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the most common type of thermistor. NTCs have temperatures that vary inversely with their resistance, so that when the temperature increases, the resistance decreases, and vice versa. NTCs are constructed from oxides of materials such as nickel, copper, and iron. • Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) devices are used in electric current control. They function in an opposite manner than NTC in that the resistance increases as temperature increases. PTCs are constructed from thermally sensitive silicons or polycrystalline ceramic materials. • There are several advantage and disadvantages to using an NTC thermistor thermometer. • Advantages include their small size and high degree of stability. NTCs are also long lasting and very accurate. • Disadvantages include their non-linearity, and unsuitability for use in extreme temperatures
700:
resolution (0.05 °C or 0.1 °F is sufficient) may be suitable for monitoring basal body temperatures; the specification should be checked to ensure absolute accuracy, and thermometers (like most digital instruments) should be calibrated at specified intervals. If only the variation of basal temperature is required, absolute accuracy is not so important so long as the readings do not have large variability (e.g., if real temperature varies from 37.00 °C to 37.28 °C, a thermometer which inaccurately but consistently reads a change from 37.17 °C to 37.45 °C will indicate the magnitude of the change). Some digital thermometers are marketed as "basal thermometers" and have extra features such as a larger display, expanded memory functions, or beeping to confirm the thermometer is placed properly.
613:, because they display numeric values) have been used. Many display readings with a resolution of only 0.1 °C (.2 °F), but this should not be taken as a guarantee of accuracy: the specified accuracy must be checked in the documentation and maintained by periodic recalibration. A typical inexpensive electronic ear thermometer for home use has a displayed resolution of 0.1 °C, but a stated accuracy within ±0.2 °C (±0.35 °F) when new. The first electronic clinical thermometer, invented in 1954, used a flexible probe that contained a Carboloy thermistor.
511:—typically five minutes in the mouth and ten minutes under the armpit. Maximum-reading is achieved by means of a constriction in the neck close to the bulb. As the temperature of the bulb rises, the liquid expands up the tube through the constriction. When the temperature falls, the column of liquid breaks at the constriction and cannot return to the bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube. After reading the value, the thermometer must be reset by repeatedly swinging it sharply to shake the liquid back through the constriction.
29:
372:
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the temperature difference between the ends. •Advantages of thermocouples include their high accuracy and reliable operation over an extremely wide range of temperatures. They are also well-suited for making automated measurements both inexpensive and durable. •Disadvantages include errors caused by their use over an extended period of time, and that two temperatures are required to make measurements. Thermocouple materials are subject to corrosion, which can affect the thermoelectric voltage
602:
2114:
578:
627:
Platinum is the most commonly used material because it is nearly linear over a wide range of temperatures, is very accurate, and has a fast response time. RTDs can also be made of copper or nickel. Advantages of RTDs include their stable output for long periods of time. They are also easy to calibrate and provide very accurate readings. Disadvantages include a smaller overall temperature range, higher initial cost, and a less rugged design
273:(1700–1741). De Haen made particular strides in medicine with the thermometer. By observing the correlation in a patient's change in temperature and the physical symptoms of the illness, he concluded that a record of one's temperature could inform the doctor of a patient's health. However, his proposals were not met with enthusiasm by his peers and the medical thermometer remained a scarcely used instrument in medicine.
727:
357:) temperature is measured by holding the thermometer tightly under the armpit. One needs to hold the thermometer for several minutes to get an accurate measurement. The axillary temperature plus 1 °C is a good guide to the rectal temperature in patients older than 1 month. The accuracy from the axilla is known to be inferior to the rectal temperature.
