:
155:
1121:
Science
Learning Hub. (2012). The University of Waikato. "Attracting pollinators". Date Retrieved: August 2013.
2179:
1629:
2348:
1935:
1450:
497:
Pollen does not move on its own and thus requires wind or animal pollinators to disperse the pollen to the
1035:"The importance of oligosulfides in the attraction of fly pollinators to the brood-site deceptive species
992:
Kessler, Danny; Kallenbach, Mario; Diezel, Celia; Rothe, Eva; Murdock, Mark; Baldwin, Ian T (2015-07-01).
2430:
2184:
205:
The collection of all petals in a flower is referred to as the corolla. The role of the corolla in plant
1034:
2164:
842:"One size fits all? Molecular evidence for a commonly inherited petal identity program in Ranunculales"
426:
A petal often consists of two parts: the upper broader part, similar to a leaf blade, also called the
2496:
2314:
293:
181:
2452:
2297:
1347:
2282:
2206:
357:). If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and shape, the flower is said to be
46:
20:
2011:
2447:
1091:
2506:
2169:
2066:
2021:
1693:
1252:
646:
555:
255:
1669:
8:
2339:
1884:
350:
145:
885:
650:
617:
Flowers can be pollinated by short-tailed bats. An example of this is the dactylanthus (
2277:
2142:
1920:
1612:
1398:
1294:
1157:
1079:
1071:
969:
934:
915:
662:
136:
729:
2435:
1284:
1279:
1204:
1165:
1015:
974:
956:
866:
809:
706:
413:
402:
322:
108:
919:
2221:
2127:
2122:
2076:
1969:
1954:
1915:
1840:
1681:
1605:
1502:
1444:
1149:
1083:
1061:
1053:
1005:
964:
946:
907:
856:
799:
696:
680:
666:
654:
431:
381:
form, but the petals show the greatest deviation from radial symmetry. Examples of
194:
2016:
349:
The petal whorl or corolla may be either radially or bilaterally symmetrical (see
218:
193:
Tubular-campanulate corolla, bearing long points and emergent from tubular calyx (
2475:
2457:
2319:
2148:
2098:
2086:
2048:
1984:
1811:
1779:
1740:
1713:
1542:
1537:
1428:
1364:
1245:
1198:
1128:
498:
450:
382:
354:
67:
and lie just beneath the corolla. The calyx and the corolla together make up the
2369:
2334:
2287:
2269:
2233:
1989:
1816:
1794:
1760:
1735:
1718:
1708:
1703:
1585:
1403:
1388:
1342:
1337:
210:
1075:
951:
911:
637:
L. Anders
Nilsson (1988). "The evolution of flowers with deep corolla tubes".
2490:
2405:
2153:
2071:
2043:
2006:
1974:
1910:
1879:
1830:
1730:
1532:
1515:
1438:
1418:
1359:
1354:
1302:
1019:
960:
743:. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 561–563.
734:
407:
343:
280:
250:
1010:
993:
2400:
2390:
2292:
2001:
1510:
1477:
1169:
978:
870:
813:
710:
701:
684:
459:
444:
346:
have three or six petals, although there are many exceptions to this rule.
213:
postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes.
1219:
804:
783:
310:
59:. Petals are usually accompanied by another set of modified leaves called
2216:
2201:
2196:
2132:
1994:
1774:
1745:
1644:
1639:
1487:
1327:
1322:
1307:
784:"Phylogenetic reconstruction of the evolution of stylar polymorphisms in
442:. Claws are distinctly developed in petals of some flowers of the family
417:, the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form a floral cup (
339:
263:
861:
216:
A corolla of separate petals, without fusion of individual segments, is
189:
26:
2245:
2238:
2228:
2211:
1894:
1889:
1825:
1617:
1464:
1423:
1317:
1161:
566:
491:
419:
397:
302:
222:. If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the plant is
198:
140:
111:, orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include
50:
1066:
2353:
2250:
1979:
1784:
1765:
1676:
1600:
1520:
1472:
1413:
1393:
1332:
658:
334:
may hold clues to a plant's classification. For example, flowers on
288:
206:
103:
1153:
470:
The genetics behind the formation of petals, in accordance with the
2395:
2385:
2329:
2324:
2091:
1964:
1940:
1857:
1527:
1312:
1057:
390:
335:
331:
274:
122:, either have very small petals or lack them entirely (apetalous).
