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different oxidizing solutions are aimed at removing the active layer of the polyamide membrane, intended for reuse in applications such as MF or UF. This causes an extended life of approximately two years. A very limited number of reports have mentioned the potential of direct RO reuse. Studies shows that hydraulic permeability, salt rejection, morphological and topographical characteristics, and field emission scanning electron and atomic force microscopy were used in an autopsy investigation conducted. The old RO element's performance resembled that of nanofiltration (NF) membranes, thus it was not surprising to see the permeability increase from 1.0 to 2.1 L m-2 h-1 bar-1 and the drop in NaCl rejection from >90% to 35-50%.
1075:
1068:
1371:
also increased significantly, with some reaching a production capacity exceeding 600,000 m3 of water per day. This means a generation of 14,000 tonnes of membrane waste that is landfilled every year. To increment the lifespan of a membrane, different prevention methods are developed: combining the RO process with the pre-treatment process to improve efficiency; developing anti-fouling techniques; and developing suitable procedures for cleaning the membranes. Pre-treatment processes lower the operating costs because of lesser amounts of chemical additives in the saltwater feed and the lower operational maintenance required for the RO system.
1398:
high rejection, low productivity membranes in the upstream segment of the filtration train, followed by high productivity, low energy membranes in the downstream section. There are two ways in which this design can help: either by decreasing energy use due to decreased pressure needs or by increasing output. Since this concept would reduce the number of modules and pressure vessels needed for a given application, it has the potential to significantly reduce initial investment costs. It is proposed to adapt this original concept, by internally reusing older RO membranes within the same pressure vessel.
866:
1336:. Recent efforts have focused on eliminating membrane fouling by altering the surface chemistry of the membrane material to reduce the likelihood that foulants will adhere to the membrane surface. The exact chemical strategy used is dependent on the chemistry of the solution that is being filtered. For example, membranes used in desalination might be made hydrophobic to resist fouling via accumulation of minerals, while membranes used for biologics might be made hydrophilic to reduce protein/organic accumulation. Modification of surface chemistry via
27:
1060:
179:
1364:
221:
widely used desalination technology because of its simplicity of use and relatively low energy costs compared with distillation, which uses technology based on thermal processes. Note that RO membranes remove water constituents at the ionic level. To do so, most current RO systems use a thin-film composite (TFC), mainly consisting of three layers: a polyamide layer, a polysulphone layer and a polyester layer.
1092:
defined as the consequence of irreversible attachment and growth of bacterial cells on the membrane, is also a common reason for discarding old membranes. A variety of oxidative solutions, cleaning and anti-fouling agents is widely used in desalination plants, and their repetitive and incidental exposure can adversely affect the membranes, generally through the decrease of their rejection efficiencies.
1360:
the past decades to avoid this, such as waste prevention, direct reapplication, and ways of recycling. In this regard, membranes also follows the waste management hierarchy. This means that the most preferable action is to upgrade the design of the membrane which leads to a reduction in use at same application and the least preferred action is a disposal and landfilling
1583:
By recycling RO membranes, we reduce the need for new materials, thereby lessening the environmental footprint. Producing new membranes from petroleum-derived polymers increases GHG emissions. Recycling existing membranes helps mitigate this impact by reusing materials that would otherwise contribute
354:
and modules. Flat sheet membranes are typically built-into submerged vacuum-driven filtration systems which consist of stacks of modules each with several sheets. Filtration mode is outside-in where the water passes through the membrane and is collected in permeate channels. Cleaning can be performed
2438:
Jafarzadeh, E., Kabiri-Samani, A., Mansourzadeh, S., & Bohluly, A. (2021). Experimental modeling of the interaction between waves and submerged flexible mound breakwaters. Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment, 235(1),
1397:
On the other hand, In order to maximize the overall efficiency of the process, it has lately been common practice to combine RO elements of varying performances within the same pressure vessel, which is called Multi-membrane vessel design. In principle, this innovative hybrid system recommends using
1163:
Since fouling is an important consideration in the design and operation of membrane systems, as it affects pre-treatment needs, cleaning requirements, operating conditions, cost and performance, it should prevent, and if necessary, removed. Optimizing the operation conditions is important to prevent
854:
The operation modes will be affected when the rejected materials and particles in the retentate tend to accumulate in the membrane. At a given TMP, the flux of water through the membrane will decrease and at a given flux, the TMP will increase, reducing the permeability (k). This phenomenon is known
1552:
Separation techniques are employed to recover valuable materials from reverse osmosis membranes, such as polyamide or polysulfone, which can be recycled and reused in the production of new membranes or other products. During the material recovery stage, physical or chemical separation processes are
174:
Ultrafiltration removes particles higher than 0.005-2 ÎĽm and operates within a range of 70-700kPa. Ultrafiltration is used for many of the same applications as microfiltration. Some ultrafiltration membranes have also been used to remove dissolved compounds with high molecular weight, such as
1580:
environmental impact associated with producing new membranes from raw materials. RO membranes contain polymers derived from petroleum, a major source of greenhouse gases (GHGs) that contribute to climate change. Additionally, these polymers are not biodegradable, making them challenging to recycle.