320:
readings of the same value. When a temperature is quoted the location should also be specified. If a temperature is stated without qualification (e.g., typical body temperature) it is usually assumed to be sub-lingual. The differences between core temperature and measurements at different locations, known as
533:; the vigorous swinging needed to "reset" a mercury maximum thermometer makes it easy to accidentally break it and release poisonous mercury vapors. Mercury thermometers have largely been replaced by electronic digital thermometers, or, more rarely, thermometers based on liquids other than mercury (such as
699:
Glass oral thermometers typically have markings every 0.1 °C or 0.2 °F. Basal temperature is stable enough to require accuracy of at least 0.05 °C or 0.1 °F, so special glass basal thermometers are distinct from glass oral thermometers. Digital thermometers which have sufficient
675:
According to a 2001 research, electronic thermometers on the market significantly underestimate higher temperatures and overestimate lower temperatures. The researchers conclude that "the current generation of electronic, digital clinical thermometers, in general, may not be sufficiently accurate or
525:
The tube must be very narrow to minimise the amount of mercury in it—the temperature of the tube is not controlled, so it must contain very much less mercury than the bulb to minimise the effect of the temperature of the tube—and this makes the reading rather difficult as the narrow mercury column is
644:
Thermistor elements are the most sensitive temperature sensors available. A thermistor is a semiconductor device with an electrical resistance that is proportional to temperature. There are two types of products. •Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) devices are used in temperature sensing and are
666:
emitted from the location. Although these are not in direct contact with the area being measured, they may still contact part of the body (a thermometer which senses the temperature of the eardrum without touching it is inserted into the ear canal). To eliminate the risk of patient cross-infection,
423:
This tympanic thermometer has a projection (protected by a one-time hygienic sheath) that contains the infrared probe; the projection is gently placed in the ear canal and a button pressed; the temperature is read and displayed within about a second. These thermometers are used both in the home and
635:
Thermocouples are accurate, highly sensitive to small temperature changes, and quickly respond to changes to the environment. They consist of a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. The metal pair generates a net thermoelectric voltage between their opening and according to the size of
626:
RTDs are wire windings or other thin film serpentines that exhibit changes in resistance with changes in temperature. They measure temperature using the positive temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the higher the value of their electrical resistance.
444:
thermometers, which use the infrared principle report temperature, are becoming increasingly common in clinical practice because of their ease of use and minimal invasiveness. Because of the variability of technique and environmental considerations, measurements by temporal artery thermometers may
653:
Some electronic thermometers may work by contact (the electronic sensor is placed in the location where temperature is to be measured, and left long enough to reach equilibrium). These typically reach equilibrium faster than mercury thermometers; the thermometer may beep when equilibrium has been
319:
The temperature can be measured in various locations on the body which maintain a fairly stable temperature (mainly oral, axillary, rectal, tympanic, or temporal). The normal temperature varies slightly with the location; an oral reading of 37 °C does not correspond to rectal, temporal, etc.
568:
Phase-change thermometers use samples of inert chemicals which melt at progressively higher temperatures from 35.5 °C to 40.5 °C in steps of 0.1 °C. They are mounted as small dots in a matrix on a thin plastic spatula with a protective transparent cover. This is placed under the
427:
There are factors that make readings of this thermometer to some extent unreliable, for example faulty placement in the external ear canal by the operator, and wax blocking the canal. Such error-producing factors usually cause readings to be below the true value, so that a fever can fail to be
341:
Oral temperature may only be taken from a patient who is capable of holding the thermometer securely under the tongue, which generally excludes small children or people who are unconscious or overcome by coughing, weakness, or vomiting. (This is less of a problem with fast-reacting digital
142:
is the first known individual to have put a measurable scale on the thermoscope and wrote of it in 1625, though he possibly invented one as early as 1612. His models were bulky, impractical and took a fair amount of time to take an accurate oral reading of the patient's temperature.
391:
noted "what for many remains a humiliating procedure ... insertion of a rectal thermometer. Also, if not taken the correct way, rectal temperature-taking can be uncomfortable and in some cases painful for the patient. Rectal temperature-taking is considered the method of choice for
569:
patient's tongue. After a short time the spatula is removed and it can be seen which dots have melted and which have not: the temperature is taken as the melting temperature of the last dot to melt. These are cheap disposable devices and avoid the need for sterilizing for re-use.
