Media and gender - Knowledge

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sexualization is to give something a sexual role. In the media sexualization gets advertised by companies that are trying to promote something or someone. They don't always promote the equality in gender when they are advertised though it may seem like they do. The sexualization in advertisements may matter to some people but others it may not. "Women showed lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward products presented with sexualized female models than with neutral ads, whereas men were unaffected by ads' sexualization." Studies have shown that men are less likely to buy something based on the sexualization of the advertisement. The women on the other hand based their purchases off of how the ad was presented whether it was showing sexualization or not showing it at all. Some men would purchase products based on the sexualization and how the product was presented with women in it. "Especially men with higher hostile sexism showed more purchase intentions after viewing female sexualized ads than neutral ads." Whereas women would not buy those products due to negative emotions toward the products that advertise the sexualization. It definitely has an impact on the way that women view each other after seeing the ads.

1605:, the negative effects found through all nine field sites of their study foster the enforcement of gender stereotypes. For example, Southeast Turkey consists of a predominantly Muslim community in which modesty and purity are the values for women, so this population omits featuring life that does not adhere to those ideals; because social media is particularly prone to analysis, both male and females present gender segregated and conforming posts on their pages. Similarly, in rural China, it is customary for women to delete their social medias after marriage or create a portrait of traditional family and romantic values for both men and women. In Italy, the content of men's pages consist of masculine content: "politics, news, powerful motorcycles and sports" while women place emphasis on feminine content: "roles as wives and mothers". In almost every region, this chapter conveys a feminine ideal of family values and physical aesthetic while the masculine ideal is more individualized and material; however, it has also created new opportunity for the expansion of communication, female access to novel career paths, and access to the external world in the same examined regions. 360:"The ideal female beauty is the fit, young, and thin women that is seen in the media and on tv. Media effects research has confirmed that sexualizing media exposure can negatively affect preteens' body image and sexual development. While there is a link between sexualizing content and adverse outcomes such as self-objectification and body dissatisfaction, an interest in sexual media content is a normal part of healthy sexual development during the preteen years." As young women watch these shows and movies, they start to worry more about their body image than anything. Some will go as far as even starving themselves to get the right image as the women they see on tv." To what extent do sexual content, appearance-related content, sexual objectification, and objectification occur in Flemish preteens' favorite TV shows? And how are these different types of content related to gender roles? Seeking to address these questions, this article reports on a quantitative content analysis of 24 episodes from five TV shows popular among Flemish preteens." 266:

gender stereotypes. Studies show that men are more likely to be quoted than women in the media, and more likely to cover "serious" topics. Women have been seriously marginalized in certain news categories such as politics, law, and business; only about 30% of the news reports about government refer to women, while less than 20% of the financial news includes female sources. Furthermore, news media regularly cites more ordinary opinions from female witnesses or citizens but leaves the majority of insightful statements to men. A central trend in black feminist thinking is challenging media portrayals of black women as mammies, matriarchs, jezebels, welfare mothers, and tragic mulattoes. "These assumptions represent and misrepresent both the ways in which black women perceive themselves (individually and collectively) and the ways in which they are perceived by others," Hudson claims.

481:. Aging female celebrities have become one of the mainstays of gossip magazines and blogs, which endorse a culture of consumption in which cosmetic technologies and procedures are not questioned but in which female celebrities who have used them are either figured as glamorous for getting it right or as monstrous for going too far. Another consequence of portraying aging women in the media, is that in most TV shows, actresses who are playing characters in their 40s and 50s tend to have younger appearing body types. This has led to critiques that these representations are first and foremost framed in terms of how well older actresses are managing their aging bodies. Midlife women have grown accustomed to seeing their age group portrayed in a seemingly unrealistic way, and this had led to an increase of 1125:“desirable lifestyle”. It was around the mid-1970”s that women and families began to disappear from alcohol ads. This started to push the narrative that drinking was no longer a family social activity and instead was an activity tied to men and masculinity. The 1970s and 80s were full of upsets for America, the loss of the Vietnam War, the Stonewall Riots (1969), 1972 gas crisis, the collapse of Fordism, and many more. It was then that beer ads received a new face. The ads started to push alcohol as the solution to dealing with these things and pushed the narrative of men using alcohol to cover their emotions and solve/forget their problems (Kimmel 1987). The message wasn’t straightforward, it instead casually forced an association between heavy alcohol consumption and a stress-free life. 1036:) man with definite muscles, and a conservative style of dress and hairdo. The inadequate male lacks many characteristics of the masculine male. He is weak and fearful, lacking both physical stamina and any significant amount of courage. This was demonstrated in the cartoons analyzed not only through actions but also by body type and bone structure, as well as dress and hairstyle. The delicate female was patterned in the cartoons studied as a woman of delicate physical structure, who is thin and dressed in such a manner as would not allow her to complete tasks traditionally meant for males. The modern female is one who is dressed in a more neutral fashion, such as jeans or pants, and does not have a noticeably tiny waistline. 1523:

toys came the reinforcement of masculine and feminine ideals as well as a clear pink and blue colored divide. "Girl" products such as dolls and makeup foster a passive attitude and put emphasis on striving for beauty while "boy" products such as action figures and cars foster a more aggressive and active characterization. A significance behind toys is the initiation of the learning of new skills and even the initiation of curiosities behind professions. As manufacturers begin to shift towards creating a more inclusive environment and creating non-gendered products, the emergence of more gender neutral toys, dolls, and colors that puts more emphasis on personal interests instead of gender ideals is on the rise.

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housewives who had seemingly "perfect" lives: their houses were always impeccably clean, their children were always healthy, and they were always beautiful and organized. TV didn't portray the reality that by 1960, "40 per cent of women worked outside the home ... divorce rates spiked twice after World War II". According to a study from 1975 conducted by Jean McNeil, in 74 per cent of the cases studied, women's interactions were "concerned with romance or family problems", whereas men's interactions were concerned with these matters in only 18 per cent of the cases. Furthermore, female characters often didn't have jobs, especially if they were wives and mothers, and were not the dominant characters or

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women have been in leading positions; they made up only 28.3% of the television news directors and 30.5% of the managing editors. Today, many news organizations are striving for gender parity on their employees. A large number of international institutions and nonprofit organizations are advocating for gender equality in the media workplace. For instance, in 2018, UNESCO supported 42 media institutions and 16 universities to implement policies and strategies on gender equality. In addition, coherent with the strategy to empower women and girls through policy implementation, 31 institutions, community radio stations, and national broadcasters adopted policies on gender equality in media.

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show society the extent of the issues with sexual harassment. On October 15, 2017 she tweeted “If you’ve been sexually harassed or assaulted write ‘me too’ as a reply to this tweet.” As a result of this, the #MeToo campaign soon spread across 85 countries with 1.7 million tweets. This movement displayed the thousands of people that have been victims of some form of sexual harassment. "Me too" gives victims the space to share their experiences and show them that they are not alone. The media has played a crucial role in amplifying the message by providing a platform for survivors to share their stories, have open conversations and raise awareness all over the world.

1581:" in media like commercials and magazines. From seeing images of women with extremely thin bodies, some people have an increase of negative emotions, and these individuals tend to take actions like dieting to help relieve the undesirable feelings about their body image. This act of dieting could lead to dangerous behaviors such as eating disorders if the negative perceptions about one's body image does not improve. Considering that an average North American will watch about 35,000 commercials a year, it is to be expected that commercials presenting images of skinny and gorgeous women will have a bigger impact on increasing negative body image than ads in magazines. 1460: 1503: 1515: 1443:

girls. The pressure that is put on both the influencers and the followers to fit a certain standard and persona results in feelings of anxiety and low self-esteem. Studies have shown that women are more likely to engage in social comparisons on social media, leading to feelings of inadequacy when measuring themselves against unattainable beauty standards perpetuated by images posted online. This can result in issues with body image and potentially eating disorders. Cyber bullying and harassment related to a woman's body is often seen on social media influencer posts.

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Therefore, they deal with topics tightly related to women's needs and tend to provide a positive role for women. The rise in female labor force participation can be due to a number of factors: Anti-discrimination laws, growing international emphasis on women's rights, greater accessibility to education and job opportunities, a breakdown of conventional gender roles, reduced economic reliance on men, and affordable housing. No longer only consumers of media but also contributors to media, they get more involved in decision-making and agenda of activities. This

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totally nude," whereas the male characters were not. In media platforms such as television and video games, women tend to be underrepresented. In video games, women are often depicted as characters in need of assistance or in positions that are either submissive or helpful. More than 80% of female characters in video game magazines are objectified, under dressed, or observed with charm; more than a fifth fall into all three categories. However, sexualization is not the only stereotypical way in which women are represented in the media.

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from the average which results in increased body dissatisfaction (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004) and low self confidence in physical attractiveness and muscle satisfaction (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2009). The reason for this causal relationship can be attributed towards Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) where individuals value themselves based on their performance in comparison to environmental others and Cultivation Theory (Gerbner 1969) which internalizes exposure towards the ideals presented in media.

827:" was coined in 2007 by film critic Nathan Rabin to describe a female character who exists solely "to teach broodingly soulful young men to embrace life and its infinite mysteries and adventures." The Manic Pixie Dream Girl improves the life of the male protagonist and makes him a happier and better person, but she has no apparent character arc or complex story; she is simply a plot device. A list of notable instances of the Manic Pixie Dream Girl trope can be found on the article for 27: 607:(1994) is an example of film in which abusive behavior, such as manipulation, coercion, threats, control and domination, isolation, excessive jealousy, and physical violence, are all exhibited by the male romantic lead. A 2016 study on women's interpretations of abusive behavior found that many women see the sort of abusive behaviors shown in popular films as romantic or desirable. In Netflix's popular hit show, "You," the male main character justifies and romanticizes 1439:

media gives users the opportunity to "hide" behind their screens, making it easier to harass and bully. Another common issue that has been studied is the amount of time consumed on technology, especially social media. Regarding US statistics, California State University reports an estimated 10% or 33.19 million Americans are addicted to social media. This addiction can impact productivity, relationships and sleep, which ultimately impacts the person's mental health.

1269:, leading to some controversy surrounding the ethics of who should be acting the parts of trans and non-binary characters. There has also been some concern raised regarding the sensationalization or "trendiness" of transgender roles as having the potential to be exploited. Despite this, however, there are efforts being made to ensure that trans and non-binary actors are the ones being chosen to play trans and non-binary characters. Some notable examples of this are 1689:(1970), offered a systematic deconstruction of ideas such as womanhood and femininity, arguing that women are forced to assume submissive roles in society to fulfill male fantasies of what being a woman entails. Greer wrote that women were perceived as mere consumers benefiting from the purchasing power of their husband. Women become targets for marketing, she said, and their image is used in advertising to sell products. American socialist writer and feminist, 1077:. "Sports coverage is hugely powerful in shaping norms and stereotypes about gender. Media has the ability to challenge these norms, promoting a balanced coverage of men's and women's sports and a fair portrayal of sportspeople – irrespective of gender". The campaign "Her Moments Matter" highlighted the fact that biased media representations of sports athletes have repercussions on women's self-confidence and the perception they have of themselves. 846:", after being fatally poisoned by her step mother, Snow White's seven dwarf friends mourn her death, "until a handsome prince restores her to life with a kiss." Many of Disney's fairy tale movies, portray the princesses as damsels in distress, whilst enhancing their male protagonists' masculinity, as they rescue these princesses. They are further cleaved to the stereotype of only yearning to find their true love. Similarly with the story of " 669: 1645:

capabilities than did men without this exposure”. Schooler (2015) found that when viewing sexually objectified pictures of women, the part of the brain that is activated is not the one that recognizes humans but instead is the part that recognizes objects; supporting this, Bernard, et al 2015, found that objectified women’s body parts were better recognized than the body as a whole, consistent with object recognition.