1393:
Reuse of RO membranes include the direct reapplication of modules in other separation processes with less stringent specifications. The conversion from the RO TFC membrane to a porous membrane is possible by degrading the dense layer of polyamide. Converting RO membranes by chemical treatment with
1359:
Once the membrane reaches a significant performance decline it is discarded. Discarded RO membrane modules are currently classified worldwide as inert solid waste and are often disposed of in landfills; although they can also be energetically recovered. However, various efforts have been made over
1091:
Fouling can be defined as the potential deposition and accumulation of constituents in the feed stream on the membrane. The loss of RO performance can result from irreversible organic and/or inorganic fouling and chemical degradation of the active membrane layer. Microbiological fouling, generally
892:
where the feed water is pumped with a cross-flow tangential to the membrane and concentrate and permeate streams are obtained. This model implies that for a flow of feed-water across the membrane, only a fraction is converted to permeate product. This parameter is termed "conversion" or "recovery"
81:
This concept of a membrane has been known since the eighteenth century but was used little outside of the laboratory until the end of World War II. Drinking water supplies in Europe had been compromised by the war and membrane filters were used to test for water safety. However, due to the lack of
1370:
RO membranes have some environmental challenges that must be resolved in order to comply with the circular economy principles. Mainly they have a short service life of 5–10 years. Over the past two decades, the number of RO desalination plants has increased by 70%. The size of these RO plants has
1322:
is used to reduce the suspended solids and bacterial content of the feed-water. Flocculants and coagulants are also used, like ferric chloride and aluminium sulphate that, once dissolved in the water, adsorbs materials such as suspended solids, colloids and soluble organic. Metaphysical numerical
1191:
consists of pumping the permeate in the reverse direction through the membrane. Back-washing removes successfully most of the reversible fouling caused by pore blocking. Backwashing can also be enhanced by flushing air through the membrane. Backwashing increase the operating costs since energy is
322:
Spiral wound, where a flexible permeate spacer is placed between two flat membranes sheet. A flexible feed spacer is added and the flat sheets are rolled into a circular configuration. In recent developments, surface patterning techniques have allowed for the integration of permeable feed spacers
220:
Reverse osmosis is commonly used for desalination. As well, RO is commonly used for the removal of dissolved constituents from wastewater remaining after advanced treatment with microfiltration. RO excludes ions but requires high pressures to produce deionized water (850–7000 kPa). RO is the most
1374:
Four types of fouling are found on RO membranes: (i) Inorganic (salt precipitation), (ii) Organic, (iii) Colloidal (particle deposition in the suspension) (iv) Microbiological (bacteria and fungi). Thereby, an appropriate combination of pre-treatment procedures and chemical dosing, as well as an
205:
Likewise, nanofiltration can be used as a pre-treatment before directed reverse osmosis. The main objectives of NF pre-treatment are: (1). minimize particulate and microbial fouling of the RO membranes by removal of turbidity and bacteria, (2) prevent scaling by removal of the hardness ions, (3)
1066:
Filtration leads to an increase in the resistance against the flow. In the case of the dead-end filtration process, the resistance increases according to the thickness of the cake formed on the membrane. As a consequence, the permeability (k) and the flux rapidly decrease, proportionally to the
201:
Nanofiltration is also known as "loose" RO and can reject particles smaller than 0,002 ÎĽm. Nanofiltration is used for the removal of selected dissolved constituents from wastewater. NF is primarily developed as a membrane softening process which offers an alternative to chemical softening.
152:
Microfiltration removes particles higher than 0.08-2 ÎĽm and operates within a range of 7-100 kPa. Microfiltration is used to remove residual suspended solids (SS), to remove bacteria in order to condition the water for effective disinfection and as a pre-treatment step for reverse osmosis.
1412:
Recycling of materials is a general term that involves physically transforming the material or its components so that they can be regenerated into other useful products. The membrane modules are complex structures, consisting of a number of different polymeric components and, potentially, the
1579:
Implementing a recycling process for RO membranes can incur additional costs, which many companies or organizations may be hesitant to accept. Moreover, recycled membranes often exhibit lower performance and efficiency. However, one significant advantage of recycling is the reduction of the
1556:
Following waste removal, the membrane is tested in a pilot system. During this phase, its performance is carefully analyzed to determine if the output meets the defined parameters and limits. This step is crucial to verify that the membrane operates efficiently and effectively after
1309:. The flux always reduces fouling but it impacts on capital cost since it demands more membrane area. It consists of working at sustainable flux which can be defined as the flux for which the TMP increases gradually at an acceptable rate, such that chemical cleaning is not necessary.
1649:
as a membrane assisted extraction process relies on the gradient in chemical potential. A submerged flexible mound breakwater as a type of using membrane can be employed for wave control in shallow water as an advanced alternative to the conventional rigid submerged designs.
269:
In the membrane field, the term module is used to describe a complete unit composed of the membranes, the pressure support structure, the feed inlet, the outlet permeate and retentate streams, and an overall support structure. The principal types of membrane modules are:
336:
Plate and frame consist of a series of flat membrane sheets and support plates. The water to be treated passes between the membranes of two adjacent membrane assemblies. The plate supports the membranes and provides a channel for the permeate to flow out of the unit
1491:
Polyester materials (such as in the permeate spacer and components of the membrane sheet) are suitable for chemical recycling processes, and hydrolysis is used to reverse the poly-condensation reaction used to make the polymer, with the addition of water to cause
1591:
The increasing demand for RO membranes has led to higher prices. In contrast, the recycling process is generally more cost-effective than purchasing new membranes. This cost advantage can help offset the initial investment required for setting up recycling
883:
where all the feed applied to the membrane passes through it, obtaining a permeate. Since there is no concentrate stream, all the particles are retained in the membrane. Raw feed-water is sometimes used to flush the accumulated material from the membrane
1283:, where the main cleaning agents are sodium hypochlorite (for organic fouling) and citric acid (for inorganic fouling). Every membrane supplier proposes their chemical cleaning recipes, which differ mainly in terms of concentration and methods.