342:
thermometers, but is certainly an issue with mercury thermometers, which take several minutes to stabilise their reading.) If the patient has drunk a hot or cold liquid beforehand time must be allowed for the mouth temperature to return to its normal value.
276:
Thermometers remained cumbersome to transport and use. By the mid 19th century, the medical thermometer was still a foot long (30.28 cm) and took as long as twenty minutes to take an accurate temperature reading. Between 1866 and 1867,
491:
The traditional thermometer is a glass tube with a bulb at one end containing a liquid which expands in a uniform manner with temperature. The tube itself is narrow (capillary) and has calibration markings along it. The liquid is often
477:
or similar technology; at a given temperature the markings (numerals indicating the temperature) in one region are at the right temperature to become visible. This type may give an indication of fever, but is not considered accurate.
714:
A smart thermometer is able to transmit its readings so that they can be collected, stored and analysed. Wearable thermometers can provide continuous measurement but it is difficult to measure core body temperature in this way.
556:. Gallium is considered non-toxic and when disposed of does not face environmental concerns. Like mercury, gallium is a liquid at body temperature (melting point 29.7 °C), but according to the manufacturer an
332:
of the differences). For example, one study found that the clinical bias of rectal temperatures was greater than for ear temperature measured by a selection of thermometers under test, but variability was less.
160:(1686–1736), a Polish-born Dutch physicist, engineer, and glass blower, made contributions to thermometers as well. He created an alcohol thermometer in 1709 and later innovated the mercury thermometer in 1714.
1471:"A prospective observational study testing liquid crystal phase change type thermometer placed on skin against oesophageal/pharyngeal placed thermometers in participants undergoing general anesthesia"
1313:
Kiekkas, P; Stefanopoulos, N; Bakalis, N; Kefaliakos, A; Karanikolas, M (April 2016). "Agreement of infrared temporal artery thermometry with other thermometry methods in adults: systematic review".
522:
have been considered the most accurate liquid-filled types. However, mercury is a toxic heavy metal, and mercury has only been used in clinical thermometers if protected from breakage of the tube.
404:
The ear thermometer was invented by Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger in 1964. At the time, he was seeking a way to get a reading as close to the brain's temperature as possible, since the
1077:
Rotello, LC; Crawford, L; Terndrup, TE (1996). "Comparison of infrared ear thermometer derived and equilibrated rectal temperatures in estimating pulmonary artery temperatures".
696:
is much less affected than daytime temperature by environmental factors such as exercise and food intake. This allows small changes in body temperature to be detected
1597:
281:(1836–1925) designed a medical thermometer that was much more portable, measuring only six inches long and taking only five minutes to record a patient's temperature.
529:
It has been decided by many states to prohibit the use and sale of mercury thermometers due to the risk of handling and spilling, and the potential to cause
416:, which are shared with the hypothalamus. Before the ear thermometer's invention, easy temperature readings could only be taken from the mouth, rectum, or
151:
292:. With his findings, he was able to conclude a healthy human's temperature fell within the range of 36.3 to 37.5 °C (97.34 to 99.5 °F).
1520:
507:
To use the thermometer, the bulb is placed in the location where the temperature is to be measured and left long enough to be certain to reach
856:
461:
of 97–100% for detecting fever and hypothermia. Because of this, it is suggested that they should not be used in acute care settings like the
2073:
1049:
465:, or in patients with a high suspicion of temperature imbalance. Evidence supports higher accuracy and precision amongst pediatric patients.
549:
One company markets a thermometer of this sort which it bills as "the first analogue thermometer without mercury," as it instead uses the
379:
Rectal thermometer temperature-taking, especially if performed by a person other than the patient, should be facilitated with the use of a
420:. Previously, if doctors wanted to record an accurate brain temperature, electrodes needed to be attached to the patient's hypothalamus.
132:
circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature and could be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure.
609:
Since compact and inexpensive methods of measuring and displaying temperature became available, electronic thermometers (often called
345:
The typical range of a sub-lingual thermometer for use in humans is from about 35 °C to 42 °C or 90 °F to 110 °F.