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commonality and negative effects on well-being. This type of representation often portrays women as mere objects of desire, contributing to the perpetuation of sexism and the acceptance of rape myths (Rudman and Mescher 2012). Exposure to sexualized media content has been consistently linked to body dissatisfaction, distorted attitudes about eating, and support for sexist beliefs and behaviors (Frederick et al, 2022).

1487:, especially television, which is "widely accessible and intentionally appealing and engaging, massive use of stereotypical messages that the majority of the people can easily understand". Media affects behaviors and is "of prime importance for adolescents' general ideas of romance, sex, and relationships". Thus, media has important social consequences, among which is greater acceptance of stereotypical attitudes. 1004:

how they have been victims in this toxic environment. It is also important to recognize the intersectionality of gender, understanding that women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other marginalized groups face unique challenges and forms of discrimination. The nature of gender-based harassment in the industry reflects broader societal power dynamics, where women are often marginalized and their voices silenced.

1543:"their only worth is their appearance, and that a less attractive woman is a rival who will want to hurt them; the story enforced the ideas in the girls of the time that the only things that mattered were appearance and innocence. These are two traits that led to Snow White getting her happy ending." Fairytales continue to teach children about norms that could be harmful concerning values and self-image. 285:, "only 15 per cent of the leading characters were women." In the 1980s, female characters represented 43% of roles in comedy shows and only 29% in action-adventure programs; however, they had outnumbered male characters two to one in dramas. Since the 1990s, "gender roles on television seemed to become increasingly equal and non-stereotyped ... although the majority of lead characters were still male." 333:: first, a woman's place was in the home; second, women didn't make important decisions; third, women were dependent on their male counterparts; and fourth, women were perceived as sexual objects. Two other follow up studies done by Wagner and Banos, and Belkaoui and Belkaoui reached similar outcomes. The final two points highlight the angle that women are viewed in regards to their 1589:

image dissatisfaction is initiated during adolescence which has a large correlation with the development of sexual orientation. Although the media causes a higher negative impact towards the LGBT population, media has also been proven to be less likely to feature gay individuals due to the "marketer's dilemma" in which companies do not want to diminish the straight consumer base.

477:(2010)). This is typically seen in relation to female roles relying on sexualization, and the superficial (apparent) effects of aging on their body are presented as something to be hidden. They continue to be defined mainly by their appearance. In gossip culture, the older female body is represented in largely negative terms unless it has been modified "correctly" by 193:, coined by cartoonist Alison Bechdel and originally created to evaluate popular fiction's representation of women and subsequently adapted to employment in the media professions, shows that a number of women are employed but do not benefit from an equal voice. For example, women in radio are typically hired to cover topics such as weather and culture. 173:, which is not only reflected in artistic work but also perpetuated by it. Until fairly recently, feminists have mainly directed their studies to gender representations in literature. Recently, a new wave of academic studies focused on gender representations in modern society and culture (such as in the film, advertisement, and cultural industries). 629:

of a sexual nature, but her pain is referred to a male character. This male character's grief and anger due to the trauma experienced by the female character are explored in depth. The female character's emotional or physical response is only addressed briefly or cursorily. This trope is featured in such films as

987:, a woman is forced to marry her rapist, and the abuse continues on after the marriage. She serves as the devoted wife, turning a blind eye to her husband's abuse, while raising a voice against abuse by her husband's family. This movie portrays this trope the best, reinforcing the negative narrative on divorce. 850:" where a beautiful princess cursed to sleep, can only be woken up by her true love's kiss. Even though the story gets its name from the princess, she is helpless and needs a "sword-wielding prince, bursting with testosterone, who chops his way through the forest" to kiss and wake her up from her sleep. 1781:

application by governments, media organizations, journalists unions and associations, journalism schools and the like. They set the basis for gender equality in media operations and editorial content. In addition, each year, UNESCO organizes a campaign named "Women Make the News"; in 2018 the theme was

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While research has primarily focused on women, there is evidence suggesting that men are also affected by objectification, albeit through different pathways. Men may experience pressures related to body image from media representations, leading to issues such as body surveillance and dissatisfaction.

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Throughout the world, feminine and masculine ideals are construed through both the social and cultural environment. The emergence of social media creates a consumer motivation towards rapid growth in entertainment, socializing, information sharing, self-expression, and status representation resulting

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For the LGBT population, there has been minimal research due to cisgender studies being the primary targets; however, studies have shown that LGBT youth are more likely to exhibit high body image issues than cisgender and heterosexual individuals, given that the timeline for eating disorders and body

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In the 1940s, companies began differentiating their marketing based on gender to broaden their sales and create a completely separate line of products that would be purposed for solely either a boy or a girl. These products fostered intellectual development; however, with the new gendered division of

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and what is acceptable and "passable" media representations, especially in the transfeminine community. This reinforcement of sex and gender norms is also apparent in many representations of transgender men in various media sources from magazine covers to movies and television series to social media.

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Harassment within the media industry is something that has been taking place since the beginning of its time. We see this harassment take place in ways such as verbal or physical abuse. The harassment creates toxic work environments that ultimately impact the well-being of its victims. Harassment can

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Mostly popular in Bollywood cinema, the Item girl is "the sexist representation of women subjected to the male gaze." The 1970s introduced Item numbers to Bollywood, which is still prevalent today. Actresses who dance to item numbers usually make guest appearances, and aren't crucial to the story. An

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In another study, Souha R. Ezzedeen found that career-driven female characters in film were negatively represented as having conniving personalities, being isolated, and being unable to balance work and family. While 40+ male roles are on the rise in both theatrical and television productions, female

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of women. To increase women's leadership, to end violence against women and to engage women in all aspects of peace and security processes, it's important to give women the right place in media landscape, and their representations must be fair and equal. UN Women supports media monitoring studies on

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Studies show that the objectification and sexualization of women can also affect the cognitive processes of the people who come in contact with it. “Aubrey and Taylor (2009) reported that undergraduate men exposed to magazine images of sexualized women expressed less confidence in their own romantic

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survey, "of 3,452 women who responded... 23% indicated that movie or television celebrities influenced their body image when they were young, and 22% endorsed the influence of fashion magazine models". Some women undergoing cosmetic surgeries request specific body parts from celebrities (such as Kim

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In today's society, mental health issues have become directly intertwined with the use of social media. As technology continues to advance, the more access we have to different social media platforms. Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat and X (formerly Twitter) are all forms of

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states that industry creates expectations for female artists to illustrate to the world. As she explains, "the methodology that I used to get out of that category was when they wanted me to be sexy or they wanted me to be pop; I always put some absurd spin on it that made me feel like I was still in

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The "devoted wife" is the trope where a wife is dedicated to her husband, ignoring his poor behavior, absence and infidelity. She stays in the marriage with her cheating and rebellious husband, as her loyalty serves as a redemption arc for the male protagonist. This is a trope that is mostly popular

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is about a man who takes it upon himself to build a machine to create low cost sanitary pads, and distribute it among poor and underprivileged women throughout India at low prices. This movie addresses period poverty, and the high prices of female sanitary products. The male protagonist's motivation

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Bollywood has made many women empowerment movies that fail to portray strong female characters as the main leads and protagonists, and instead provide a male protagonist with a motivation to resolve and fix the issues, when he sees the female characters struggle with such issues. Many of Bollywood's

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of women, in particular, is heavily centralized in mass media. When these platforms hyper sexualize women, portray them in a lack of clothing, or depict women as subordinate to men, a women's self esteem, body image, and emotional well-being may be negatively affected. One of the earliest studies of

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The same is true for television programs. In general, from the 1950s to the 1970s, female accounted for 30–35% of the roles in American television programs. This increased in the 1980s, but there were still twice as many roles for men in television. However, these disparities change depending on the

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The MeToo movement is responsible for some key milestones in recent years. It has empowered people to break their silence on traumatic events, it has helped reduce stigma around sexual harassment, and it has taken down many people of power. The MeToo movement has helped change the way we talk about

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According to "GWI 2021; We Are Social 2021", In 2021, 4.3 billion people—more than half of the world population—had a social media account, and the average user spent around two and a half hours per day on social media platforms. The rise in mental health issues is heavily linked to the increase in

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There have been many men in power, from a range of industries like film, music, sports, fashion, etc. that have been accused of predatory, abusive behavior. The #MeToo movement played a big role in bringing awareness to these issues in the media industry and even played a significant role in taking

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In media featuring a male protagonist, women's pain, suffering, or even death are often used as plot devices to further the male protagonist's narrative arc. This is known as the "referred pain" plot device. It involves a situation wherein a woman undergoes a traumatic event, often (but not always)

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Women are often portrayed in traditional roles in advertisements and television. Television shows have often portrayed marriage, parenthood, and domesticity as more important to women than men. From the mid-1940s to the 1960s, women (predominantly white, middle-class women) were portrayed mostly as

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objectification of women in the media, some programs are implementing projects on this issue. For instance, some trainings and handbooks are being developed by International organizations and nonprofit organizations for media professionals to improve the gender-sensitivity of media representations.

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In a content analysis in 1970, it was suggested that there are four very common stereotypes that women are seen under: 1) A woman's only place is in her home. 2) Women have no ability to make their own decisions or important ones. 3) A man must always protect women as they are dependent on them. 4)

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The #Metoo movement gained traction in 2017 on all social media platforms as a way for people to share their stories of sexual assault, sexual harassment and rape. The phrase "Me too" was started by activist Tarana Burke in 2006. Alyssa Milano brought the phrase back in 2017 because she wanted to

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Although media's effect on body image has been historically primarily researched for the female gender, there have been increasingly more studies on males. The masculine ideal of a "lean, muscular mesomorphic body type" represents a minuscule portion of the population that is drastically different

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Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors have increased in the UK, Australia, and the US due to a "perceived environmental pressure to conform to a culturally-defined body and beauty ideal" which is promoted mainly by the media. This ideal of unrealistic and artificial female beauty is

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A study published in 2021 found that of the top-rated US sitcoms from 1980 to 2017, newer sitcoms portrayed fathers as increasingly foolish, and less likely to demonstrate parenting roles. The study found that 18% of scenes in the 1980s depicted fathers as having incompetent parenting, compared to

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In recent years, many women in the media industry have spoken out about the harassment that they have faced in the industry. These women are repeatedly victims of sexism, exploitation, and abuse. Famous women such as Gwyneth Paltrow, Meghan Markle, Taylor Swift and many others have spoke out about

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One of the main ways we see harassment in the media industry is through the imbalance of power dynamics. Power dynamics come into play within companies when there are individuals in higher positions, holding greater responsibility and influence over others. Power imbalance becomes harmful when the

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Studies show that typical female roles fall into cultural stereotypes of women and are often sexualized with minimal clothing and sexualized roles. For example, a 2010 content analysis of video games found that "41% of female characters wore revealing clothing and an equal number were partially or

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There are many factors of social media that negatively contribute to a person's mental health and well-being. Users often compare their appearances, and lives to others on social media. This leads to feelings of jealousy, envy, and low self-esteem. Many users also experience cyberbullying. Social

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In Western media, women are expected to value youth, sexuality, and beauty, while men are taught to value dominance and power. A 2020 study of children's television found that television programs aimed at younger boys tend to promote stereotypically masculine behavior, and that male characters in