112:
68:
1032:
679:
1580:
1575:
1492:
1482:
479:
119:
2033:
1925:
1845:
1799:
1789:
1750:
1688:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1268:
475:
386:
298:
91:
42:
130:
53:. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the
2257:
2191:
2113:
2081:
2038:
1930:
1872:
1862:
1850:
1835:
1804:
1725:
1383:
1374:
728:
306:
166:
162:
80:
72:
60:
991:
932:
839:
423:) above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend.
342:) most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on
297:, the Wild Daffodil, showing ( from bend to tip of flower )
2108:
2103:
1755:
1595:
1570:
1565:
1549:
1408:
97:
85:
38:
897:
330:
Petals can differ dramatically in different species. The
230:; while if the petals are at least partially fused, it is
2028:
1590:
1237:
747:
840:
Rasmussen, D. A.; Kramer, E. M.; Zimmer, E. A. (2008).
377:
flowers, other floral parts may be modified from the
284:, the Garden Pea: an example of a zygomorphic flower.
1139:
828:
Organogenesis of
Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas
270:, with an actinomorphic flower typical of the genus
636:
2488:
782:Graham, S. W.; Barrett, S. C. H. (1 July 2004).
685:"The origin and diversification of angiosperms"
430:and the lower narrower part, similar to a leaf
485:
1253:
781:
2359:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1096:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1033:More, M, Cocucci, A.A, Raguso, R.A (2013).
242:. The corolla in some plants forms a tube.
238:. In the case of fused tepals, the term is
115:, an alternative name is lilioid monocots.
1260:
1246:
1065:
1009:
968:
950:
860:
803:
700:
612:
505:
2303:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
722:
720:
315:
287:
273:
262:
249:
188:
180:
41:that surround the reproductive parts of
25:
1196:
1046:International Journal of Plant Sciences
753:
549:
373:(meaning "yoke-" or "pair-formed"). In
75:. Examples of plants in which the term
2489:
1217:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
765:
726:
1241:
775:
717:
575:
462:, pollen guides, and floral guides.
1104:
588:
560:
438:, separated from each other at the
209:has been studied extensively since
13:
14:
2518:
2308:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
540:
326:grow on the sepals of the flower.
197:, Golden Angel's Trumpet, family
2471:
2470:
154:
129:
1190:
1176:
1133:
1026:
985:
926:
891:
472:ABC model of flower development
49:or unusually shaped to attract
877:
833:
830:. University of Toronto Press.
820:
727:Rendle, Alfred Barton (1911).
673:
630:
1:
624:
245:
95:. Conversely, genera such as
63:, that collectively form the
2349:History of plant systematics
1936:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1197:Simpson, Michael G. (2011).
683:; Douglas E. Soltis (2004).
332:number of petals in a flower
16:Part of most types of flower
7:
513:
486:Significance of pollination
474:, are that sepals, petals,
465:
406:, the circumference of the
149:) showing petals and sepals
10:
2523:
2165:Alternation of generations
1267:
888:, Volume 68, Pages 176-181
849:American Journal of Botany
792:American Journal of Botany
689:American Journal of Botany
564:
553:
176:
18:
2502:Plant reproductive system
2466:
2414:
2378:
2315:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2278:Biological classification
2268:
2141:
2057:
1953:
1903:
1628:
1558:
1501:
1463:
1437:
1373:
1293:
1275:
952:10.1186/s13104-017-2872-6
912:10.1007/s10682-011-9497-3
531:
294:Narcissus pseudonarcissus
2175:Evolutionary development
1220:"Botany Word of the Day"
522:
1826:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1011:10.7554/elife.07641.001
740:Encyclopædia Britannica
400:such as the sunflower,
385:flowers may be seen in
79:is appropriate include
2441:by author abbreviation
2365:Plant taxonomy systems
2283:Botanical nomenclature
702:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1614
613:Bat-pollinated flowers
506:Functions and purposes
396:In many plants of the
338:(the largest group of
327:
313:
285:
271:
260:
202:
186:
31:
21:Petal (disambiguation)
2448:Botanical expeditions
805:10.3732/ajb.91.7.1007
619:Dactylanthus taylorii
319:
291:
277:
266:
253:
192:
184:
139:flower of a primrose
29:
2180:Evolutionary history
2170:Double fertilization
2022:Cellular respiration
900:Evolutionary Ecology
583:Metrosideros excelsa
556:Pollination syndrome
550:Types of pollination
278:The white flower of
256:Pelargonium peltatum
19:For other uses, see
1399:Non-vascular plants
862:10.3732/ajb.0800038
651:1988Natur.334..147N
607:Fuchsia excorticata
389:and members of the
351:Symmetry in biology
185:Apopetalous corolla
146:Ludwigia octovalvis
1904:Surface structures
1699:Flower development
1203:. Academic Press.