473:
The thermometer is applied to the patient's brow. It is typically a band coated with different temperature-sensitive markings using
1713:
288:
published his studies that consisted of over one million readings from twenty-five thousand patients' temperatures, taken in the
1196:
Zengeya, S.T.; Blumenthal, I. (December 1996). "Modern electronic and chemical thermometers used in the axilla are inaccurate".
778:
1998:
1939:
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937:
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1901:
2080:
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328:. Measurements are subject to both site-dependent clinical bias and variability between a series of measurements (
2100:
2068:
1448:
285:
1289:
1809:
1161:
Shann, Frank; Mackenzie, Angela (1 January 1996). "Comparison of Rectal, Axillary, and
Forehead Temperatures".
380:
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383:. Although rectal temperature is the most accurate, this method may be considered unpleasant or embarrassing
2046:
2031:
1769:
1571:
Latman, NS; Hans, P; Nicholson, L; Delee Zint, S; Lewis, K; Shirey, A (2001). "Evaluation & Technology".
845:
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disposable probe covers and single-use clinical thermometers of all types are used in clinics and hospitals.
325:
308:
2021:
519:
172:, having recorded the system in 1724. The scale is still only mainly used for everyday applications in the
1627:
1623:
2150:
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1247:
441:
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Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger (13 April 1905 - 26 October 1999) invented the ear thermometer in 1964. Born in
1287:
745:
586:
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is often used, which indicates the maximum temperature reached even after it is removed from the body.
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at the brain's base regulates the core body temperature. He accomplished this by using the ear canal's
270:
944:
1743 Jean-Pierre
Christin inverts the fixed points on Celsius' scale, to produce the scale used today.
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2041:
1824:
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157:
819:
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1954:
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Other electronic thermometers work by remote sensing: an infrared sensor responds to the radiation
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207:
scale by setting the scale to the freezing and boiling points of water. By 1742 Swedish astronomer
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1989:
1615:
57:
1291:
Feverish illness in children: assessment and initial management in children younger than 5 years
2026:
1005:
961:
693:
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was freezing. It was later reversed by
Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) in 1744.
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2015:
1916:
898:
33:
A medical/clinical mercury thermometer showing the temperature of 37.7 °C (99.9 °F)
983:
2117:
2085:
2009:
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593:) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change color to indicate different temperatures.
231:
8:
1993:
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164:, he found, responded more quickly to temperature changes than the previously used water.
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1979:
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in some countries or cultures, especially if used on patients older than young children
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329:
262:
250:, the "Thermometer of Lyon" built by the craftsman Pierre Casati that used this scale.
200:
193:
820:"History of the Thermometer: Timeline created by TheArctech in Science and Technology"
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1911:
1906:
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61:
1114:"The effect of hot beverages, cold beverages, and chewing gum on oral temperature"
881:
1865:
1860:
1819:
1785:
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129:
124:
The medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water
28:
1949:
1934:
1805:
1390:
844:
Encyclopædia
Britannica "Science & Technology: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit"
732:
371:
300:
208:
203:
created a clinical thermometer in 1665, to which he added an early form of the
1487:
154:(1610–1670), who created an enclosed thermometer that used alcohol circa 1654.
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of a human or other animal. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the
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1969:
1964:
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1408:
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reached, or the time may be specified in the manufacturer's documentation.
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269:(1704–76). It was also utilized around the same time by Scottish physician
254:
1225:
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not very visible. Visibility is less of a problem with a coloured liquid.
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1544:
894:
740:
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601:
375:
Different test prods (top: universal test prod, bottom: rectal test prod)
204:
185:
125:
1288:
National
Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health (2013).