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are growing: as of 2018 in the United States, 41.7% of the newsroom employees were women; the proportion of women journalists in online-only news organizations even reached 47.8%. However, the media is and has been statistically dominated by men, who hold the vast majority of power positions. Few

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stated "Snow White" is a patriarchal frame that takes "two women's beauty as the measure of their (self)worth, and thus defines their relationship as a rivalry." In response, academic Abigail Gurvich, in "Gender Roles as Taught by Fairy Tales", states that "Snow White" could teach children that

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Gender norms are created and emphasized even at an early age through the use of visual cues which has been proven to greatly affect a child's interpretation of gender. Studies using "the gender content in an ad – characters, products, settings, role portrayals, peripheral cues (colors, language,

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The Disposable Woman trope refers to a trope in which a woman is included in a story for the sole purpose of dying, thus putting the male protagonist through emotional development or inspiring him to embark on a revenge quest. The woman who dies in these situations is referred to as "disposable"

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Even for professional women, their feminine attributes are emphasized in news coverage relating them to topics including age, appearance, and family-career balance. Sports news tended to focus on female athletes' look and personal lives instead of their capabilities and career development. Hanne

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of women in the media is transmitted verbally and nonverbally, as well as directly and indirectly. Objectification is not only visual, but can also be expressed subtly by commenting on women's appearance in a humorous way, making jokes and gags, and using double meanings. To advocate against the

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In advertisement, celebrity endorsement of products are thought to be especially effective if the celebrity is a physically attractive woman, as the attractiveness is thought to transfer to the brand's image and studies have shown that audiences respond better to female endorsements. The idea of

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in the media by 2030". To reach this goal, the Organization developed the Gender-sensitive Indicators for Media (GSIM) to measure gender awareness and portrayal within media organizations (e.g. working conditions), but particularly in editorial content. The Organization has been promoting their

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The objectification of women, both sexually and non-sexually, is prevalent in various media forms such as advertising, television, movies, music videos, video games, and magazines. Sexual objectification, in particular, has received extensive attention in literature, with studies indicating its

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In the U.S., for example, exposure to TV has been associated with "more stereotypical sexual attitudes and evaluation styles". Also popular is the idea that appearance or sexiness is essential for men and women. Additionally, pop music and music videos have been shown to increase stereotypical

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Studies have also revealed a notable gender disparity in the impacts of social media on mental well-being. Females tend to experience these mental health issues more than males. The majority of social media influencers in today's society are females and the majority of their following are young

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In spite of their monumental achievements, women's representation in media remains drastically low to that of their male counterparts. Women are the focus of only 10% of news stories, comprise just 20% of experts or spokespeople interviewed, and a mere 4% of news stories are deemed to challenge

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shows that only 7% of directors, 13% of writers, and 20% of producers in film and television are women. According to The Writers Guild, an estimated 17% of screenplays over the last decade were written by women. However, increasing numbers of women work in the media as journalists or directors.

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consent and equality. Because of the MeToo movement and its traction on the media, society is able to have a more open conversation about these topics. There are now many support groups and resources for people who may have been victims of sexual harassment, sexual assault and/or rape culture.

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was a television breakthrough because it introduced the first female character whose central relationships were not her husband or boyfriend or her family, but her friends and coworkers. The main character was a sort of stand-in for the "new American female" who put her job before romance and

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Noticing the fact that women are more likely to be presented by photos rather than words in digital news, Sen Jia and his colleagues argued that women's appearance probably serves for visual pleasure. Besides, mass media has become a driving force to discrimination based on gender. Images and

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Advertisements often use male actors when promoting alcoholic beverages, banking services, or credit cards. When men are acting on a television commercial, they are usually performing activities such as playing sports, driving around girls, repairing cars, drinking, relaxing, and having fun.

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Magazines and sports broadcasts’ images of masculinity are heavily influenced by the alcohol industry (Wenner 1991). Messner and Montex de Oca found that the alcohol ads don’t just pitch the product, they use images to create a scenario in which it seems that the men in the ads are living a

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people) have been growing steadily in recent years, many fictionalized media representations of trans and non-binary characters are created or produced by cisgender writers. Many of these portrayals attempt to adhere to a narrative that requires a trans character to desire to present as

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model of gender studies, men who demonstrate power, strength, bravery, fearlessness, virility, competitiveness etc.. can assert their (supposed) superiority over women and consolidate their general position of dominance over them (physically, intellectually, and sexually).

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Men are proportionally represented by media more often compared to women, and these portrayals often draw on sexist stereotypes. Male characters in film and television are typically more tough, aggressive, domineering, etc. than the average man they are meant to represent.

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social media that allow for the user to share their lives and opinions while connecting with other users. While there are many studies that show advantages and disadvantages to social media, the statistics that link mental health issues to social media are vast.

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how women are depicted in the media. For instance, the organization engage media professionals by raising awareness of gender equality and violence against women, including through special workshops and tool-kits, to encourage gender-sensitive reporting."

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voice-over)" have proven that a higher degree of gender flexibility has a positive correlation with children's attitudes when viewing advertisements with gender content which conveys the significance of the effects of media in advertising towards youth.

1198:-passing as a form of authenticity in that it provides an exceedingly narrow example of the many varied lived experiences of transgender individuals. In concentrating on this singular type of narrative, there is potential for media representations of 980:

among Bollywood movies, affirming to the societal expectation that divorce is unacceptable as "family is above the individual" and that women must be accepting of their husbands, even in their worst flaws and continue to stay in oppressive marriages.

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generation entering retirement, retirement ages that are raising). A multiplication of images of successful aging are explicitly tied to consumerism by the anti-ageing industry and older female celebrities advertising their products. Examples abound:

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higher up individual imposes unfavorable conditions on a weaker party. Most of the time this is seen when a man holds more power over his female employees. This can manifest in many different ways, including sexual harassment and/or sexual assault.

277:, where they contribute around two roles for every female role. In contrast, females hold a slightly larger proportion of lead roles compared to their proportion of supporting roles, but still occupy fewer lead roles than their male counterparts. 288:

More recently, studies based on computational approaches showed that women speaking time in French TV and radio used to be 25% in 2001 (75% for men) and evolved to 34% in 2018. Women vocal presence was also lower during high audience time-slots.

1187:

Each of these binarized views of gender implies that to be transgender means to transition from one end of the gender binary to the other, leaving little room for ambiguity when it comes to gender non-conformity and non-binary representations.

5566:

Levine, Michael P.; Murnen, Sarah K. (2009). ""Everybody Knows That Mass Media are/are not a Cause of Eating Disorders": A Critical Review of Evidence for a Causal Link Between Media, Negative Body Image, and Disordered Eating in Females".

1347:

and sexual preferences. Men are often portrayed as adventurous, dominant, muscular, intelligent, and sexually aggressive, while women tend to be portrayed as young, beautiful, emotionally passive, dependent, and sometimes unintelligent.

1334:

Gender expectations are stereotypes about how men and women should behave in a society. Social expectations develop the minds of youth as it guides them to society's ideals of socialization, social morals and values, and gender roles.

3587:

Bonomi, Amy E.; Eaton, Asia A.; Nemeth, Julianna M.; Gillum, Tameka L. (February 2017). "The Abuse Litmus Test: A Classroom Tool to Assess Power and Control in On-Screen Relationships: Abuse Litmus Test for On-Screen Relationships".

444:

and men more frequently play the roles of professionals. As a reflection of the real world, same stories have happened in the news media. Women are overrepresented as students and homemakers while underrepresented in most other

1111:

in Australia said in an interview that it was common for men in advertising to be portrayed as dithery and less capable compared to their partners. Gender stereotyping in British advertisements have been banned since 2017.

437:, supportive, and laughable. Studies in the 1970s concluded that for domestic product advertisements on television, female demonstrators often used the product as a housewife or mother while the man described the product. 3615:

Papp, Leanna J.; Liss, Miriam; Erchull, Mindy J.; Godfrey, Hester; Waaland-Kreutzer, Lauren (January 2017). "The Dark Side of Heterosexual Romance: Endorsement of Romantic Beliefs Relates to Intimate Partner Violence".

1713:

From media representations, feminists paved the way for debates and discussions about gender within the social and political spheres. In 1986, the British MP Clare Short proposed a bill to ban newspapers from printing

1619:. In this case, gender issues were brought to the forefront of social media as a way to transgress politics and push traditionally private female issues into the public. With feminist grassroots organizations, such as 970:

is his wife, who refuses to buy the expensive pads, and instead wears unsanitary clothes during her menstrual cycle. In many Bollywood movies, women's issues serve as plot points for male characters to be built around.

1697:

that women's roles in film "almost always around her physical attraction and the mating games she plays with the male characters" in contrast to men's roles, which according to the author are more varied. In 1973

1623:, using social media as their primary tool to communicate about abortion laws, the referendum result is viewed as victory for feminist tweeters and a positive outcome of using gender effectively on social media. 1049:

is a set of ideas related to the behavior and appearance of men and boys. Some argue that most societies socialize men and boys to assume that they are superior, leader, aggressive and entitled. According to the

337:

and bodies. For centuries, dating back to when women would pose for paintings or sculptures, the concept that a woman's nature lied within the ground of subordination and submission has been reinforced by media.

1739:. This test determines the level of gender equality present in a film by assessing whether a work of fiction features at least two named women who talk to each other about something other than a man. 593:(2009). They are part of a phenomenon called the "Girling" of older women, where the protagonists and celebrities are portrayed as being just as excited and entitled to be going out on dates as younger women. 386:

had assertive female protagonists, especially in matters of sex, and did not punish them for wanting pleasure, knowing how to get it, and being determined to do so, which can be seen especially in the case of

1551:

At a young age, both girls and boys tend to direct their interests towards different film categories. Boys tend to prefer action movies, while girls tend to prefer films that contain a female protagonist.

1108: 349:. For women to be considered attractive, they have to conform to images in advertisements, television, and music portraying the ideal woman as tall, white, thin, with a 'tubular' body and blonde hair. 1612:

between 2000 and 2018, possibly because social media distorts how teenagers see themselves, and many surgeons report that looking better in selfies on social media posts is an incentive for patients.

1182:" in order to legitimize or validate their experience as "authentic". Emphasizing the notion of passing perpetuates internalized gender expectations, resulting in a growing pressure to conform to the 2220:

Smith, Stacey (22 February 2016). Inclusion or Invisibility? Comprehensive Annenberg Report on Diversity in Entertainment (Report). USC Annenberg Institute for Diversity and Empowerment at Annenberg.

2231:

Innes, Charlotte (2000). "MOVIES; Her Type Is Strong, Not Silent; Susannah Grant is making waves in the male-dominated world of screenwriting with her latest films centering on determined women ".

5905: 5531:

Bell, Beth Teresa; Dittmar, Helga (2011). "Does Media Type Matter? The Role of Identification in Adolescent Girls' Media Consumption and the Impact of Different Thin-Ideal Media on Body Image".

1677:

preferred to be alone than with the wrong men, but still had to do stereotypically female office work (like typing and getting coffee) and didn't speak up to her boss and other male coworkers.

560:

culture in which women are valued for their appearance. Baby boomers are an increasingly important audience group for the cinema industry, resulting in more and new kinds of stories with older

269:

According to the report investigation of female characters in popular films across 11 countries, 1 woman for 2.24 men appeared on the screen between 1 January 2010 and 1 May 2013. In 2009, the

1381:, in which many women musicians in this industry battle with the media scrutiny and toxic media culture in their daily lives, as they must be perceived as perfect and beautiful at all times. 996:

be seen in all outlets of the media industry. From newsrooms to film sets, journalists, actors, directors, and other professionals often face harassment, discrimination, and abuse of power.