2329:
Rattanakul S (2012) Concentrate and solid waste management in reverse osmosis plants. Master’s Thesis, Engineering in
Environmental Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology School of Environment, Resources and Development,
2224:
De Napoli, Ilaria E.; Zanetti, Elisabetta M.; Fragomeni, Gionata; Giuzio, Ermenegildo; Audenino, Alberto L.; Catapano, Gerardo (2014). "Transport modeling of convection-enhanced hollow fiber membrane bioreactors for therapeutic applications".
1264:. Relaxation and backwashing effectiveness will decrease with operation time as more irreversible fouling accumulates on the membrane surface. Therefore, besides the physical cleaning, chemical cleaning may also be recommended. It includes:
1073:
For cross-flow processes, the deposition of material will continue until the forces of the binding cake to the membrane will be balanced by the forces of the fluid. At this point, cross-flow filtration will reach a steady-state condition
1095:
Fouling can take place through several physicochemical and biological mechanisms which are related to the increased deposition of solid material onto the membrane surface. The main mechanisms by which fouling can occur, are:
1048:
1587:
The demand for RO membranes has surged due to stricter regulations on wastewater discharge. This demand could potentially surpass supply, making the recycling of current RO membranes a viable solution to address this
1212:
consists of pausing the filtration during a period, and thus, there is no need for permeate flow reversion. Relaxation allows filtration to be maintained for a longer period before the chemical cleaning of the
846:
1864:
AlfonsĂn C, Lebrero R, Estrada JM, et al. (2015) Selection of odour removal technologies in wastewater treatment plants: A guideline based on life cycle assessment. Journal of
Environmental Management 149:
1517:
Waste incinerators can generally operate from 760 °C to 1100 °C and would therefore be capable of removing all combustible material, with the exception of the residual inorganic filler in the fiberglass
1378:
Most plants clean their membranes every week (CEB – Chemically
Enhanced Backwash). In addition to this maintenance cleaning, an intensive cleaning (CIP) is recommended, from two to four times annually.
1340:
deposition can thereby largely reduce fouling. One drawback to using modification techniques is that, in some cases, the flux rate and selectivity of the membrane process can be negatively impacted.
692:
593:
2017:
Mata GK, Bagchi S, Zhang K, Oerther DB, Saikaly PE (October 2017). "Membrane biofilm communities in full-scale membrane bioreactors are not randomly assembled and consist of a core microbiome".
1413:
individual components can be recovered for other purposes. Plastic solid waste treatment and recycling can be separated into mechanical recycling, chemical recycling and energy recovery.
1316:
instead of dead-end. In cross-flow filtration, only a thin layer is deposited on the membrane since not all the particles are retained on the membrane, but the concentrate removes them.
2429:
Coutinho de Paula, E. and Amaral, M.C.S. (already referenced) and Lawler, W., Bradford-Hartke, Z., Cran, M.J., Duke, M., Leslie, G.,Ladewig, B.P and Le-Chen, P. (already referenced).
1797:
Chadha, Utkarsh; Selvaraj, Senthil
Kumaran; Vishak Thanu, S.; Cholapadath, Vishnu; Abraham, Ashesh Mathew; Zaiyan, Mohammed; Manikandan, M; Paramasivam, Velmurugan (6 January 2022).
500:
281:, where membranes are placed inside a support porous tubes, and these tubes are placed together in a cylindrical shell to form the unit module. Tubular devices are primarily used in
1673:
434:
1549:
The first step in post-treatment involves removing all residual waste from the equipment. This ensures that no contaminants remain that could affect the membrane's performance.
751:
1521:
Heat energy can be recovered and used for electricity generation or other heat related processes, and can also offset the greenhouse gas emissions from traditional energy.
1992:
851:
To control the operation of a membrane process, two modes, concerning the flux and the TMP, can be used. These modes are (1) constant TMP, and (2) constant flux.
2339:
Coutinho de Paula, E. and Amaral, M.C.S. (2017). Extending the life-cycle of membranes: A review. Waste
Management & Research, 35(5), 456-470. doi: 10.1177/
249:(MOFs). These membranes can be used for size selective separations such as nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, but also adsorption selective separations such as
1749:
289:
applications because of their ability to handle process streams with high solids and high viscosity properties, as well as for their relative ease of cleaning.
82:
reliability, slow operation, reduced selectivity and elevated costs, membranes were not widely exploited. The first use of membranes on a large scale was with
2085:
Vallero, M. V. G.; Lettinga, G.; Lens, P. N. L. (2005). "High rate sulfate reduction in a submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactor (sambar) at high salinity".
1454:
Main advantage: it displaces virgin plastic production. • Main disadvantages: need to separate all components, large-enough amount of components to be viable.
1451:
Membrane sheets: constructed from a number of different polymers and additives and therefore inherently difficult to accurately and efficiently separate.
1237:
351:
904:
1546:
After applying the chosen technique, it is necessary to carry out a post-treatment process to ensure that the membrane can function normally again.
2112:
I.-J. Kang; C.-H. Lee; K.-J. Kim (2003). "Characteristics of microfiltration membranes in a membrane coupled sequencing batch reactor system".