1880:
1840:
1598:"An investigation into the accuracy of different types of thermometers"
1326:
1209:
857:"782 - Aerodrome reports and forecasts: A user's handbook to the codes"
284:
In 1868, German physician, pioneer psychiatrist, and medical professor
169:
1278:
Fundamentals of
Nursing by Barbara Kozier et al., 7th edition, p. 495
1875:
1759:
1312:
1257:
907:
577:
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534:
296:
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temperature scale that was the reverse of the modern scale, in that
1795:
1749:
1739:
1013:
663:
450:
409:
146:
Two individuals switched from water to alcohol in the thermometer.
135:
109:
81:
1959:
1855:
1744:
553:
246:
represented boiling. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a
212:
676:
reliable to replace the traditional glass/mercury thermometers"
1790:
1545:
Specification of typical inexpensive electronic ear thermometer
1050:"Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger, 94, Inventor of the Ear Thermometer"
874:
417:
393:
354:
289:
189:
89:
69:
1631:
1570:
967:
65:
814:
812:
810:
808:
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804:
560:
is actually used, resulting in a lower melting temperature.
227:
93:
1521:"How to use the Tempa DOT Single Use Clinical Thermometer"
299:, Germany, he immigrated to the U.S. in 1947 and became a
1044:
1042:
963:
MEMOIRE sur la dilatation du
Mercure dans le Thermométre.
801:
563:
101:
199:
Prominent Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist
1076:
1002:
Memoires pour L'Histoire des
Sciences et des Beaux Arts
785:. Oxford University Press. 1 April 2002. Archived from
1039:
453:. Temporal thermometers have been found to have a low
1354:. Oxford, England: Center for Evidence-Based Medicine
236:
Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de Lyon
1375:"Thermometry and interpretation of body temperature"
722:
930:
The Facts on File
Dictionary of Weather and Climate
703:
1195:
2132:
1163:Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine
1347:
1027:. Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. 2011
481:
152:Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
1468:
1160:
1112:Newman, Bruce H.; Martin, Christin A. (2001).
1647:
1620:British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review
838:
779:"A Brief History of the Clinical Thermometer"
314:
261:(1668–1738), as well as his notable students
1351:Accuracy of strip-like forehead thermometers
1111:
995:
468:
303:in 1955. He worked from 1947 to 1970 in the
242:represented the freezing point of water and
1573:Biomedical Instrumentation & Technology
966:Chaubert; Jean de Nully, Pissot, Duchesne,
1654:
1640:
949:
917:
581:Quick test based on thermo chromic colours
170:temperature scale which is named after him
27:
1496:
1486:
1398:
1129:
600:
576:
370:
1624:Vol.45, No.90, (April 1870), pp.429-441
1462:
1341:
880:Citation: Uppsala University (Sweden),
622:Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
2133:
1628:Vo.46, No.91, (July 1870), pp.144-156.
564:Phase-change (dot matrix) thermometers
226:Working independently of Celsius, the
219:was the boiling point of water, while
1999:Artificial intelligence in healthcare
1635:
1348:Brassey, Jon; Heneghan, Carl (2020).
1021:"Medical Dictionary: Ear Thermometer"
923:
541:and heat-sensitive liquid crystals).
238:, developed a similar scale in which
16:Device for measuring body temperature
1372:
1366:
1281:
1240:
1175:10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170260078013
973:
932:. Infobase Publishing. p. 246.
888:
679:
500:use a colored alcohol. Medically, a
253:The medical thermometer was used by
1469:Simpson, G.; Rodseth, R.N. (2019).
1248:"Hospitals: The Rectal Thermometer"
1131:10.1046/j.1537-2995.2001.41101241.x
13:
2074:reform debate in the United States
457:of around 60–70%, but a very high
436:
14:
2162:
2101:(Category Health care by country)
861:World Meteorological Organization
572:
324:, is discussed in the article on
178:territories and associated states
2113:
2112:
1091:10.1097/00003246-199609000-00012
725:
692:, the temperature upon waking.
558:alloy of gallium, indium and tin
486:
1661:
1591:
1564:
1556:"Takes Temperature in Seconds."
1549:
1538:
1513:
1441:
1427:Environmental Protection Agency
1415:
1306:
1272:
1189:
1154:
1105:
1070:
1010:Chaubert, París. pp. 2125-2128.