6185: 4299: 5313: 324:

are highlighted through a variety of platforms and sources like the structure of language, activities, media, school settings, historical passages or art pieces, and the workplace.

1494:

The stereotyped portrayals of men and women have been argued to be valued and internalized by younger viewers, especially during puberty and the construction of their sexual identity.

382:(1998–2004). Even if the main character in Ally McBeal was portrayed as desperate to find a husband, the show had other non-stereotypical female characters and "sided with the women". 1162:

people in the media to combat media discrimination. The name "GLAAD" had been an acronym for "Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation", but is also known for its inclusivity of

922:

These women are portrayed as desirable, dancing among a crowd of men at a party, while the male protagonists and antagonists lust over and dances with them. In the song "Aao Raja" in

1664:

magazine called out the industry for "refusing to rise above characterizations of women as pretty, skinny, dopey, hapless housewives or housewife wannabes", and a poll conducted by

3214: 1302:

While still marginal in numbers, there is also progress being made toward some more mainstream development of television shows created by trans and non-binary writers, such as

615:, and even murder as his way of protecting his one true love. This conflation of abuse and romance is widely attributed to the prevalence of abusive tropes in popular media. 1920: 2731: 1793:. Media has the ability to challenge these norms, promoting a balanced coverage of men's and women's sports and a fair portrayal of sportspeople irrespective of gender." 433:. The boss is usually a man. Men are portrayed as more assertive or aggressive, adventurous, active, and victorious, while women are shown as passive, weak, ineffectual, 6389: 4732: 1431:

social media usage since the early/mid-2000s. The World Health Organization reports that in 2019, 970 million people globally were living with a mental disorder, with

937:

The representation of an item girl reiterates the cultural image of women as ornamental objects whose principal role is to look good and please men and the male gaze.

1202:

people who do not fit neatly into either binary category of male or female to be inadequate. In light of this, there are increasingly more depictions of non-binary,

4268: 5793:

Miller, Daniel; Costa, Elisabetta; Haynes, Nell; McDonald, Tom; Nicolescu, Razvan; Sinanan, Jolynna; Spyer, Juliano; Venkatraman, Shriram; Wang, Xinyuan (2016),

1706:, argued that "the Cinema Woman is a Popcorn Venus, a delectable but insubstantial hybrid of cultural distortions". In 1978 Gaye Tuchman wrote of the concept of 859:

item girl dances her way "trying to get through the main lead's heart with their piercing eyes and body movements, trying to hypnotize everyone watching them."

2040: 1969:

Lugones, María C.; Spelman, Elizabeth V. (1983). "Have We Got a Theory for You! Feminist Theory, Cultural Imperialism and the Demand for "The Woman's Voice"".

946:'feminist' or 'women empowerment' movies assert the Male Savior trope, pushing females to serve as secondary characters, in movies addressing 'their' issues. 465:

continue to undertake major roles as ageless heroes, whereas the normative structure for older women is that their aging is part of the plot (for example in

3808: 3189: 1574:

Factors involved in the composition of self-image include the emotional, physical, and reasoning aspects of a person, and these aspects affect one another.

3246:

Paek, Hye-Jin; Nelson, Michelle R.; Vilela, Alexandra M. (2011). "Examination of Gender-role Portrayals in Television Advertising across Seven Countries".

601:

Heterosexual romantic relationships in media, particularly in film, often romanticize intimate partner violence wherein the woman is the victim. Film like

240:

region"—funded by the European Union under the Med Film Program—has demonstrated that women empowerment in their career enhances the image of women in the

2544: 1116:

56% in the 2010s. This is despite an increase of fathers spending an average of 2.5 hours per week in 1965 to seven hours per week in 2011 on childcare.

1670:

magazine in 1972 showed that "75 per cent of 120,000 women agreed that 'the media degrades women by portraying them as mindless dolls'". In that sense,

1418:, though she plays a more central role in spinoff media. Where female characters have a major role in the narrative, they tend to be highly sexualized. 1641:

Additionally, there are specificities related to sexual orientation, with LGBTQ+ individuals facing unique challenges regarding media objectification.

5837: 3434: 6180: 2439: 5341: 4291: 3517:

Hefner, Veronica (Summer 2014). "The Influence of Television and Film Viewing on Midlife Women's Body Image, Disordered Eating, and Food Choice".

3767: 2982:"Separating the sex from the object: conceptualizing sexualization and (sexual) objectification in Flemish preteens' popular television programs" 1616: 5455: 37: 3882: 204:

are women; their presence, though, is still limited in the production of games. Those who tried to publicly challenge this situation, such as

1104: 5422:

Greenwood, Dara N.; Lippman, Julia R. (2010), Chrisler, Joan C.; McCreary, Donald R. (eds.), "Gender and Media: Content, Uses, and Impact",

2667:

Belknap, Penny; Leonard II, Wilbert M. (1991). "A Conceptual Replication and Extension of Erving Goffman's Study of Gender Advertisements".

5488:

Brown, Zoe; Tiggemann, Marika (December 2016). "Attractive celebrity and peer images on Instagram: Effect on women's mood and body image".

1729:

In the early 2000s, feminist critics began analyzing film in terms of the Bechdel test. This feminist assessment of cinema was named after

232:. Media becomes a suitable ground for expressions and claims. For instance, the project "Enhancing a gender responsive film sector in the 3040:

Galdi, Silvia; Maass, Anne; Cadinu, Mara (2014). "Objectifying Media: Their Effect on Gender Role Norms and Sexual Harassment of Women".

843: 341:

The Western ideal of female beauty is that of the fit, young, and thin woman, and the media spreads this ideal through movies, TV shows,

3552:

Jermyn, D. (2012). ""Glorious, glamorous and that old standby, amorous": the late blossoming of Diane Keaton's romantic comedy career".

2829:"Gender Representation on Gender-Targeted Television Channels: A Comparison of Female- and Male-Targeted TV Channels in the Netherlands" 4400: 329:

role portrayal in advertisement was done in 1971 by Courtney and Lockeretz. These researchers discovered four central themes of female

4903:"The effects of sexualized video game characters and character personalization on women's self-objectification and body satisfaction" 3229: 1824: 902:

is the recent face for the Bollywood Item Numbers, appearing in many Bollywood movies as the item girl. Some of her numbers include,

3322:

Ezzedeen, Souha R. (5 May 2015). "Portrayals of career women in Hollywood films: implications for the glass ceiling's persistence".

2285: 934:, the item number helps enable the protagonist to continue their plot and seek revenge against the lustfully distracted antagonist. 405:, who was portrayed as powerful, heroic, confident, and assertive, characteristics that were generally ascribed to male characters. 2328:

Hawkins, Del I.; Coney, Kenneth A. (11 January 2017). "Advertising and Differentiated Sex Roles in Contemporary American Society".

1819: 1103:

Following the banning of an advertisement where a wife asks pest exterminators to dispose of pests with one being her husband, CEO

556:, etc. These advertisements are paradoxical in that they allow older celebrities to remain visible while encouraging an ageist and 293: 2065: 6478: 5864:"Feminists Redraw Public and Private Spheres: Abortion, Vulnerability, and the Affective Campaign to Repeal the Eighth Amendment" 5863: 3482:

Jermyn, D. (2012). ""Get a life, ladies. Your old one is not coming back": ageing, ageism and the lifespan of female celebrity".

2735: 112: 4774: 2382: 4463:

McBride, Katie (May 2020). "Redressing the balance: Lived experiences of the harms of visually mediated transgender identity".

1134: 733: 6331:"The #MeToo movement and perceptions of sexual assault: College students' recognition of sexual assault experiences over time" 2303: 1062:

centered on strength and an ambivalent relationship to violence, encouraging boys and men to take risks and to be aggressive.

6442: 6132: 6073: 5806: 5439: 5124:"Gender differences in the relationships between meaning in life, mental health status and digital media use during Covid-19" 3461: 2920:"Does Sex Really Sell? Paradoxical Effects of Sexualization in Advertising on Product Attractiveness and Purchase Intentions" 2487: 1953: 705: 370:

Some shows focused entirely on successful professional women and their "quests for sex, pleasure and romantic love", such as

3690: 2632:

Collins, Rebecca L. (February 2011). "Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go?".

1921:"Gender-Sensitive Indicators for Media: Framework of indicators to gauge gender sensitivity in media operations and content" 2184: 1886: 409: 5653:"Relations among media influence, body image, eating concerns, and sexual orientation in men: A preliminary investigation" 6979: 5456:"The Media's Influence on Body Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We've Reviled Them, Now Can We Rehabilitate Them?" 4849: 4118: 3722: 1876: 4533:

Farber, Rebecca (4 May 2017). "'Transing' fitness and remapping transgender male masculinity in online message boards".

4260: 3389:

Calasanti, Toni; Slevin, Kathleen F.; King, Neal (13 November 2017). "Ageism and Feminism: From "Et Cetera" to Center".

712: 500:

after being dropped from a show. It was claimed that she had been told to be careful about her wrinkles and to consider

5953:"Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization" 3354:

Fairclough, K (2012). "Nothing less than perfect: female celebrity, ageing and hyper-scrutiny in the gossip industry".

1208: 4321:

Scharrer, Erica; Warren, Stephen; Grimshaw, Eean; Kamau, Gichuhi; Cho, Sarah; Reijven, Menno; Zhang, Congcong (2021).

3651:Åström, Berit (2011). "Referred pain: privileging male emotions in narrative instances of female physical suffering". 2885: 1312:. There are many more grassroots level efforts to produce positive transgender and non-binary representation, such as 766:

because she does not serve a purpose beyond her death. The disposable woman trope in present in many films, including

453:, found very similar patterns in news reporting outstanding women in government agencies and the technology industry. 7071: 7009: 2792:

Downs, Edward; Smith, Stacy L. (2010). "Keeping Abreast of Hypersexuality: A Video Game Character Content Analysis".

2203: 2165: 752: 686: 388: 216: 71: 3967: 1943: 1491:

gender schemas, and promote the ideas that gender relationships are adversarial and that appearance is fundamental.

6974: 3915: 3721:

Bowman, Donna; Gillette, Amelie; Hyden, Steven; Murray, Noel; Pierce, Leonard & Rabin, Nathan (4 August 2008).

2757:

Collins, Rebecca L. (2011). "Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go?".

5368: 3941: 3863: 1658:

In the 1970s, TV critics, academics, and women started to point out the way TV shows portrayed female characters.

719: 7086: 3196: 842:

serves as a character in trouble who needs the assistance of a male character to get over her problems. In the "

163: 6257: 575:

role provide one of the few spaces in popular culture showing appealing representations of older women, such as

4144: 2562:

Jia, Sen; Lansdall-Welfare, Thomas; Sudhahar, Saatviga; Carter, Cynthia; Cristianini, Nello (3 February 2016).

690: 4224:

Mulvey, Laura (10 November 2016). "From a faculty seminar with Laura Mulvey: reflections on visual pleasure".

958:, to rebuild their chemistry and win the World Championship–something they weren't capable of until his entry. 507:

The commercial potential of older consumers is becoming more significant (an increased 'active lifespan', the

6635: 1293:

who identifies as bisexual and non-binary and portrays the bisexual, non-binary character of Kat Sandoval in

1248: 1140: 701: 4606:"Call me Caitlyn: making and making over the 'authentic' transgender body in Anglo-American popular culture" 3749: 1343:

The media can be a source of gender expectations as it stereotypes individuals and groups based on specific

1020:

Media often plays a role in the acceptance of negative values as the perceived norm for men and masculinity.