1877:"Enhancing ultrafiltration membrane permeability and antifouling performance through surface patterning with features resembling feed spacers"
2528:
2291:
Lawler, Will; Bradford-Hartke, Zenah; Cran, Marlene J.; Duke, Mikel; Leslie, Greg; Ladewig, Bradley P.; Le-Clech, Pierre (1 August 2012).
2070:
Sun, Y; Huang, X.; Chen, E; Wen, X. (2004). "dual functional filtration/aeration membrane bioreactor for domestic wastewater treatment".
1553:
conducted to isolate and purify these materials, ensuring their quality and facilitating their reintroduction into the production chain.
759:
1059:
893:(S). The recovery will be reduced if the permeate is further used for maintaining processes operation, usually for membrane cleaning.
278:
865:
1375:
efficient cleaning plan that tackle these types of fouling, should enable the development of an effective anti-fouling technique.
97:
The degree of selectivity of a membrane depends on the membrane pore size. Depending on the pore size, they can be classified as
1296:. Several mechanisms can be carried out to optimize the operating conditions of the membrane to prevent fouling, for instance:
368:
The key elements of any membrane process relate to the influence of the following parameters on the overall permeate flux are:
1653:
However, their overwhelming success in biological systems is not matched by their application. The main reasons for this are:
1715:
623:
2658:
511:
242:
1981:
Metcalf and Eddy (2004) Wastewater
Engineering, Treatment and Reuse, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Fourth Edition.
2458:
1799:"A review of the function of using carbon nanomaterials in membrane filtration for contaminant removal from wastewater"
1759:
1077:, and thus, the flux will remain constant with time. Therefore, this configuration will demand less periodic cleaning.
1103:
of the feedwater on the membrane which causes a resistance to flow. This build-up can be divided into different types:
206:
lower the operating pressure of the RO process by reducing the feed-water total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration.
2501:
The
Membrane Bioreactor Book: Principles and Applications of Membrane Bioreactors for Water and Wastewater Treatment
309:. The feed can be applied to the inside of the fiber (inside-out flow) or the outside of the fiber (outside-in flow).
1765:
2521:
1951:"Integration of Porous and Permeable Poly(ether sulfone) Feed Spacer onto Membrane Surfaces via Direct 3D Printing"
1164:
fouling. However, if fouling has already taken place, it should be removed by using physical or chemical cleaning.
1233:
high frequency back pulsing resulting in efficient removal of dirt layer. This method is most commonly used for
2678:
1171:
452:
114:
2737:
2389:
2350:
2292:
2252:
Musthafa O.Mavukkandy; Samantha McBride; David
Warsinger; Nadir Dizge; Shadi Hasan; Hassan Arafat (2020).
1993:"Understanding The Critical Relationship Between Reverse Osmosis Recovery Rates And Concentration Factors"
2514:
617:
The rejection (r) could be defined as the number of particles that have been removed from the feedwater.
305:, consists of a bundle of hundreds to thousands of hollow fibers. The entire assembly is inserted into a
246:
2166:
Le-Clech, P.; Fane, A.; Leslie, G.; Childress, A. (June 2005). "MBR focus: the operator's perspective".
1918:"A Critical Assessment of Surface-Patterned Membranes and Their Role in Advancing Membrane Technologies"
393:
2626:
2390:"Current trends and future prospects in the design of seawater reverse osmosis desalination technology"
703:
2727:
1846:
Adam S, Cheng RC, Vuong DX, Wattier KL (2003). "Long Beach's dual-stage NF beats single-stage SWRO".
20:
2134:
1621:
Equipment simplicity and modularity, which facilitates the incorporation of more efficient membranes
2732:
2621:
38:
is a selective barrier; it allows some things to pass through but stops others. Such things may be
1476:
Break down the polymers into smaller molecules, using depolymerisation and degradation techniques.
1117:, which consists of solid material that it has been attached to the interior surface of the pores.
1277:, that is, a low concentration of chemical cleaning agent is added during the backwashing period.
2293:"Towards new opportunities for reuse, recycling and disposal of used reverse osmosis membranes"
2251:
2129:
117:
or heterogeneous structure. Membranes can be neutral or charged, and particle transport can be
2588:
2573:
1129:
takes places when the solid matter in the feed is larger than the pore sizes of the membrane.
888:
302:
183:
2349:
Ould
Mohamedou, E.; Penate Suarez, D. B.; Vince, F.; Jaouen, P.; Pontie, M. (1 April 2010).
1607:
Distinct features of membranes are responsible for the interest in using them as additional
2401:
2362:
2304:
2121:
2026:
1888:
1810:
1634:
229:
An emerging class of membranes rely on nanostructure channels to separate materials at the
94:, are employed in large plants and, today, several experienced companies serve the market.
2197:; Fane, Tony A.G. (2006). "Fouling in membrane bioreactors used in wastewater treatment".
1485:
Advantage: that heterogeneous polymers with limited use of pre-treatment can be processed.
8:
2547:
2485:
1626:
306:
157:
51:
2405:
2366:
2308:
2125:
2030:
1892:
1814:
1524:
If not properly controlled, can emit greenhouse gases as well as other harmful products.
1253:
Recent studies have assessed to combine relaxation and backwashing for optimum results,.
257:
and alcohols from water that traditionally have required expensive and energy intensive
2567:
2537:
2273:
1828:
1642:
47:
2179:
2143:
1123:
occurs when the particles of the feed-water become stuck in the pores of the membrane.
2555:
2454:
2277:
2147:
2052:
1832:
1755:
1711:
234:
122:
58:(outer coverings of cells or organelles that allow passage of certain constituents);
1439:
Grinding of the polymeric materials into suitable size (loss of 5% of the material).