1127:2016-12-03 at the
939:BMC Research Notes
826:Sattler, R. 1973.
603:Clianthus puniceus
576:Attracting insects
328:
314:
286:
272:
261:
203:
187:
32:
2484:
2483:
2123:Herbaceous plants
1949:
1948:
1210:978-0-08-051404-8
1200:Plant Systematics
788:(Amaryllidaceae)"
695:(10): 1614–1626.
681:Soltis, Pamela S.
645:(6178): 147–149.
601:) and kaka beak (
403:Helianthus annuus
323:Combretum indicum
109:petaloid monocots
47:brightly coloured
45:. They are often
2514:
2497:Plant morphology
2474:
2473:
2453:Individual trees
2128:Secondary growth
2099:Succulent plants
2087:Prostrate shrubs
1970:Apical dominance
1955:Plant physiology
1916:Epicuticular wax
1461:
1460:
1454:
1445:Plant morphology
1262:
1255:
1248:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1214:
1185:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1137:
1131:
1119:
1102:
1101:
1095:
1087:
1069:
1043:
1037:Jaborosa rotacea
1030:
1024:
1023:
1013:
989:
983:
982:
972:
954:
930:
924:
923:
895:
889:
886:Gayana. Botánica
881:
875:
874:
864:
846:
837:
831:
824:
818:
817:
807:
798:(7): 1007–1021.
779:
773:
763:
757:
751:
745:
744:
732:
724:
715:
714:
704:
677:
671:
670:
659:10.1038/334147a0
634:
597:species), flax (
589:Attracting birds
561:Wind pollination
268:Geranium incanum
195:Brugmansia aurea
158:
133:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2462:
2431:Botanical terms
2424:
2410:
2374:
2320:Citrus taxonomy
2298:Author citation
2264:
2158:
2137:
2059:
2053:
2049:Turgor pressure
1957:
1945:
1899:
1714:Floral symmetry
1632:
1624:
1554:
1543:Vascular bundle
1538:Vascular tissue
1497:
1457:
1448:
1447:
1433:
1404:Vascular plants
1369:
1365:Plant pathology
1289:
1271:
1266:
1228:
1226:
1211:
1193:
1188:
1181:
1177:
1154:10.2307/2406479
1138:
1134:
1129:Wayback Machine
1120:
1105:
1089:
1088:
1041:
1031:
1027:
990:
986:
931:
927:
896:
892:
882:
878:
844:
838:
834:
825:
821:
780:
776:
764:
760:
752:
748:
725:
718:
678:
674:
635:
631:
627:
615:
591:
578:
569:
563:
558:
552:
543:
534:
525:
516:
508:
488:
468:
451:Erysimum cheiri
355:Floral symmetry
248:
179:
174:
173:
172:
171:
170:
159:
151:
150:
134:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2520:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2433:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2421:Related topics
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2372:
2370:Taxonomic rank
2367:
2362:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2322:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2288:Botanical name
2280:
2274:
2272:
2270:Plant taxonomy
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2246:Megasporangium
2243:
2242:
2241:
2234:Microsporangia
2226:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2079:
2074:
2072:Cushion plants
2063:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2009:
2007:Plant hormones
2004:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1990:Photosynthesis
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1961:
1959:
1951:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1709:Floral formula
1706:
1704:Floral diagram
1701:
1696:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1657:
1647:
1642:
1636:
1634:
1633:(incl. Flower)
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1593:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1535:
1533:Storage organs
1530:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1469:
1467:
1458:
1456:
1455:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1419:Spermatophytes
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1389:Archaeplastida
1386:
1380:
1378:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1343:Phytogeography
1340:
1338:Phytochemistry
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1299:
1297:
1295:Subdisciplines
1291:
1290:
1288:
1287:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1218:Foster, Tony.
1215:
1209:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1175:
1132:
1103:
1076:10.1086/670367
1058:10.1086/670367
1052:(6): 863–876.