704:Smart and wearable thermometers
605:Electronic clinical thermometer
286:Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich
1810:Academic health science centre
1379:Biomedical Engineering Letters
1198:European Journal of Pediatrics
849:
381:water-based personal lubricant
1:
2047:Health information management
2032:health information technology
1770:Health information management
1610:
988:Imprimerie des Journalistes,
690:basal (base) body temperature
596:
520:Mercury-in-glass thermometers
326:normal human body temperature
309:Naval Medical Research Center
234:, permanent secretary of the
182:U.S. National Weather Service
2022:Translational bioinformatics
751:
617:Types of Digital Thermometer
482:Classification by technology
168:Fahrenheit also created the
7:
2052:Consumer health informatics
1315:Journal of Clinical Nursing
897:; Ronald A. Bailey (2005):
718:
670:
431:
279:Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt
10:
2167:
1391:10.1007/s13534-019-00102-2
924:Smith, Jacqueline (2009).
900:Encyclopedia of Chemistry.
746:Liquid crystal thermometer
707:
648:
587:liquid crystal thermometer
544:
514:
364:
315:Classification by location
119:
2141:Medical testing equipment
2108:
2062:
2042:Public health informatics
1978:
1955:Electronic health records
1925:
1889:
1833:
1825:Supervised injection site
1778:
1765:Allied health professions
1732:
1669:
1618:, "Medical Thermometry",
1488:10.1186/s12871-019-0881-9
826:. Timetoast. January 1593
684:A basal thermometer is a
657:
589:contains heat-sensitive (
475:plastic strip thermometer
469:Plastic strip thermometer
449:, and to a lesser degree
360:
348:
158:Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
42:Measures body temperature
38:
26:
21:
1561:, November 1954, p. 123.
926:"Appendix I: Chronology"
1990:Medical image computing
1940:Artificial intelligence
1294:. London, England: NICE
424:in medical facilities.
336:
311:in Bethesda, Maryland.
78:sub-lingual temperature
2027:Translational medicine
1423:"Mercury Thermometers"
1079:Critical Care Medicine
694:Basal body temperature
606:
582:
399:
376:
257:chemist and physician
2016:Computational biology
1917:Universal precautions
883:Linnaeus' thermometer
604:
580:
374:
56:is a device used for
2010:Behavior informatics
1373:Chen, Wenxi (2019).
498:alcohol thermometers
232:Jean-Pierre Christin
114:temporal temperature
106:tympanic temperature
86:axillary temperature
54:clinical thermometer
22:Clinical thermometer
1994:imaging informatics
1902:Cultural competence
1449:"Geratherm classic"
1429:. 21 September 2015
789:on 17 November 2014
509:thermal equilibrium
502:maximum thermometer
330:standard deviations
301:naturalized citizen
248:mercury thermometer
180:(all served by the
50:medical thermometer
2151:Italian inventions
1980:Health informatics
1755:Healthcare science
1475:BMC Anesthesiology
1327:10.1111/jocn.13117
1210:10.1007/BF02532519
1055:The New York Times
980:Journal helvétique
607:
583:
377:
367:Rectal thermometry
263:Gerard van Swieten
201:Christiaan Huygens
194:the Cayman Islands
98:rectal temperature
2126:
2125:
1890:Skills / training
1814:Teaching hospital
1603:, 1 October 2002.
1601:Nursing Times.net
1559:Popular Mechanics
1204:(12): 1005–1008.
1058:. 30 October 1999
957:Mercure de France
939:978-1-4381-0951-0
710:smart thermometer
688:used to take the
680:Basal thermometer
531:mercury poisoning
445:suffer issues of
259:Hermann Boerhaave
140:Santorio Santorio
128:, constructed by
46:
45:
2158:
2116:
2115:
2004:Neuroinformatics
1945:Connected health
1656:
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1642:
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1490:
1466:
1460:
1459:
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1455:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1402:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1321:(7–8): 894–905.