2722:
2598:
2563:
2484:
Paula van den Brink, Frank Vergeldt, Henk Van As, Arie Zwijnenburg, Hardy Temmink,
2409:
2370:
2312:
2265:
2234:
2206:
2175:
2139:
2094:
2042:
2034:
1962:
1929:
1896:
1818:
1618:
Do not demand adsorbents or solvents, which may be expensive or difficult to handle
1354:
1234:
1086:
857:
375:
The operational driving force per unit membrane area (Trans Membrane Pressure, TMP)
323:
directly into the membrane, giving rise to the concept of an integrated membrane
118:
59:
26:
1043:{\displaystyle S={Q_{permeate} \over Q_{feed}}=1-{Q_{concentrate} \over Q_{feed}}}
2269:
2238:
2210:
2098:
2038:
1630:
286:
282:
215:
169:
147:
110:
102:
98:
91:
87:
83:
67:
63:
2413:
2374:
2316:
1934:
1917:
1901:
1876:
1823:
1798:
1608:
387:
The total permeate flow from a membrane system is given by following equation:
196:
175:
proteins and carbohydrates. Also, they can remove viruses and some endotoxins.
160:(MBR) which combine microfiltration and a bioreactor for biological treatment.
106:
75:
2488:. "Potential of mechanical cleaning of membranes from a membrane bioreactor".
1448:
Membrane components than can be recycled (thermoplastics): PP, polyester, etc.
16:
Thin, film-like structure separating two fluids, acting as a selective barrier
2716:
2699:
2653:
1686:
1638:
178:
130:
55:
1967:
1950:
1751:
Membranes on Polyolefins Plants Vent Recovery, Improvement Economics Program
1611:
for separation processes in fluid processes. Some advantages noted include:
2683:
2663:
2151:
2056:
1646:
258:
2673:
2668:
2645:
2583:
2253:
2047:
505:
The trans-membrane pressure (TMP) is given by the following expression:
2693:
2616:
2194:
1150:
71:
46:, or other small particles. Membranes can be generally classified into
19:
This article is about selective barrier membranes. For other uses, see
2348:
90:
technologies. Since the 1980s, these separation processes, along with
2611:
2606:
2506:
2453:(2nd ed.). MĂĽnchen: Elsevier, Spektrum Akad. Verl. p. 279.
1796:
1407:
1337:
1323:
models have been introduced in order to optimize transport phenomena
186:, with characteristic outer (top) and inner (bottom) layers of pores.
1615:
Less energy-intensive, since they do not require major phase changes
1436:
Previous washing to avoid property deterioration during the process.
1192:
required to achieve a pressure suitable for permeate flow reversion.
2254:"Thin film deposition techniques for polymeric membranes– A review"
1488:
Disadvantage: more expensive and complex than mechanical recycling.
446:
The permeability (k) of a membrane is given by the next equation:
238:
230:
126:
39:
1363:
841:{\displaystyle Q_{f}\cdot C_{f}=Q_{p}\cdot C_{p}+Q_{c}\cdot C_{c}}
2636:
2578:
1657:
1482:
Chemical recycling processes are tailored for specific materials.
1170:
techniques for membrane include membrane relaxation and membrane
113:(RO) membranes. Membranes can also be of various thickness, with
1777:
1775:
876:
Two operation modes for membranes can be used. These modes are:
2451:
Bioprozesstechnik : EinfĂĽhrung in die Bioverfahrenstechnik
2223:
1744:
1742:
861:, and it is the main limitation to membrane process operation.
254:
250:
2388:
Peñate, Baltasar; GarcĂa-RodrĂguez, Lourdes (4 January 2012).
1445:
Melting and extrusion process (loss of 10 % of material).
2290:
2069:
1772:
1625:
Membranes are used with pressure as the driving processes in
1388:
1154:
takes place when microorganisms grow on the membrane surface.
2111:
1739:
1514:
Volume reduction by 90–99%, reducing the strain on landfill.
378:
The fouling and subsequent cleaning of the membrane surface.
133:, chemical or electrical gradients of the membrane process.
62:, which cover a cell nucleus; and tissue membranes, such as
2481:. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Fourth Edition, 2004.
2165:
1664:
1433:
A first separation of the components of interest is needed.
1645:
along a concentration gradient is the driving force. Also
871:
1781:
43:
1567:
2387:
2016:
687:{\displaystyle r={(C_{f}-C_{p}) \over C_{f}}\cdot 100}
2072:
Proceedings of Water Environment- Membrane Technology
1990:
1845:
1784:
Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems
907:
762:
706:
626:
588:{\displaystyle P_{TMP}={(P_{f}+P_{c}) \over 2}-P_{p}}
514:
455:
396:
136:
70:. Synthetic membranes are made by humans for use in
443:is the water flux rate and A is the membrane area
2084:
2351:"New lives for old reverse osmosis (RO) membranes"
1042:
840:
745:
686:
587:
494:
428:
1158:
2714:
2192:
1735:. Lancaster, PA.: echonomic Publishing Co., Inc.
1997:American Membrane Technology Association (AMTA)
382:
1705:
697:The corresponding mass balance equations are:
2522:
2425:
2423:
363:
1948:
1915:
1874:
1733:Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration Handbook
1343:
1140:Formation of chemical precipitates known as
439:Where Qp is the permeate stream flowrate , F
2479:Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse
1479:Cannot be used with contaminated materials.