4405: 1901: 1468: 1033: 1029: 1710:, blaming the media for imposing a negative vision of active women and making an apologia for housewives. 1235:

Many mainstream representations of transgender and non-binary people or characters have been portrayed by

7050: 6471: 5188:""Shake It Baby, Shake It": Media Preferences, Sexual Attitudes and Gender Stereotypes Among Adolescents" 1849: 1446:

The relationship between social media and mental health is a complex topic that continues to be studied.

1295: 847: 781: 577: 7081: 5255:"How Are Children's Attitudes Toward Ads and Brands Affected by Gender-Related Content in Advertising?" 2732:"Female Body Image and the Mass Media: Perspectives on How Women Internalize the Ideal Beauty Standard" 2504: 2204:

Gender bias without borders: An investigation of female characters in popular films across 11 countries

589: 296:

is an organization that has been lobbying the industry for years to expand the roles of women in film.

5652: 5426:, vol. 2: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology, Springer New York, pp. 643–669, 6721: 4024: 3837: 1881: 1672: 612: 603: 5603:

Legenbauer, Tanja (May 2008). "Influence of Appearance-Related TV Commercials on Body Image State".

6282: 1472: 1206:, and genderless characters in mainstream television shows like Syd (played by Sheridan Pierce) in 1058:

Media representations of sports and athletes contribute to the construction of a dominant model of

795: 401: 53: 4179:"Her Moments Matter: UNESCO Calls for Fairer Media Coverage of Sportswomen | World Radio Day 2018" 6931: 6880: 6741: 6736: 4876: 2440:"Latest casting data follows historical trends and continues to exclude people with disabilities" 1829: 1304: 1275: 679: 472: 2292:. New Delhi: Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme, UNDP and Elsevier. pp. 96–109. 1100:

as having been used on the screen to draw in a female audience as an embodiment of male beauty.

6592: 6464: 5393: 1735: 1322: 1263: 1218: 828: 824: 809: 774: 767: 170: 1814:

Some nonprofit organizations specialize in topics related to gender and media. These include:

1404:, which objectifies them and relegates the narrative role to a male protagonist. For example, 726: 6941: 5951:

Santoniccolo, Fabrizio; Trombetta, Tommaso; Paradiso, Maria Noemi; Rollè, Luca (9 May 2023).

5122:

So, Wendy Wing Yan; Woo, Bowie Po Yi; Wong, Clifford; Yip, Paul Siu Fai (11 September 2023).

3428: 2255: 2236: 1707: 1690: 1615:

Social media has been used to promote political stances, such as in the referendum to appeal

1051: 984: 630: 49: 4156: 1502: 6890: 3195:(Report). Washington DC: International Women's Media Foundation. p. 24. Archived from 2575: 2117:""Everyone Can Make Games!": The post-feminist context of women in digital game production" 1703: 1514: 1285: 521: 131: 6304: 4733:"Analyzing Female Gender Roles in Marvel Comics from the Silver Age (1960) to the Present" 3161:

McNeil, Jean (1975). "Feminism, Femininity and the Television Shows: A Content Analysis".

45: 8: 7025: 6711: 6625: 6418: 6121: 5756: 4805: 4759: 4645:

Nault, Curran (2018). "Three Dollar Cinema: The Down and Dirty DIY of Queer Production".

2886:"Impact of celebrity endorsement in advertising on brand image among Chinese adolescents" 1896: 1871: 1721: 1459: 1362: 281:

type of program: in mid-1970s sitcoms, there were "nearly equal proportions", whereas in

270: 197: 182: 6837: 5987: 5952: 5158: 5123: 4323:"Disparaged dads? A content analysis of depictions of fathers in U.S. sitcoms over time" 2579: 2505:"Describing Gender Equality in French Audiovisual Streams with a Deep Learning Approach" 2014: 7004: 6946: 6870: 6782: 6772: 6695: 6609: 6587: 6501: 6363: 6330: 5928: 5886: 5812: 5732: 5699: 5628: 5548: 5513: 5290: 5282: 5212: 5187: 5099: 5064: 4662: 4627: 4550: 4490: 4361: 4241: 4135: 3668: 3633: 3569: 3534: 3499: 3450:

L'assignation de genre dans les médias : attentes, perturbations, reconfigurations

3416: 3371: 3263: 3057: 3019: 2959: 2861: 2828: 2809: 2774: 2684: 2649: 2606: 2563: 2526: 2146: 2058: 1742: 1401: 915: 839: 583: 541: 533: 497: 489: 5186:

Bogt, Tom F. M.; Engels, Rutger C. M. E.; Bogers, Sanne; Kloosterman, Monique (2010).

2980:

Rousseau, Ann; Eggermont, Steven; Bels, Annebeth; Van den Bulck, Hilde (3 July 2018).

6984: 6802: 6777: 6690: 6597: 6577: 6541: 6521: 6506: 6438: 6368: 6350: 6128: 6069: 6042: 6034: 5992: 5974: 5932: 5890: 5802: 5737: 5719: 5700:"Body Image and Eating Disorders Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth" 5680: 5672: 5620: 5552: 5505: 5435: 5294: 5274: 5217: 5163: 5145: 5104: 5086: 5020: 4971: 4963: 4943: 4924: 4713: 4666: 4631: 4554: 4494: 4381: 4342: 4245: 4205: 4139: 4044: 3672: 3637: 3573: 3538: 3503: 3457: 3375: 3304: 3267: 3119: 3115: 3061: 3023: 3011: 3006: 2963: 2951: 2866: 2848: 2813: 2778: 2688: 2653: 2611: 2593: 2530: 2521: 2483: 2386: 2150: 2043:[Distribution of the number of journalists by age group and gender in 2014]. 1982: 1949: 1685: 1484: 1174: 1097: 931: 883: 467: 282: 6232: 5632: 4065:

Wood, Julia T. (1994). "Gendered Media: The Influence of Media on Views of Gender".

2271:

Identifying Best Practices for Gender Diversity in Leadership Roles in the Workplace

1479:

The media is generally regarded as playing an important role in defining prevailing

7030: 6999: 6952: 6895: 6860: 6832: 6807: 6751: 6685: 6531: 6516: 6405: 6358: 6342: 6089:

Smith, Sharon. "The Image of Women in Film: Some Suggestions for Future Research".

6062: 6026: 5982: 5964: 5920: 5878: 5768: 5727: 5711: 5664: 5651:

Carper, Teresa L. Marino; Negy, Charles; Tantleff-Dunn, Stacey (1 September 2010).

5612: 5576: 5540: 5517: 5497: 5470: 5427: 5266: 5207: 5199: 5153: 5135: 5094: 5076: 5065:"Researching Mental Health Disorders in the Era of Social Media: Systematic Review" 5010: 5002: 4990: 4955: 4914: 4703: 4693: 4658: 4654: 4617: 4584: 4542: 4515: 4480: 4472: 4436: 4373: 4334: 4233: 4178: 4127: 4036: 4005: 3660: 3625: 3597: 3561: 3526: 3491: 3406: 3398: 3363: 3331: 3294: 3255: 3170: 3111: 3084: 3049: 3001: 2993: 2941: 2931: 2897: 2856: 2840: 2801: 2766: 2676: 2641: 2601: 2583: 2516: 2337: 2136: 2128: 1978: 1620: 1562: 1280: 1223: 1179: 1143: 911: 889: 645: 378: 274: 225: 205: 6645: 6030: 5757:"Motivations, Usage, and Perceived Social Networks Within and Beyond Social Media" 5038: 4622: 4605: 4546: 4511:

Transgender Women and the Male Gaze: Gender, the Body, and the Pressure to Conform

4237: 4080: 4040: 2997: 2918:

Gramazio, Sarah; Cadinu, Mara; Guizzo, Francesca; Carnaghi, Andrea (1 June 2021).

7076: 7040: 6905: 6875: 6827: 6604: 5668: 5501: 5431: 4800: 4109: 3664: 3565: 3530: 3495: 3367: 2588: 2403: 2132: 2041:"La répartition du nombre de journalistes par tranches d'âge et par sexe en 2014" 1777: 1756: 1609: 1535:

ways in advertising, commercials on multiple platforms, and in Television shows.

1203: 1199: 1070: 879: 864: 788: 565: 549: 525: 501: 482: 478: 430: 363: 334: 311:

denounced unfair representations of gender in media and especially in magazines.

308: 116: 100: 6152:[Media analysis through the prism of gender: formation of an episteme]. 4292:"UK crackdown on gender stereotypes in advertising shows up Australia's low bar" 2981: 2240: 6865: 6847: 6812: 6767: 6746: 6630: 6426: 5816: 5794: 5270: 5140: 4919: 4902: 4834: 4509: 3283:"Representation of Women in the News: Balancing between Career and Family Life" 2936: 2919: 2341: 1866: 1730: 1699: 1680: 1405: 1377: 1352:

such programs are more likely to reflect such norms and lack onscreen parents.

1255: 1228: 962: 955: 951: 923: 569: 517: 462: 420:

to describe the way that women in film serve as projections of male fantasies.

273:(US) also found that men continue to make up the majority of roles, especially 155: 92: 5715: 5544: 5203: 4959: 3629: 3259: 3174: 2901: 2844: 2805: 2770: 2702: 2645: 2201: 7065: 6936: 6915: 6511: 6487: 6430: 6354: 6038: 5978: 5723: 5676: 5616: 5580: 5278: 5149: 5090: 5024: 4967: 4928: 4717: 4698: 4681: 4476: 4385: 4362:"The Male Consumer as Loser: Beer and Liquor Ads in Mega Sports Media Events" 4346: 4131: 4048: 3727: 3699: 3402: 3308: 3053: 3015: 2955: 2852: 2597: 2304:"Enhancing a gender responsive film sector in the South Mediterranean region" 1244: 1213: 1195: 1155: 1085: 903: 875: 637: 458: 434: 396: 325: 151: 143: 95:. These platforms are not limited to film, radio, television, advertisement, 6014: 5924: 5474: 4429:"Le genre dans la communication et les médias : enjeux et perspectives" 3796:. University Press of Colorado, Utah State University Press. pp. 79–98. 3388: 3335: 3088: 2253: 1173:

While sexually diverse representations of people (including transgender and

7045: 7035: 6817: 6726: 6716: 6582: 6556: 6372: 6046: 5996: 5969: 5906:"Repealing Ireland's Eighth Amendment: abortion rights and democracy today" 5741: 5684: 5624: 5509: 5235:

Raja Mujtaba (18 January 2011). "Mass media and its influence on society".

5221: 5167: 5108: 4975: 4829: 4519: 4113: 3686: 3454:

Gender Assignment in the Media: Expectations, Disruptions, Reconfigurations

3299: 2870: 2615: 2286:"Community Media and Women: Transforming Silence into Speech', Chapter 3.2" 1475:

in New York, addressing gender roles and issues in film (24 September 2013)

1389:

Gender expectations are highly incorporated into the character's gender in

1372: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1290: 1240: 1191: 1128: 1074: 966: 927: 529: 513: 508: 441: 413: 392: 342: 304: 190: 96: 6410: 6393: 5773: 3809:"Women must stop being portrayed as damsels in distress on the big screen" 3123: 1096:

films of the 1920s, specifically citing the famous Italian-American actor

6910: 6731: 6668: 6640: 6561: 6150:"L'analyse des médias au prisme du genre : formation d'une épistémè" 5006: 4825: 4485: 3868:

Master of Arts with a Concentration in Strategic Communication Management

2946: 1760: 1480: 1464: 1410: 1270: 1167: 1163: 1089: 1059: 1046: 1025: 907: 899: 561: 372: 345:, advertisements, magazines and newspapers, music videos, and children's 321: 300: 241: 221: 212: 134:, began examining the relationship between media and the perpetuation of 104: 5286: 5254: 5015: 4322: 3075:

Mulvey, Laura (1 October 1975). "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema".