1025:
984:
925:
890:
876:
832:
819:
774:
758:
746:
735:Chisholm, Hugh
730:"Flower"
716:
672:
628:
626:
623:
614:
611:
599:Phormium tenax
590:
587:
577:
574:
565:Main article:
562:
559:
554:Main article:
551:
548:
542:
541:Shape and size
539:
533:
530:
524:
521:
515:
512:
507:
504:
492:hermaphroditic
487:
484:
467:
464:
320:The petals of
247:
244:
211:Charles Darwin
178:
175:
160:
153:
152:
135:
128:
127:
126:
125:
124:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2519:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2477:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2407:
2406:Phytochemical
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Transpiration
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1831:Inflorescence
1829:
1827:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1516:Ground tissue
1514:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1439:Plant anatomy
1436:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1360:Plant ecology
1358:
1356:
1355:Plant anatomy
1353:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1303:Archaeobotany
1301:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1244:
1243:
1240:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1184:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1099:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1039:(Solanaceae)"
1038:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
988:
980:
976:
971:
966:
962:
958:
953:
948:
944:
940:
936:
929:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
894:
887:
880:
872:
868:
863:
858:
855:(1): 96–109.
854:
850:
843:
836:
829:
823:
815:
811:
806:
801:
797:
793:
789:
787:
778:
771:
767:
762:
755:
750:
742:
741:
736:
731:
723:
721:
712:
708:
703:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
676:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
633:
629:
622:
620:
610:
608:
604:
600:
596:
586:
584:
573:
568:
557:
547:
538:
529:
520:
511:
503:
500:
495:
493:
483:
481:
477:
473:
463:
461:
460:nectar guides
455:
453:
452:
447:
446:
441:
437:
434:, called the
433:
429:
424:
422:
421:
416:
415:
409:
405:
404:
399:
394:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
363:actinomorphic
360:
356:
352:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
325:
324:
318:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
295:
290:
283:
282:
281:Pisum sativum
276:
269:
265:
258:
257:
252:
243:
241:
237:
233:
229:
228:choripetalous
225:
221:
220:
214:
212:
208:
200:
196:
191:
183:
168:
164:
157:
148:
147:
142:
138:
132:
123:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
105:
100:
99:
94:
93:
88:
87:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
57:
52:
48:
44:
40:
37:are modified
36:
28:
22:
2401:Horticulture
2391:Floriculture
2293:Correct name
2143:Reproduction
2133:Woody plants
2058:Plant growth
2017:Gas Exchange
2002:Phytomelanin
1880:Plant embryo
1867:
1630:Reproductive
1478:Phragmoplast
1227:. Retrieved
1223:
1199:
1191:Bibliography
1178:
1148:(1): 28–35.
1145:
1141:
1135:
1092:cite journal
1049:
1045:
1036:
1028:
1001:
997:
987:
942:
938:
928:
903:
899:
893:
879:
852:
848:
835:
827:
822:
795:
791:
785:
777:
761:
754:Simpson 2011
749:
738:
692:
688:
675:
642:
638:
632:
618:
616:
606:
602:
598:
594:
592:
582:
579:
570:
544:
535:
526:
517:
509:
496:
489:
469:
456:
449:
445:Brassicaceae
443:
439:
435:
427:
425:
418:
412:
401:
398:aster family
395:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
348:
329:
321:
292:
279:
267:
254:
239:
235:
232:gamopetalous
231:
227:
224:polypetalous
223:
217:
215:
204:
144:
117:
102:
96:
90:
84:
76:
64:
55:
54:
34:
33:
2507:Pollination
2217:Pollen tube
2212:Pollinators
2202:Pollination
2197:Germination
2012:Respiration
1995:Chlorophyll
1841:Pedicellate
1775:Gametophyte
1694:Aestivation
1645:Antheridium
1640:Archegonium
1488:Plasmodesma
1465:Plant cells
1328:Paleobotany
1323:Ethnobotany
1308:Astrobotany
1229:27 November
1224:Phytography
766:Foster 2014
408:flower head
383:zygomorphic
371:zygomorphic
240:syntepalous
236:sympetalous
219:apopetalous
51:pollinators
2491:Categories
2239:Microspore
2229:Sporangium
2207:Artificial
1895:Sporophyte
1890:Sporophyll
1885:Receptacle
1780:Gynandrium
1650:Androecium
1559:Vegetative
1429:Angiosperm
1424:Gymnosperm
1318:Dendrology
1067:11336/1416
994:"Abstract"
945:(1): 554.
770:Hypanthium
625:References
567:Anemophily
448:, such as
420:hypanthium
391:pea family
303:floral cup
246:Variations
199:Solanaceae
169:" is used.