224:
2546:Mechanisms for chemical transport through
2529:
2515:
2442:
2420:
1730:
1058:
864:
264:
30:Schematic of size-based membrane exclusion
2133:
2046:
1966:
1933:
1900:
1822:
1710:(2 ed.). Kluwer Academic: Springer.
1362:
1070:and, thus, requiring periodic cleaning.
177:
25:
1991:Harold G. Fravel, Jr. (28 April 2014).
1708:Basic principles of membrane technology
1416:
872:Dead-end and cross-flow operation modes
495:{\displaystyle k={F_{w} \over P_{TMP}}}
209:
163:
141:
2715:
2536:
2448:
610:the pressure of concentrate stream ; P
190:
2510:
1949:Ibrahim, Yazan; Hilal, Nidal (2024).
1916:Ibrahim, Yazan; Hilal, Nidal (2023).
1875:Ibrahim, Yazan; Hilal, Nidal (2023).
1786:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
1422:Mechanical recycling characteristics:
606:the inlet pressure of feed stream ; P
2659:Non-specific, adsorptive pinocytosis
1568:Advantages of RO membranes recycling
245:(PIMS), and membranes incorporating
1670:Lack of solvent resistant materials
1660:– the decrease of function with use
1503:Energetic recovery characteristics:
1465:Chemical recycling characteristics:
1348:
243:polymers of intrinsic microporosity
156:Relatively recent developments are
125:. The latter can be facilitated by
13:
1782:Crites and Tchobangiglous (1998).
1294:Optimizing the operation condition
614:the pressure if permeate stream .
602:is the trans-membrane pressure , P
429:{\displaystyle Q_{p}=F_{w}\cdot A}
137:Membrane processes classifications
14:
2749:
1955:ACS Applied Engineering Materials
746:{\displaystyle Q_{f}=Q_{p}+Q_{c}}
1148:Colonization of the membrane or
2471:
2432:
2381:
2342:
2333:
2323:
2284:
2245:
2217:
2186:
2159:
2105:
2078:
2063:
2010:
1984:
1975:
1942:
1602:
1320:Pre-treatment of the feed water
241:membranes, membranes made from
182:The wall of an ultrafiltration
54:. Biological membranes include
1909:
1868:
1858:
1839:
1790:
1724:
1699:
1159:Fouling control and mitigation
662:
636:
563:
537:
355:by aeration, backwash and CIP.
1:
2679:Receptor-mediated endocytosis
2180:10.1016/S0015-1882(05)70556-5
2144:10.1016/s0043-1354(02)00534-1
1692:
1584:to environmental degradation.
372:The membrane permeability (k)
2270:10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118258
2239:10.1016/j.memsci.2014.08.026
2211:10.1016/j.memsci.2006.08.019
2099:10.1016/j.memsci.2004.12.032
2039:10.1016/j.watres.2017.06.052
383:Flux, pressure, permeability
7:
2490:Journal of membrane science
2414:10.1016/j.desal.2011.09.010
2375:10.1016/j.desal.2009.11.032
2317:10.1016/j.desal.2012.05.030
2258:Journal of Membrane Science
2227:Journal of Membrane Science
2199:Journal of Membrane Science
2168:Filtration & Separation
2087:Journal of Membrane Science
1935:10.1021/acsestwater.3c00564
1680:
1442:Possible posterior washing.
10:
2754:
2627:Secondary active transport
1902:10.1038/s41545-023-00277-3
1803:Materials Research Express
1405:
1401:
1386:
1352:
1275:Chemical enhanced backwash
1084:
1080:
364:Membrane process operation
213:
194:
167:
145:
18:
2692:
2644:
2635:
2597:
2554:
2544:
1344:Recycling of RO membranes
235:carbon nanotube membranes
21:Membrane (disambiguation)
2622:Primary active transport
1848:Desalination Water Reuse
1824:10.1088/2053-1591/ac48b8
1382:
1127:Gel/cake layer formation
1101:Build-up of constituents
247:metal–organic frameworks
225:Nanostructured membranes
2486:Mark C.M.van Loosdrecht
1968:10.1021/acsaenm.4c00086
1706:Mulder, Marcel (1996).
265:Membrane configurations
2449:Chmiel, Horst (2006).
1367:
1044:
842:
747:
688:
589:
496:
430:
350:Ceramic and polymeric
187:
74:and industry (such as
31:
2574:Facilitated diffusion
1366:
1314:cross-flow filtration
1067:solids concentration
1045:
889:Cross-flow filtration
843:
748:
689:
590:
497:
431:
303:Hollow fiber membrane
233:scale. These include
184:hollow fiber membrane
181:
29:
2548:biological membranes
1417:Techniques recycling
905:
760:
704:
624:
512:
453:
394:
352:flat sheet membranes
210:Reverse osmosis (RO)
164:Ultrafiltration (UF)
158:membrane bioreactors
142:Microfiltration (MF)
52:biological membranes
2738:Membrane technology
2406:2012Desal.284....1P
2367:2010Desal.253...62O
2309:2012Desal.299..103L
2126:2003WatRe..37.1192K
2031:2017WatRe.123..124M
1893:2023npjCW...6...60I
1815:2022MRE.....9a2003C
1731:Cheryan, M (1998).
1627:membrane filtration
1334:Membrane alteration
1210:Membrane relaxation
881:Dead-end filtration
191:Nanofiltration (NF)
48:synthetic membranes
2568:mediated transport
2538:Membrane transport
2477:Metcalf and Eddy.
2193:Le-Clech, Pierre;
1922:ACS ES&T Water
1754:. Intratec. 2012.