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Skowronski, Marika; Busching, Robert; Krahé, Barbara (1 January 2021).

4708: 4589: 4572: 4338: 4025:"Post Weinstein: gendered power and harassment in the media industries" 4009: 3601: 3420: 3411: 2680: 2503:

Doukhan, David; Poels, Géraldine; Rezgui, Zohra; Carrive, Jean (2018).

1786: 1578: 1532: 1390: 1151: 893: 802: 693: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 545: 537: 330: 229: 159: 147: 115:, elaborated the Gender-sensitive Indicators for Media contributing to 88: 5081: 4942:

Berryman, Chloe; Ferguson, Christopher J.; Negy, Charles (June 2018).

4441: 4431:[Gender in communication and media: issues and perspectives]. 2360: 2141: 6969: 6678: 6551: 6536: 5063:

Wongkoblap, Akkapon; Vadillo, Miguel A; Curcin, Vasa (29 June 2017).

3993: 3282: 3102:

Signorielli, Nancy (1990). "Children, television, and gender roles".

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4433:

Revue Française des Sciences de l'Information et de la Communication

1743:

International organization and response from nonprofit organizations

668: 6885: 5882: 4377: 4085:

Dr. Rubba's Home Page: English 495 Topics in Applied Language Study

3890:

Department of Communication, University of North Carolina at Chapel

2288:. In A. Gurumurthy; P. J. Singh; A. Mundkur & M. Swamy (eds.). 2185:"Oscars 2015: Female directors scarce at Hollywood's major studios" 2116: 2093: 1834: 1752: 1660: 651: 608: 135: 127: 5950: 3447: 2979: 1733:, feminist cartoonist and creator of the long-running comic strip 1041:

Kelly Eick, "Gender Stereotypes in Children's Television Cartoons"

1032:'s stereotypical 'manly man', or a handsome (according to current 6994: 6900: 6855: 6015:"Media and Sexualization: State of Empirical Research, 1995-2015" 5957:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

5838:"Do Instagram and Snapchat distort how teenagers see themselves?" 4989:

Braghieri, Luca; Levy, Ro’ee; Makarin, Alexey (1 November 2022).

4810: 3942:"PadMan Review: It Fails To Be The Poster Child Of Social Change" 2561: 1666: 1414:

series and is kidnapped in all but one of them, to be rescued by

1093: 954:" features a bickering women's hockey team, that is led by coach 346: 237: 233: 6456: 2254:

Ann Kangas; Huma Haider; Erika Fraser; Evie Browne (July 2015).

2094:"2019 Women for Media Report: 'You Can't Be What You Can't See'" 1577:

One contributor to negative body image is the promotion of the "

4426: 1790: 1773: 1715: 1344: 1066: 868: 557: 139: 108: 84: 6149: 4428: 4401:"GLAAD Affirms Commitment To Trans and Bi People, Alters Name" 1854: 882:

in 1998, Anarkali Disco Chali in 2012, and her performance in

99:, and video games. Initiatives and resources exist to promote 5370:

Postmodern Fairy Tales : Gender and Narrative Strategies

3916:"Why Do Bollywood Movies About Women Have Male Protagonists?" 3456:] (in French). Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. 1891: 1415: 1147: 457:

40+ roles represent only 28% of female roles. Actors such as

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Tuchman, Gaye; Kaplan Daniels, Arlene; Benét, James (1978).

2917: 1785:

as "Sports coverage is hugely powerful in shaping norms and

6207: 5185: 4320: 3883:"Gendered Media: The Influence of Media on Views of Gender" 2202:

Smith, Stacy L.; Choueiti, Marc; Pieper, Katherine (2014).

1159: 1069:'s section for Media Development and Society advocates for 572: 36:

deal primarily with Western culture and do not represent a

440:

On television, women more frequently play the role of the

5801:, vol. 1 (1 ed.), UCL Press, pp. 114–127, 5792: 4116:(November 2000). "The televised sports manhood formula". 3998:

International Journal of Supply and Operations Management

3723:"Wild things: 16 films featuring Manic Pixie Dream Girls" 3720: 2827:

Daalmans, Serena; Kleemans, Mariska; Sadza, Anne (2017).

2502: 2015:"American Society of News Editors (ASNE) Newsroom Census" 896:

in 2011 was considered an iconic sex symbol in Bollywood.

493: 6329:

Jaffe, Anna E.; Cero, Ian; DiLillo, David (March 2021).

4261:"Discrimination against men in advertising ends in 2017" 4087:. California Polytechnic State University. 17 April 2008 2509:

View: Journal of European Television History and Culture

1129:

Representations of transgender and non-binary characters

130:

writers, largely gaining prominence in the 1960s during

107:

in the media industry and representations. For example,

5650: 5062: 4944:"Social Media Use and Mental Health among Young Adults" 4900: 4067:

From Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture

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Pavarala, V.; Malik, K. K. & Cheeli, J. R. (2006).

5698:

McClain, Zachary; Peebles, Rebecka (12 October 2016).

4757:

Newsom, Jennifer Siebel (director) (22 January 2011).

4081:"Gender Stereotypes in Children's Television Cartoons" 3614: 3190:

Global Report on the Status of Women in the News Media

1273:'s portrayal of Sophia Burset who is a trans woman in 940: 488:

In one court case in 2011, English television actress

146:

for providing and promoting an exclusively white male

6451: 4427:

Virginie Julliard; Nelly Quemener (15 January 2014).

2826: 2564:"Women Are Seen More than Heard in Online Newspapers" 1648: 1571:"impossible for the majority of females to achieve". 619:

Female characters as plot devices for male characters

4988: 4941: 4682:"Gender Roles and Expectations: Any Changes Online?" 4360:

Messner, Michael A.; Montez de Oca, Jeffrey (2005).

4359: 3864:"Objectification of Women in Bollywood Item Numbers" 3448:

Damian, B.; Montañola, S. & Olivesi, A. (2014).

3342: 2348: 1631: 224:

of women gives them abilities to promote balance in

176: 6127:. Oxford University Press. pp. 102, 123, 291. 3791: 2975: 2973: 2913: 2911: 2209:(Report). Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media. 2045:

Espace Data – Observatoire des métiers de la presse

990: 6179: 6147: 6123:Hearth and Home: Images of Women in the Mass Media 6120: 6061: 5342:"Are gendered toys harming childhood development?" 4204: 2290:Gender in the Information Society: Emerging Issues 5903: 4108: 2666: 1421: 7063: 6328: 5421: 4573:"Towards a Queer Futurity: New Trans Television" 4060: 4058: 3994:"Power Imbalance in Collaboration Relationships" 3245: 3039: 2970: 2908: 2884:Chan, Kara; Leung Ng, Yu; Luk, Edwin K. (2013). 2166:"100 Women Directors Hollywood Should Be Hiring" 1400:Female characters are frequently portrayed as a 169:These feminists typically perceived gender as a 5454:Thompson, J. Kevin; Heinberg, Leslie J. (199). 5453: 3792:Greenhill, Pauline; Eve Matrix, Sidney (2010). 3212: 2883: 1772:In line with UNESCO's Global Priority Gender, " 1375:has shared similar comments in her documentary 119:and women's empowerment in all forms of media. 5697: 5487: 4366:Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 4064: 2473: 2471: 2469: 1968: 181:Numbers of women in media professions such as 6472: 6425: 4877:"Damsel in Distress (Part 1) Tropes vs Women" 4055: 3433:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 ( 3187: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 1531:Gender-related content has been portrayed in 1158:, and Lauren Hinds with the support of other 867:'s dance to 'Mehbooba' and 'Ae Mera Dil' in ' 818: 34:The examples and perspective in this article 6388: 6181:"I didn't get rid of Page 3 – Can Levenson?" 5565: 5234: 5121: 3280: 2420: 2327: 2059:"The Status of Women in the U.S. Media 2012" 6141: 5530: 4023:Cobb, Shelley; Horeck, Tanya (4 May 2018). 3835: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3101: 2480:Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction 2434: 2432: 2330:Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 1608:There was a 115% increase in the number of 247: 6479: 6465: 6305:"Get To Know Us | History & Inception" 5904:Drazkiewicz, Elia; Strong, Thomas (2020). 5761:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 5602: 5366: 5252: 4874: 4679: 4213:. US: Sage Publications. pp. 103–117. 4202: 4022: 3806: 3551: 3481: 3353: 2791: 2446: 1809: 1283:playing Taylor Mason who is non-binary in 485:and negative body image among this group. 299:In the 1960s and 1970s, feminists such as 261:Under-representation and misrepresentation 16:Relationship between mass media and gender 6409: 6362: 5986: 5968: 5871:Journal of Women in Culture & Society 5772: 5731: 5569:Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 5424:Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology 5211: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5157: 5139: 5098: 5080: 5014: 4918: 4907:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 4763:(documentary). Girls' Club Entertainment. 4707: 4697: 4621: 4588: 4484: 4440: 4226:New Review of Film and Television Studies 3861: 3410: 3298: 3035: 3033: 3005: 2945: 2935: 2860: 2725: 2723: 2605: 2587: 2520: 2477: 2140: 1998: 1011: 753:Learn how and when to remove this message 72:Learn how and when to remove this message 6452:Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media 6416:PDF. Introduction to a special issue of 5559: 4680:Eisenchlas, Susana A. (1 January 2013). 4603: 4507: 3991: 3470: 3321: 3215:"How to Portray Women in TV commercials" 3213:Whipple, T. W.; Courtney, A. E. (1980). 3130: 2750: 2729: 2545:"The aftermath of the Weinstein scandal" 2429: 2404:"Who Makes the News | GMMP 2010 Reports" 2163: 2096:. Women's Leadership Institute Australia 1725:Media advocation for abolition of gender 1720: 1538:Writer Christina Bacchilega in her book 1513: 1501: 1458: 568:in which women protagonists take on the 395:. Another female icon from the 1990s is 294:Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media 6177: 6097: 6082: 5861: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5417: 5415: 5394:"Gender Roles as Taught by Fairy Tales" 5336: 5334: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5248: 5246: 4850:"On Men's Sexualization in Video Games" 4462: 4398: 4392: 4258: 3913: 3862:Slatewala, Zahabia Z. (19 March 2019). 3807:Janmohamed, Shelina (17 October 2022). 3281:Vandenberghe, Hanne (5 February 2019). 3145: 2756: 2631: 2442:. Screen Actors Guild. 23 October 2009. 1626: 1598:in both negative and positive effects. 113:International Federation of Journalists 7064: 6008: 6006: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5646: 5644: 5642: 5524: 5174: 4752: 4750: 4730: 4532: 4223: 3965: 3939: 3909: 3907: 3838:"A HISTORY OF BOLLYWOOD: ITEM NUMBERS" 3831: 3829: 3794:Fairy Tale Films: Visions of Ambiguity 3714: 3650: 3516: 3160: 3074: 3030: 2785: 2720: 2627: 2625: 2423:Gender, Race, and Media Representation 2385:. Women's Media Center. Archived from 2182: 2114: 1840: 1825:International Women's Media Foundation 1796: 1506:"Girls" toys as advertised in the U.K. 1329: 1135:Media portrayals of transgender people 6460: 6437:. Maidenhead: Open University Press. 6283:"Media Diversity and Gender Equality" 6103: 6059: 4644: 4604:Lovelock, Michael (2 November 2017). 4570: 4566: 4564: 4289: 4104: 4102: 3968:"India last in divorce. Good or bad?" 3914:Agarwal, Khushi (18 September 2019). 3685: 3679: 3239: 2421:Brooks, Dwight; Hébert, Lisa (2006). 2398: 2396: 2323: 2321: 2268: 2230: 2219: 2071:from the original on 5 September 2012 1941: 1518:"Boys" toys as advertised in the U.K. 878:rose to fame with her performance in 834: 643:, as well as in the Shakespeare play 6068:. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. 6012: 5781: 5587: 5412: 5331: 5318:MSUToday | Michigan State University 5301: 5253:Bakir, Aysen; Palan, Kay M. (2010). 5243: 5069:Journal of Medical Internet Research 4577:European Journal of American Studies 4508:Lefebvre, Danielle (16 April 2020). 4259:Bennett, Lindsay (16 January 2017). 4119:Journal of Sport & Social Issues 4073: 3940:Prasad, Akshita (14 February 2018). 3836:Subramanian, Saranya (17 May 2020). 2183:Keegan, Rebecca (22 February 2015). 2088: 2086: 1994: 1992: 1887:Gender representation in video games 1755:is the UN organization dedicated to 1653: 1320:' and Laura Zak's online web series 1232:, among a growing number of others. 691:adding citations to reliable sources 662: 410:Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema 20: 6435:Critical readings: media and gender 6108:. New York: Avon Books. p. 10. 6003: 5939: 5754: 5639: 5391: 4868: 4842: 4767: 4747: 4465:International Review of Victimology 4302:from the original on 20 August 2023 4271:from the original on 20 August 2023 3904: 3826: 3695:: The Bataan Death March of Whimsy" 3206: 3095: 2622: 1877:Exploitation of women in mass media 1449: 1194:aspect of the narrative of desired 974: 941:Women leads as secondary characters 658: 13: 6382: 5799:How the World Changed Social Media 5704:Pediatric Clinics of North America 5373:. University of Pennsylvania Press 4875:Sarkeesian, Anita (7 March 2013). 4775:"How the Media Define Masculinity" 4561: 4099: 3966:Kurian, Anila (14 February 2019). 2393: 2318: 2164:Buchanan, Kyle (2 November 2015). 1971:Women's Studie International Forum 1776:is contributing to achieving full 1649:Responses and movements for change 1603:How the World Changed Social Media 1028:' means the male who fits in with 871:' is an example of an item number. 14: 7098: 6486: 6088: 4290:Smith, Michelle (2 August 2017). 4157:"Gender Equality in Sports Media" 3768:"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" 3104:Journal of Adolescent Health Care 2083: 1989: 1850:Alliance for Women in Media (AWM) 1632:Sexualization and Objectification 217:University of Southern California 177:Gender disparity in media careers 6975:Concentration of media ownership 6322: 6297: 6275: 6250: 6225: 6200: 6188:from the original on 12 May 2022 6171: 6112: 6053: 5897: 5855: 5835: 5829: 5748: 5691: 5481: 5447: 5385: 5360: 5228: 5115: 5056: 5031: 4991:"Social Media and Mental Health" 4982: 4935: 4571:Poole, Ralph J. (31 July 2017). 3880: 3691:"My Year Of Flops, Case File 1: 2522:10.18146/2213-0969.2018.jethc150 1942:Kosut, Mary, ed. (18 May 2012). 1783:Gender Equality and Sports Media 1567:Kardashian's eyes and jawline). 1408:appears in fourteen of the main 991:Harassment in the media industry 853: 667: 623: 423: 314: 25: 5755:Lai, Chih-Hui (27 March 2019). 4894: 4832:(performer) (23 January 2020). 4818: 4793: 4724: 4673: 4638: 4597: 4526: 4501: 4456: 4420: 4399:Peeples, Jase (24 March 2013). 4353: 4314: 4283: 4252: 4217: 4196: 4171: 4149: 4016: 3992:Essabbar, Driss (3 June 2015). 3985: 3959: 3933: 3874: 3855: 3800: 3785: 3760: 3742: 3644: 3608: 3580: 3545: 3510: 3441: 3382: 3315: 3274: 3222:Journal of Advertising Research 3181: 3154: 3068: 2877: 2820: 2695: 2660: 2555: 2537: 2496: 2414: 2375: 2296: 2277: 2262: 2247: 2224: 2213: 2195: 2176: 2157: 1945:Encyclopedia of Gender in Media 1718:photographs of topless models. 1592: 1109:Advertising Standards Authority 844:Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 678:needs additional citations for 4659:10.5406/jfilmvideo.70.3-4.0063 2108: 2064:. Women's Media Center (WMC). 2051: 2033: 2007: 1962: 1935: 1913: 1702:, an important contributor to 1546: 1497: 1454: 1422:Social media and mental health 1384: 449:Vandenberghe, a researcher at 1: 6031:10.1080/00224499.2016.1142496 5367:Bacchilega, Cristina (1999). 4731:Murphy, Katherine J. (2016). 4623:10.1080/09589236.2016.1155978 4547:10.1080/09589236.2016.1250618 4238:10.1080/17400309.2017.1377923 4206:"Women as advertising target" 4041:10.1080/14680777.2018.1456155 3042:Psychology of Women Quarterly 2998:10.1080/17482798.2018.1425888 2986:Journal of Children and Media 1907: 1845:Other organizations include: 1601:In the chapter "Gender" from 1555: 1526: 1119: 6118: 5777:– via Oxford Academic. 5669:10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.07.002 5502:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.007 5432:10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_27 3665:10.1080/09589236.2011.565193 3566:10.1080/19392397.2012.644718 3531:10.1080/15213269.2013.838903 3496:10.1080/19392397.2012.644708 3368:10.1080/19392397.2012.644723 3116:10.1016/0197-0070(90)90129-P 2589:10.1371/journal.pone.0148434 2133:10.1080/14680777.2014.958867 1983:10.1016/0277-5395(83)90019-5 1902:Portrayal of women in comics 1693:wrote on the first issue of 1683:, Australian-born author of 1469:Millennium Development Goals 1008:some of these abusers down. 150:. Notable feminists include 7: 6394:"Words, contexts, politics" 6148:Laetitia Biscarrat (2013). 4327:Psychology of Popular Media 2482:(2nd ed.). Routledge. 1860: 1747: 578:I Could Never Be Your Woman 48:, discuss the issue on the 10: 7105: 5314:"How toys became gendered" 5271:10.2753/JOA0091-3367390103 5141:10.1186/s12889-023-16672-x 4920:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104051 3405:(inactive 17 April 2024). 2937:10.1007/s11199-020-01190-6 2363:. UNESCO. 14 February 2018 2361:"Women Make the News 2018" 2342:10.1177/009207037600400103 2021:. News Leaders Association 1617:Ireland's eighth amendment 1132: 819:The Manic Pixie Dream Girl 122: 111:, in cooperation with the 91:and is represented within 7018: 6962: 6924: 6846: 6795: 6760: 6704: 6661: 6654: 6618: 6570: 6494: 6285:. UNESCO. 12 October 2016 6208:"Bechdel Test Movie List" 6013:Ward, L. Monique (2016). 5716:10.1016/j.pcl.2016.07.008 5545:10.1007/s11199-011-9964-x 5204:10.1007/s11199-010-9815-1 4960:10.1007/s11126-017-9535-6 4647:Journal of Film and Video 4610:Journal of Gender Studies 4535:Journal of Gender Studies 4211:International Advertising 3813:The National News Opinion 3653:Journal of Gender Studies 3630:10.1007/s11199-016-0668-0 3260:10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y 3175:10.1080/08838157509363786 3007:10067/1482170151162165141 2902:10.1108/17473611311325564 2845:10.1007/s11199-016-0727-6 2806:10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1 2771:10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5 2646:10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5 2478:Gauntlett, David (2008). 1999:Treichler, Paula (1985). 1882:Femininity in advertising 1835:Women’s Media Group (WMG) 1767: 1673:The Mary Tyler Moore Show 399:, the title character on 7072:Gender and entertainment 7051:Society of the Spectacle 6104:Rosen, Marjorie (1973). 6060:Greer, Germaine (1970). 5617:10.1177/0145445507309027 5581:10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.9 5463:Journal of Social Issues 4995:American Economic Review 4699:10.1177/2158244013506446 4477:10.1177/0269758019841480 4132:10.1177/0193723500244006 3403:10.2979/NWS.2006.18.1.13 3148:Feminism and Pop Culture 3054:10.1177/0361684313515185 1473:Ford Foundation Building 1360:In the documentary film 1355: 1338: 1092:came to film during the 890:Actress Mallika Sherawat 797:The Amazing Spider-Man 2 596: 412:", feminist film critic 402:Buffy the Vampire Slayer 248:Representations of women 6932:Influence of mass media 6737:Narcotizing dysfunction 6390:Attenborough, Frederick 6019:Journal of Sex Research 5925:10.1111/1469-8676.12914 5862:Fischer, Clara (2020). 5475:10.1111/0022-4537.00119 4838:(documentary). Netflix. 4692:(4): 2158244013506446. 4183:www.diamundialradio.org 3336:10.1108/GM-07-2013-0073 3287:Media and Communication 3228:(2): 53. Archived from 3163:Journal of Broadcasting 2019:members.newsleaders.org 1810:Nonprofit organizations 1471:Countdown event in the 1276:Orange is the New Black 1222:, and Janet (played by 257:and as sexual objects. 7087:Social constructionism 6593:Freedom of information 6335:Psychology of Violence 5970:10.3390/ijerph20105770 5259:Journal of Advertising 4159:. UNESCO. 9 March 2018 4029:Feminist Media Studies 3772:Encyclopædia Britannic 3750:"a damsel in distress" 3300:10.17645/mac.v7i1.1627 3188:Byerly, C. M. (2011). 3146:Zeisler, Andi (2008). 2121:Feminist Media Studies 1736:Dykes to Watch Out For 1726: 1540:Postmodern Fairy Tales 1519: 1507: 1476: 1463:The Hollywood actress 1433:anxiety and depression 1044: 1012:Representations of men 829:Manic Pixie Dream Girl 825:Manic Pixie Dream Girl 811:Avengers: Infinity War 776:The Matrix Revolutions 613:emotional manipulation 492:successfully sued the 283:action-adventure shows 253:Men only see women as 226:gender representations 211:A survey conducted by 103:and reinforce women's 6980:Exploitation of women 6422:focusing on the media 6411:10.1558/genl.v8i2.137 5605:Behavior Modification 4948:Psychiatric Quarterly 4209:. In J. Jones (ed.). 