141:willowherb
137:Tetrameric
2436:Botanists
2354:Herbarium
2251:Megaspore
2149:Evolution
2092:Subshrubs
2060:and habit
1985:Nutrition
1980:Cellulose
1975:Bulk flow
1958:Materials
1921:Epidermis
1785:Gynoecium
1766:Endosperm
1761:Dispersal
1677:Staminode
1613:Sessility
1601:Cataphyll
1521:Mesophyll
1473:Cell wall
1414:Lycophyte
1394:Bryophyte
1348:Geobotany
1333:Phycology
1142:Evolution
1020:2050-084X
961:1756-0500
906:: 65–77.
786:Narcissus
756:, p. 365.
494:flowers.
414:Narcissus
375:irregular
367:irregular
207:evolution
104:Phaseolus
2476:Category
2396:Forestry
2386:Agronomy
2379:Practice
2330:Cultivar
2325:Cultigen
2185:timeline
2077:Rosettes
1965:Aleurone
1941:Trichome
1858:Perianth
1670:Filament
1528:Meristem
1451:glossary
1313:Bryology
1170:28562955
1125:Archived
979:29096695
920:13996011
871:21628178
814:21653457
711:21652312
514:Function
466:Genetics
344:monocots
336:eudicots
113:Liliales
83:such as
69:perianth
2154:Ecology
1911:Cuticle
1741:Capsule
1731:Anatomy
1682:Tapetum
1606:Petiole
1581:Rhizome
1576:Rhizoid
1503:Tissues
1493:Vacuole
1483:Plastid
1285:Outline
1280:History
1162:2406479
1084:3260154
970:5669028
737:(ed.).
667:4342356
647:Bibcode
595:Sophora
480:carpels
476:stamens
432:petiole
387:orchids
379:regular
359:regular
177:Corolla
120:grasses
56:corolla
43:flowers
2458:Plants
2361:(IAPT)
2114:Lianas
2082:Shrubs
2034:Starch
1926:Nectar
1846:Raceme
1812:Stigma
1800:Locule
1790:Carpel
1751:Pyrena
1689:Flower
1665:Anther
1660:Stamen
1655:Pollen
1377:groups
1269:Botany
1207:
1168:
1160:
1082:
1074:
1018:
977:
967:
959:
918:
869:
812:
709:
665:
639:Nature
532:Colour
499:stigma
478:, and
428:blade;
340:dicots
311:corona
307:tepals
299:spathe
167:tepals
92:Tulipa
81:genera
73:tepals
61:sepals
39:leaves
35:Petals
2418:Lists
2335:Group
2258:Spore
2192:Flora
2109:Vines
2104:Trees
2067:Habit
2039:Sugar
1931:Stoma
1873:Sepal
1868:Petal
1863:Tepal
1851:Umbel
1836:Bract
1817:Style
1805:Ovule
1795:Ovary
1736:Berry
1726:Fruit
1719:Whorl
1586:Shoot
1384:Algae
1375:Plant
1158:JSTOR
1080:S2CID
1072:JSTOR
1042:(PDF)
998:eLife
916:S2CID
845:(PDF)
733:. In
663:S2CID
523:Scent
163:tulip
77:tepal
65:calyx
2340:Grex
2222:Self
1756:Seed
1618:Stem
1596:Leaf
1571:Root
1566:Bulb
1550:Wood
1511:Cork
1409:Fern
1231:2014
1205:ISBN
1166:PMID
1098:link
1016:ISSN
975:PMID
957:ISSN
867:PMID
810:PMID
707:PMID
440:limb
436:claw
353:and
101:and
98:Rosa
89:and
86:Aloe
2029:Sap
1746:Nut
1591:Bud
1150:doi
1062:hdl
1054:doi
1050:174
1006:doi
965:PMC
947:doi
908:doi
857:doi
800:doi
697:doi
655:doi
643:334
369:or
361:or
234:or
226:or
2493::
1222:.
1164:.
1156:.
1146:23
1144:.
1106:^
1094:}}
1090:{{
1078:.
1070:.
1060:.
1048:.
1044:.
1014:.
1004:.
1000:.
996:.
973:.
963:.
955:.
943:10
941:.
937:.
914:.
904:26
902:.
865:.
853:96
851:.
847:.
808:.
796:91
794:.
790:.
768:,
719:^
705:.
693:91
691:.
687:.
661:.
653:.
641:.
454:.
393:.
309:,
305:,
301:,
201:).
161:A
1453:)
1449:(
1261:e
1254:t
1247:v
1233:.
1213:.
1172:.
1152::
1100:)
1086:.
1064::
1056::
1022:.
1008::
1002:4
981:.
949::
922:.
910::
873:.
859::
816:.
802::
772:.
713:.
699::
669:.
657::
649::
143:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