1643:chemical potential
1629:of solutes and in
1368:
1040:
838:
743:
684:
585:
492:
426:
188:
32:
2710:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2556:Passive transport
2503:. Elsevier, 2010.
1928:(12): 3807–3834.
1717:978-0-7923-4248-9
1667:per membrane area
1281:Chemical cleaning
1262:Chemical cleaning
1235:ceramic membranes
1168:Physical cleaning
1038:
966:
676:
570:
490:
60:nuclear membranes
2745:
2728:Water technology
2642:
2641:
2599:Active transport
2564:Simple diffusion
2531:
2524:
2517:
2508:
2507:
2496:, 2013. 259-267.
2465:
2464:
2446:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2418:
2417:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2346:
2340:
2337:
2331:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2137:
2120:(5): 1192–1197.
2109:
2103:
2102:
2093:(1–2): 217–232.
2082:
2076:
2075:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2050:
2014:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1961:(4): 1094–1109.
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1872:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1826:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1770:
1769:
1764:. Archived from
1746:
1737:
1736:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1703:
1355:Waste prevention
1349:Waste prevention
1087:Membrane fouling
1062:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1036:
1018:
1017:
978:
967:
965:
964:
946:
945:
915:
868:
847:
845:
844:
839:
837:
836:
824:
823:
811:
810:
798:
797:
785:
784:
772:
771:
752:
750:
749:
744:
742:
741:
729:
728:
716:
715:
693:
691:
690:
685:
677:
675:
674:
665:
661:
660:
648:
647:
634:
594:
592:
591:
586:
584:
583:
571:
566:
562:
561:
549:
548:
535:
530:
529:
501:
499:
498:
493:
491:
489:
488:
473:
472:
463:
435:
433:
432:
427:
419:
418:
406:
405:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2733:Water treatment
2713:
2712:
2711:
2702:
2688:
2631:
2593:
2550:
2540:
2535:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2461:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2421:
2386:
2382:
2347:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2324:
2289:
2285:
2264:(1–2): 118258.
2250:
2246:
2222:
2218:
2191:
2187:
2164:
2160:
2135:10.1.1.464.9473
2110:
2106:
2083:
2079:
2068:
2064:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1999:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1947:
1943:
1914:
1910:
1881:npj Clean Water
1873:
1869:
1863:
1859:
1844:
1840:
1795:
1791:
1780:
1773:
1762:
1748:
1747:
1740:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1683:
1631:reverse osmosis
1605:
1570:
1419:
1410:
1404:
1391:
1385:
1357:
1351:
1346:
1161:
1089:
1083:
1023:
1019:
983:
979:
977:
951:
947:
920:
916:
914:
906:
903:
902:
874:
832:
828:
819:
815:
806:
802:
793:
789:
780:
776:
767:
763:
761:
758:
757:
737:
733:
724:
720:
711:
707:
705:
702:
701:
670:
666:
656:
652:
643:
639:
635:
633:
625:
622:
621:
613:
609:
605:
601:
579:
575:
557:
553:
544:
540:
536:
534:
519:
515:
513:
510:
509:
478:
474:
468:
464:
462:
454:
451:
450:
442:
414:
410:
401:
397:
395:
392:
391:
385:
366:
307:pressure vessel
287:ultrafiltration
267:
227:
218:
216:Reverse osmosis
212:
199:
193:
172:
170:Ultrafiltration
166:
150:
148:Microfiltration
144:
139:
111:reverse osmosis
103:ultrafiltration
99:microfiltration
92:electrodialysis
88:ultrafiltration
84:microfiltration
76:chemical plants
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2751:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2708:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2650:
2648:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2560:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2534:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2497:
2482:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2460:978-3827416070
2459:
2441:
2431:
2419:
2380:
2361:(1–3): 62–70.
2341:
2332:
2322:
2283:
2244:
2216:
2205:(1–2): 17–53.
2185:
2158:
2104:
2077:
2062:
2025:(1): 124–133.
2019:Water Research
2009:
1983:
1974:
1941:
1908:
1867:
1857:
1838:
1789:
1771:
1768:on 2013-05-13.
1761:978-0615678917
1760:
1738:
1723:
1716:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1661:
1623:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1609:unit operation
1604:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1535:Post-treatment
1532:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1492:decomposition.
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1418:
1415:
1406:Main article:
1403:
1400:
1387:Main article:
1384:
1381:
1353:Main article:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1278:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1221:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1146:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1115:Pore narrowing
1105:
1104:
1085:Main article:
1082:
1079:
1064:
1063:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
982:
976:
973:
970:
963:
960:
957:
954:
950:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
926:
923:
919:
913:
910:
895:
894:
885:
873:
870:
849:
848:
835:
831:
827:
822:
818:
814:
809:
805:
801:
796:
792:
788:
783:
779:
775:
770:
766:
754:
753:
740:
736:
732:
727:
723:
719:
714:
710:
695:
694:
683:
680:
673:
669:
664:
659:
655:
651:
646:
642:
638:
632:
629:
611:
607:
603:
599:
596:
595:
582:
578:
574:
569:
565:
560:
556:
552:
547:
543:
539:
533:
528:
525:
522:
518:
503:
502:
487:
484:
481:
477:
471:
467:
461:
458:
440:
437:
436:
425:
422:
417:
413:
409:
404:
400:
384:
381:
380:
379:
376:
373:
365:
362:
361:
360:
359:
358:
357:
356:
343:
342:
341:
340:
339:
338:
329:
328:
327:
326:
325:
324:
315:
314:
313:
312:
311:
310:
295:
294:
293:
292:
291:
290:
266:
263:
226:
223:
214:Main article:
211:
208:
197:Nanofiltration
195:Main article:
192:
189:
168:Main article:
165:
162:
146:Main article:
143:
140:
138:
135:
107:nanofiltration
56:cell membranes
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2750:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2701:
2700:Degranulation
2697:
2695:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2654:Efferocytosis
2652:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2527:
2525:
2520:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2462:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2435:
2426:
2424:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2384:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2336:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2287:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2013:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1861:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1809:(1): 012003.