3089:10.1093/screen/16.3.6 2703:"The Codes of Gender" 2306:. UNESCO. 29 May 2017 1948:. SAGE. p. xxi. 1820:Geena Davis Institute 1724: 1708:symbolic annihilation 1517: 1505: 1462: 1212:, Crowley (played by 1200:gender non-conforming 1052:hegemonic masculinity 1022: 985:Raja Ki Aayegi Baarat 632:Mission: Impossible 2 504:and dyeing her hair. 408:In her 1973 article " 5007:10.1257/aer.20211218 4520:10.11575/PRISM/37690 3754:Cambridge Dictionary 3519:Media and Psychology 3324:Gender in Management 3235:on 14 November 2017. 3202:on 10 February 2014. 2515:(14): 1, 9, 11, 14. 2389:on 10 February 2012. 1704:feminist film theory 1627:Effects in adulthood 1146:organization called 783:The Bourne Supremacy 687:improve this article 522:Catherine Zeta-Jones 200:, about half of the 132:second wave feminism 54:create a new article 46:improve this article 7026:Advanced capitalism 6712:Cult of personality 6626:Advanced capitalism 6419:Gender and Language 6398:Gender and Language 5913:Social Anthropology 5774:10.1093/jcmc/zmz004 4806:Gaga: Five Foot Two 4803:(director) (2017). 4760:Miss Representation 4203:Bartos, R. (2000). 4112:; Dunbar, Michele; 4110:Messner, Michael A. 3689:(25 January 2007). 2580:2016PLoSO..1148434J 2269:Doyle, Liz (2015). 2115:Harvey, A. (2015). 1897:Language and gender 1872:Bisexual literature 1841:Other organizations 1830:Womens Media Center 1797:The #MeToo Movement 1467:in a speech at the 1363:Gaga: Five Foot Two 1330:Gender expectations 848:The Sleeping Beauty 271:Screen Actors Guild 198:video game industry 6947:Semiotic democracy 6871:Civil disobedience 6783:Media manipulation 6773:Crowd manipulation 6696:Tabloid journalism 6610:Media transparency 6588:Media independence 6502:24-hour news cycle 6347:10.1037/vio0000363 5392:Gurvich, Abigail. 4881:Feminist Frequency 4856:. 29 November 2011 4781:. 21 February 2012 4590:10.4000/ejas.12093 4339:10.1037/ppm0000289 4010:10.22034/2015.4.04 3602:10.1111/fare.12237 2681:10.1007/BF00289848 2408:Who Makes the News 2256:"Gender and media" 1727: 1610:cosmetic surgeries 1520: 1508: 1477: 1402:damsel in distress 1366:, American singer 840:Damsel in distress 835:Damsel in Distress 702:"Media and gender" 604:Once Were Warriors 584:Last Chance Harvey 542:Christy Turlington 534:Julianna Margulies 498:age discrimination 142:, criticizing the 7082:Mass media issues 7059: 7058: 6985:Freedom of speech 6803:Theodor W. Adorno 6791: 6790: 6778:Managing the news 6598:Freedom of speech 6578:Media development 6542:News broadcasting 6522:Independent media 6507:Alternative media 6444:978-0-335-21097-8 6258:"Women and media" 6134:978-0-19-502352-7 6075:978-0-06-157953-0 6064:The Female Eunuch 5808:978-1-910634-48-6 5441:978-1-4419-1467-5 5128:BMC Public Health 5082:10.2196/jmir.7215 5001:(11): 3660–3693. 4442:10.4000/rfsic.693 4435:(in French) (4). 3554:Celebrity Studies 3484:Celebrity Studies 3463:978-2-7535-2905-2 3356:Celebrity Studies 2489:978-0-415-39661-5 2233:Los Angeles Times 2189:Los Angeles Times 1955:978-1-4129-9079-0 1686:The Female Eunuch 1654:Feminist response 1485:sexual harassment 1435:the most common. 1209:One Day at a Time 1190:There is also an 1098:Rudolph Valentino 983:In the 1997 film 950:The 2007 movie, " 932:Chitrangada Singh 763: 762: 755: 737: 566:Romantic comedies 82: 81: 74: 56:, as appropriate. 7094: 7031:Culture industry 7000:Social influence 6953:The Lonely Crowd 6896:Political satire 6861:Call-out culture 6838:Jacques Rancière 6833:Marshall McLuhan 6808:Jean Baudrillard 6752:Viral phenomenon 6686:Public relations 6659: 6658: 6532:Mainstream media 6517:Electronic media 6481: 6474: 6467: 6458: 6457: 6448: 6415: 6413: 6377: 6376: 6366: 6326: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6309:me too. Movement 6301: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6279: 6273: 6272: 6270: 6268: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6243: 6233:"About UN Women" 6229: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6204: 6198: 6197: 6195: 6193: 6183: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6164: 6145: 6139: 6138: 6126: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6067: 6057: 6051: 6050: 6025:(4–5): 560–577. 6010: 6001: 6000: 5990: 5972: 5948: 5937: 5936: 5910: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5868: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5848: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5823: 5790: 5779: 5778: 5776: 5752: 5746: 5745: 5735: 5710:(6): 1079–1090. 5695: 5689: 5688: 5648: 5637: 5636: 5600: 5585: 5584: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5539:(478): 478–490. 5528: 5522: 5521: 5485: 5479: 5478: 5460: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5419: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5364: 5358: 5357: 5355: 5353: 5338: 5329: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5310: 5299: 5298: 5250: 5241: 5240: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5215: 5183: 5172: 5171: 5161: 5143: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5102: 5084: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5035: 5029: 5028: 5018: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4922: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4801:Moukarbel, Chris 4797: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4754: 4745: 4744: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4711: 4701: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4625: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4530: 4524: 4523: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4488: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4444: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4372:(3): 1879–1909. 4357: 4351: 4350: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4296:The Conversation 4287: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4208: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4175: 4169: 4168: 4166: 4164: 4153: 4147: 4143: 4106: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4020: 4014: 4013: 4004:(4): 1021–1034. 3989: 3983: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3911: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3892:. pp. 31–33 3887: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3833: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3590:Family Relations 3584: 3578: 3577: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3479: 3468: 3467: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3432: 3424: 3414: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3351: 3340: 3339: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3302: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3234: 3219: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3194: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3143: 3128: 3127: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3037: 3028: 3027: 3009: 2977: 2968: 2967: 2949: 2939: 2915: 2906: 2905: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2864: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2738:on 28 April 2016 2734:. 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1030:American society 975:The Devoted Wife 961:The 2018 movie " 758: 751: 747: 744: 738: 736: 695: 671: 663: 659:Disposable Woman 646:Titus Andronicus 590:It's Complicated 483:eating disorders 479:cosmetic surgery 474:Sex and the City 416:coined the term 384:Sex and the City 379:Sex and the City 376:(1997–2002) and 320:expectations of 275:Supporting Roles 171:social construct 87:plays a role in 77: 70: 66: 63: 57: 29: 28: 21: 7104: 7103: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7093: 7092: 7091: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7055: 7041:Media franchise 7014: 6958: 6920: 6876:Culture jamming 6842: 6828:Walter Lippmann 6787: 6756: 6700: 6650: 6614: 6605:Media pluralism 6566: 6490: 6485: 6445: 6427:Carter, Cynthia 6385: 6383:Further reading 6380: 6327: 6323: 6313: 6311: 6303: 6302: 6298: 6288: 6286: 6281: 6280: 6276: 6266: 6264: 6256: 6255: 6251: 6241: 6239: 6231: 6230: 6226: 6216: 6214: 6212:bechdeltest.com 6206: 6205: 6201: 6191: 6189: 6176: 6172: 6162: 6160: 6146: 6142: 6135: 6117: 6113: 6102: 6098: 6087: 6083: 6076: 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Club 3724: 3717: 3702: 3701: 3700:The A.V. Club 3696: 3694: 3693:Elizabethtown 3688: 3687:Rabin, Nathan 3682: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3647: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3436: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3362:(1): 90–103. 3361: 3357: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3310: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3242: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3209: 3198: 3191: 3184: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3150:. Seal Press. 3149: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3071: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3036: 3034: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2974: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2947:11368/3011935 2943: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2912: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2737: 2733: 2730:Serdar, K.L. 2726: 2724: 2708: 2704: 2698: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2628: 2626: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2550: 2549:The Economist 2546: 2540: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2491: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2441: 2435: 2433: 2424: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2399: 2397: 2388: 2384: 2383:"The Problem" 2378: 2362: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2322: 2305: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2280: 2273:. p. 11. 2272: 2265: 2257: 2250: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2227: 2216: 2205: 2198: 2190: 2186: 2179: 2171: 2167: 2160: 2152: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2111: 2095: 2089: 2087: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2046: 2042: 2036: 2020: 2016: 2010: 2002: 1995: 1993: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1957: 1951: 1947: 1946: 1938: 1922: 1916: 1912: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1847: 1846: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1816: 1815: 1807: 1803: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1775: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1740: 1738: 1737: 1732: 1723: 1719: 1717: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1674: 1669: 1668: 1663: 1662: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1599: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1580: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1565: 1564: 1553: 1544: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1533:stereotypical 1524: 1516: 1512: 1504: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1434: 1428: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1397:is dominant. 1396: 1392: 1382: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1364: 1353: 1349: 1346: 1336: 1327: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1300: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1266: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1251: 1246: 1245:Brandon Teena 1242: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1230: 1225: 1224:D'Arcy Carden 1221: 1220: 1215: 1214:David Tennant 1211: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1156:Jewelle Gomez 1153: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1136: 1126: 1117: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1086:Miriam Hansen 1082: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1061: 1056: 1053: 1048: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1021: 1018: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 988: 986: 981: 968: 964: 960: 957: 953: 952:Chak De India 949: 948: 947: 938: 935: 933: 929: 925: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 898: 895: 891: 888: 885: 881: 877: 876:Malaika Arora 873: 870: 866: 862: 861: 860: 854:The Item Girl 851: 849: 845: 841: 832: 830: 826: 816: 814: 812: 807: 805: 800: 798: 793: 791: 786: 784: 779: 777: 772: 770: 757: 754: 746: 735: 732: 728: 725: 721: 718: 714: 711: 707: 704: – 703: 699: 698:Find sources: 692: 688: 682: 681: 676:This section 674: 670: 665: 664: 656: 654: 653: 648: 647: 642: 640: 635: 633: 624:Referred Pain 616: 614: 610: 606: 605: 594: 592: 591: 586: 585: 580: 579: 574: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 510: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 486: 484: 480: 476: 475: 470: 469: 464: 460: 459:Harrison Ford 454: 452: 447: 443: 438: 436: 432: 424:Domestication 421: 419: 415: 411: 406: 404: 403: 398: 397:Buffy Summers 394: 390: 385: 381: 380: 375: 374: 368: 365: 361: 358: 354: 350: 348: 344: 343:fashion shows 339: 336: 332: 327: 326:Sexualization 323: 315:Sexualization 312: 310: 306: 302: 297: 295: 290: 286: 284: 278: 276: 272: 267: 258: 256: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 218: 214: 209: 207: 206:A. 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Retrieved 5400:. Word Press 5397: 5387: 5375:. Retrieved 5369: 5362: 5350:. Retrieved 5346:The Guardian 5345: 5321:. Retrieved 5317: 5265:(1): 35–48. 5262: 5258: 5236: 5230: 5195: 5191: 5131: 5127: 5117: 5072: 5068: 5058: 5046:. Retrieved 5042: 5033: 5016:10419/260853 4998: 4994: 4984: 4951: 4947: 4937: 4910: 4906: 4896: 4884:. Retrieved 4880: 4870: 4858:. Retrieved 4853: 4844: 4833: 4828:(director), 4826:Wilson, Lana 4820: 4804: 4795: 4783:. Retrieved 4778: 4769: 4758: 4740: 4736: 4726: 4689: 4685: 4675: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4613: 4609: 4599: 4580: 4576: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4510: 4503: 4468: 4464: 4458: 4446:. Retrieved 4432: 4422: 4410:. Retrieved 4406:The Advocate 4404: 4394: 4369: 4365: 4355: 4330: 4326: 4316: 4304:. Retrieved 4295: 4285: 4273:. Retrieved 4264: 4254: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4210: 4198: 4186:. Retrieved 4182: 4173: 4161:. Retrieved 4151: 4123: 4117: 4089:. Retrieved 4084: 4075: 4066: 4032: 4028: 4018: 4001: 3997: 3987: 3975:. Retrieved 3971: 3961: 3949:. 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