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1285:
1279:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1244:
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1193:
1187:
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1109:
1103:
1102:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1046:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1017:
1011:
999:
993:
977:
971:
970:. pp. 1609–1610.
953:
947:
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915:
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886:
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730:
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728:
386:
307:division at the
150:The earliest is
62:body temperature
31:
19:
18:
2166:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2104:
2058:
2057:
2056:
1974:
1921:
1885:
1861:Overutilization
1829:
1820:Pharmacy school
1786:Assisted living
1774:
1728:
1665:
1660:
1613:
1608:
1607:
1596:
1592:
1569:
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1371:
1367:
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706:
682:
673:
660:
651:
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489:
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442:Temporal artery
439:
437:Temporal artery
434:
402:
384:
369:
363:
351:
339:
317:
130:Galileo Galilei
122:
34:
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2164:
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2081:United Kingdom
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2060:
2059:
2055:
2054:
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2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1996:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1950:Digital health
1947:
1942:
1937:
1935:3D bioprinting
1931:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1919:
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1897:Bedside manner
1893:
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1806:Medical school
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1188:
1153:
1124:(10): 1241–3.
1104:
1069:
1038:
1025:enacademic.com
1012:
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992:. pp. 308-310.
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756:
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733:Medical portal
720:
717:
708:Main article:
705:
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672:
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656:
650:
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573:Liquid crystal
571:
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365:Main article:
362:
359:
350:
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338:
335:
316:
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271:George Martine
265:(1700–72) and
209:Anders Celsius
166:
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2110:
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2092:
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2087:
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2079:
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2069:United States
2067:
2065:
2061:
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2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:in healthcare
2017:
2014:
2012:in healthcare
2011:
2008:
2006:in healthcare
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1981:
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1971:
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1617:
1616:Allbutt, T.C.
1602:
1599:
1594:
1586:
1582:
1579:(4): 259–65.
1578:
1574:
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1255:
1254:
1253:Time Magazine
1249:
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1132:
1127:
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1119:
1115:
1108:
1100:
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1088:
1085:(9): 1501–6.
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1056:
1051:
1045:
1043:
1026:
1022:
1016:
1009:
1008:
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958:
952:
945:
941:
935:
931:
927:
920:
913:
912:New York City
909:
905:
904:Facts On File
902:
901:
896:
891:
885:
884:
877:
862:
858:
852:
846:
841:
825:
824:Timetoast.com
821:
815:
813:
811:
809:
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805:
788:
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774:
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697:
695:
691:
687:
677:
668:
665:
655:
646:
642:
641:
637:
633:
632:
631:Thermocouples
628:
624:
623:
619:
618:
614:
612:
603:
594:
592:
591:thermochromic
588:
579:
570:
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552:
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536:
532:
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523:
521:
512:
510:
505:
503:
499:
495:
487:Liquid-filled
479:
476:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
443:
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425:
421:
419:
415:
414:blood vessels
411:
407:
397:
395:
390:
389:Time Magazine
382:
373:
368:
358:
356:
346:
343:
334:
331:
327:
323:
322:clinical bias
312:
310:
306:
305:bioenergetics
302:
298:
293:
291:
287:
282:
280:
274:
272:
268:
267:Anton de Haen
264:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
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202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
184:) as well as
183:
179:
175:
174:United States
171:
163:
159:
156:
153:
149:
148:
147:
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141:
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131:
127:
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111:
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107:
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99:
95:
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87:
83:
80:), under the
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
41:
37:
30:
25:
20:
2146:Thermometers
2128:
2037:Telemedicine
1970:Telemedicine
1965:Nanomedicine
1801:Nursing home
1619:
1614:
1600:
1593:
1576:
1572:
1566:
1558:
1551:
1540:
1528:. Retrieved
1515:
1478:
1474:
1464:
1452:. Retrieved
1443:
1431:. Retrieved
1426:
1417:
1382:
1378:
1368:
1356:. Retrieved
1350:
1343:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1296:. Retrieved
1290:
1283:
1274:
1262:. Retrieved
1260:8 April 1966
1251:
1242:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1121:
1117:
1107:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1060:. Retrieved
1053:
1029:. Retrieved
1024:
1015:
1006:
1001:
997:
984:
979:
975:
962:
955:
951:
943:
929:
919:
899:
890:
882:
876:
866:23 September
864:. Retrieved
860:
851:
840:
828:. Retrieved
823:
791:. Retrieved
787:the original
782:
713:
698:
683:
674:
661:
652:
643:
639:
638:
634:
630:
629:
625:
621:
620:
616:
615:
610:
608:
584:
567:
551:liquid metal
548:
528:
524:
518:
506:
490:
472:
440:
426:
422:
406:hypothalamus
403:
378:
353:The armpit (
352:
344:
340:
321:
318:
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275:
252:
243:
239:
235:
225:
220:
216:
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113:
105:
100:), into the
97:
88:), into the
85:
77:
73:
53:
49:
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2096:New Zealand
1851:End-of-life
1733:Professions
1663:Health care
1454:14 December
1385:(1): 3–17.