1808:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1785:
1778:
1776:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1745:
1743:
1734:
1727:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1687:Collodion bag
1685:
1684:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1639:pervaporation
1636:
1632:
1628:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1414:
1409:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1307:Reducing flux
1305:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1211:
1208:
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1189:back-flushing
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1122:
1121:Pore blocking
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1111:
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974:
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738:
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353:
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131:concentration
128:
124:
120:
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108:
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100:
95:
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89:
85:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
2684:Transcytosis
2664:Phagocytosis
2500:
2499:Simon Judd.
2493:
2489:
2478:
2472:Bibliography
2450:
2444:
2434:
2397:
2394:Desalination
2393:
2383:
2358:
2355:Desalination
2354:
2344:
2335:
2325:
2300:
2297:Desalination
2296:
2286:
2261:
2257:
2247:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2174:(5): 20–23.
2171:
2167:
2161:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2065:
2048:10754/625148
2022:
2018:
2012:
2000:. Retrieved
1996:
1986:
1977:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1925:
1921:
1911:
1884:
1880:
1870:
1860:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1783:
1766:the original
1750:
1732:
1726:
1707:
1701:
1663:Prohibitive
1652:
1647:perstraction
1624:
1606:
1603:Applications
1534:
1533:
1502:
1501:
1464:
1463:
1421:
1420:
1411:
1396:
1392:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1358:
1333:
1332:
1319:
1313:
1306:
1293:
1292:
1280:
1274:
1261:
1260:
1231:Back pulsing
1230:
1209:
1188:
1185:Back-washing
1184:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1149:
1142:
1141:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1072:
1065:
887:
880:
875:
863:
856:
853:
850:
696:
616:
597:
504:
445:
438:
386:
367:
268:
259:distillation
228:
219:
204:
200:
173:
155:
151:
96:
80:
72:laboratories
35:
33:
2674:Potocytosis
2669:Pinocytosis
2646:Endocytosis
2303:: 103–112.
2233:: 347–361.
2195:Chen, Vicki
1592:operations.
1172:backwashing
115:homogeneous
2717:Categories
2694:Exocytosis
2617:Antiporter
1693:References
1588:challenge.
1557:treatment.
1151:biofouling
2612:Symporter
2607:Uniporter
2330:Thailand.
2278:219428325
2130:CiteSeerX
2114:Water Res
1887:(1): 60.
1833:245810763
1408:Recycling
1338:thin film
1213:membrane.
975:−
826:⋅
800:⋅
774:⋅
679:⋅
650:−
573:−
421:⋅
255:paraffins
231:molecular
109:(NF) and
40:molecules
2589:Carriers
2584:Channels
2566:(or non-
2439:127-141.
2152:12553996
2057:28658633
1854:: 18–21.
1681:See also
1674:Scale-up
1635:dialysis
884:surface.
239:graphene
127:pressure
36:membrane
2723:Fouling
2637:Cytosis
2579:Osmosis
2402:Bibcode
2400:: 1–8.
2363:Bibcode
2305:Bibcode
2122:Bibcode
2027:Bibcode
1889:Bibcode
1811:Bibcode
1658:Fouling
1518:casing.
1402:Recycle
1143:scaling
1081:Fouling
858:fouling
598:where P
337:module.
279:Tubular
251:olefins
123:passive
68:serosae
64:mucosae
2457:
2276:
2150:
2132:
2055:
2002:15 May
1865:77–84.
1831:
1758:
1714:
1312:Using
283:micro-
119:active
105:(UF),
101:(MF),
2274:S2CID
1829:S2CID
1676:risks
1633:. In
1389:Reuse
1383:Reuse
253:from
2455:ISBN
2148:PMID
2053:PMID
2004:2015
1756:ISBN
1712:ISBN
1665:cost
1641:the
1637:and
285:and
86:and
66:and
50:and
44:ions
2494:429
2410:doi
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2371:doi
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2313:doi
2301:299
2266:doi
2262:610
2235:doi
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2203:284
2176:doi
2140:doi
2095:doi
2091:253
2043:hdl
2035:doi
2023:123
1963:doi
1930:doi
1897:doi
1819:doi
1187:or
855:as
682:100
600:TMP
121:or
78:).
2719::
2492:.
2422:^
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2357:.
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2118:37
2116:.
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2021:.
1995:.
1957:.
1953:.
1924:.
1920:.
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1817:.
1805:.
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1741:^
1174:.
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237:,
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2074:.
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912:=
909:S
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830:C
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813:+
808:p
804:C
795:p
791:Q
787:=
782:f
778:C
769:f
765:Q
739:c
735:Q
731:+
726:p
722:Q
718:=
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672:f
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663:)
658:p
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631:=
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538:(
532:=
527:P
524:M
521:T
517:P
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470:w
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457:k
441:w
424:A
416:w
412:F
408:=
403:p
399:Q
23:.
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