1169:(1): 74–8.
1118:Transfusion
895:Don Rittner
741:Thermometer
686:thermometer
537:, coloured
459:specificity
455:sensitivity
387:; in 1966,
186:the Bahamas
126:thermoscope
2135:Categories
2063:By country
1927:Technology
1866:Palliative
1694:Philosophy
1684:Guidelines
1611:References
1530:23 October
1481:(1): 206.
1433:23 October
1358:23 October
1298:23 October
640:Thermistor
597:Electronic
428:detected.
230:physicist
138:physician
68:under the
2091:Australia
1912:Education
1907:Diagnosis
1760:Dentistry
1704:Providers
1679:Equipment
1674:Economics
1526:. BlueMed
1264:4 October
1258:Time Inc.
1218:1432-1076
990:Neuchâtel
914:. pp. 43.
908:Manhattan
752:Footnotes
535:galinstan
447:precision
297:Stuttgart
58:measuring
2118:Category
1796:Hospital
1779:Settings
1750:Pharmacy
1740:Medicine
1689:Industry
1585:11494651
1507:31706272
1409:30956877
1335:26994990
1234:21136002
1148:24681501
1140:11606822
1007:DE LYON.
1004:(1743):
982:(1743):
960:(1743):
719:See also
671:Accuracy
664:spectrum
539:alcohols
451:accuracy
432:Forehead
418:underarm
410:ear drum
290:underarm
228:Lyonnais
110:forehead
92:via the
1960:mHealth
1871:Primary
1856:Hospice
1846:Chronic
1745:Nursing
1714:Ranking
1498:6842509
1400:6431316
1226:8956933
1183:8542011
1099:8797622
1062:26 July
1031:26 July
830:16 July
793:26 July
649:Contact
611:digital
554:gallium
545:Gallium
515:Mercury
494:mercury
394:infants
213:Celsius
205:Celsius
162:Mercury
136:Italian
120:History
39:Purpose
2086:Canada
1791:Clinic
1724:System
1719:Reform
1709:Public
1699:Policy
1583:
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658:Remote
496:, but
361:Rectal
355:axilla
349:Armpit
192:, and
190:Belize
176:, its
90:rectum
82:armpit
70:tongue
1881:Total
1841:Acute
1524:(PDF)
1230:S2CID
1144:S2CID
985:LION.
968:Paris
255:Dutch
66:mouth
1992:and
1876:Self
1834:Care
1581:PMID
1532:2020
1503:PMID
1456:2021
1435:2020
1405:PMID
1360:2020
1331:PMID
1300:2020
1266:2022
1222:PMID
1214:ISSN
1179:PMID
1136:PMID
1095:PMID
1064:2016
1033:2016
934:ISBN
868:2009
832:2016
795:2016
337:Oral
94:anus
74:oral
60:the
1493:PMC
1483:doi
1395:PMC
1387:doi
1323:doi
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