850:(kānaka ʻōiwi) believed the entire site was sacred and that developing the mountain, even for science, would spoil the area. Environmentalists were concerned about rare native bird populations and other citizens of Hilo were concerned about the sight of the domes from the city. Using town hall meetings, Jefferies was able to overcome opposition by weighing the economic advantage and prestige the island would receive. There has been substantial opposition to the Mauna Kea observatories that continues to grow. Over the years, the opposition to the observatories may have become the most visible example of the conflict science has encountered over access and use of environmental and culturally significant sites. Opposition to development grew shortly after expansion of the observatories commenced. Once access was opened up by the roadway to the summit, skiers began using it for recreation and objected when the road was closed as a precaution against vandalism when the telescopes were being built. Hunters voiced concerns, as did the
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467:. Kuiper would abandon his site (the very first telescope on Mauna Kea) over the competition and begin work in Arizona on a different NASA project. After considerable testing by Jefferies' team, the best locations were determined to be near the summit at the top of the cinder cones. Testing also determined Mauna Kea to be superb for nighttime viewing due to many factors, including the thin air, constant trade winds and being surrounded by sea. Jefferies would build a 2.24 meter telescope with the State of Hawaiʻi agreeing to build a reliable, all weather roadway to the summit. Building began in 1967 and first light was seen in 1970.
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sportsmen were concerned that the hunting of feral animals would be affected by the telescope operations. A "Save Mauna Kea" movement was inspired by the proliferation of telescopes, with opposition believing development of the mountain to be sacrilegious. Native
Hawaiian non-profit groups, such as Kahea, whose goals are the protection of cultural heritage and the environment, oppose development on Mauna Kea as a sacred space to the Hawaiian religion. The land is protected by the United States Historical Preservation Act due to its significance to Hawaiian culture, but still allowed development.
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the
University based management. Locals never agreed to thirteen telescopes atop the mountain and demand a say in the legislation process. House Bill 2024 pushes for new stewardship on the summit. The area will be integrated in terms of management. Some land will be jurisdicted by the local community. The Bill pushes for future laws and regulations in terms of new building. As always, the cultural and environmental sites will be heavily recognized as a factor for consideration.
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instituted an Office of Mauna Kea
Management, designated 525 acres (212 ha) for astronomy, and shifted the remaining 10,763 acres (4,356 ha) to "natural and cultural preservation". This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown toward the cultural value the mountain embodied to the region's indigenous people.
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463:. The proposal was for a two-meter telescope to serve both the needs of NASA and the university. While large telescopes are not ordinarily awarded to universities without well-established astronomers, Jefferies and UH were awarded the NASA contract, infuriating Kuiper, who felt that "his mountain" had been "stolen" from
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to only specific parts of this mountain. The bird is the last of the finch billed honeycreepers existing on the island. Over 50% of native bird species had been killed off due to loss of habitat from early western settlers or the introduction of non-native species competing for resources. Hunters and
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manages the site and leases land to several multi-national facilities, which have invested more than $ 2 billion in science and technology. The lease expires in 2033 and after that 40 of 45 square kilometers (25 of 28 square miles) revert to the state of Hawaii. Currently, pressure has been placed on
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As of 2012, the Mauna Kea
Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities, each funded by as many as 11 countries. It is one of the world's premier observatories for optical, infrared, and submillimeter astronomy, and in 2009 was the largest measured by light gathering power. There are nine telescopes
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With all the controversy, the building of telescopes has led to the creation of the Hawaii Night Sky
Protection Act. As artificial light forms a light cloud above the land, the excess light disrupts the clear pictures taken by the telescopes. On July 1, 2013, the Hawaii Night Sky Protection Act was
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approved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site. In 1998, 2,033 acres (823 ha) were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age
Reserve. The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020: it
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An adjacent visitor information station is located at 9,200 feet (2,800 m). The summit of Mauna Kea is so high that tourists are advised to stop at the visitor station for at least 30 minutes to acclimate to atmospheric conditions before continuing to the summit, and scientists often stay at
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on Mauna Kea. However, local organizations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory. This led the
Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan, drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980. In January 1982, the University of Hawaiʻi
627:
From left-to-right: United
Kingdom Infrared Telescope, Caltech Sub-Millimeter Observatory (closed 2015), James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, Smithsonian Sub-Millimeter Array, Subaru Telescope, W.M. Keck Observatory (I & II), NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope, Gemini
454:
to bulldoze a dirt road to the summit where he built a small telescope on Puʻu Poliʻahu, a cinder cone peak. The peak was the second highest on the mountain with the highest peak being holy ground, so Kuiper avoided it. Next, Kuiper tried enlisting NASA to fund a larger facility with a large
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The Mauna Kea
Observatories involves thirteen large telescopes. In November 2020, in collaboration with Europe's low-frequency ARray radio telescope, Mauna Kea's Gemini observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (NITF), discovered the first Super-Planet. In October, 2011, the
390:. The facilities are located in a 525-acre (212 ha) special land use zone known as the "Astronomy Precinct", which is located within the 11,228-acre (4,544 ha) Mauna Kea Science Reserve. The Astronomy Precinct was established in 1967 and is located on land protected by the
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initiated, affecting both the Big Island and Maui. A large difference between the
Hawaiian islands and the mainland United States can be observed: street lighting. Almost all streets are dark as the lamps have either not been built, have been removed, or have been dimmed.
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in the world. While the summit is often covered with snow, the air is extremely dry. Kuiper began looking into the possibility of an observatory on Mauna Kea. After testing, he discovered the low humidity was perfect for infrared signals. He persuaded Hawaiʻi Governor
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Telescopes found at the summit of Mauna Kea are funded by government agencies of various nations. The University of Hawaiʻi directly administers two telescopes. In total, there are twelve facilities housing thirteen telescopes at or around the summit of Mauna Kea.
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Significantly predating the current observatories there is evidence of active astronomy on Mauna Kea in the 1901 Land Office Map of the Island of Hawaii showing the "Hawaii Astronomy Station" near the Mauna Kea summit.
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In Honolulu, the governor and legislature, enthusiastic about the development, set aside an even larger area for the observatory after the initial project, causing opposition on the Big Island, in the city of
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Hale Pōhaku for eight hours or more before spending a full night at observatories on the summit, with some telescopes requiring observers to spend one full night at Hale Pōhaku before working at the summit.
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working in the visible and infrared spectrum, three in the submillimeter spectrum, and one in the radio spectrum, with mirrors or dishes ranging from 0.9 to 25 m (3 to 82 ft). In comparison, the
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and aftershocks. JCMT was performing an inclinometry run and recorded the earthquake on its tilt sensors. Both CFHT and W. M. Keck Observatory were operational and back online by October 19.
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began seeking an arid site for infrared studies. While he first began looking in Chile, he also made the decision to perform tests in the Hawaiian Islands. Tests on
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statistics show that Mauna Kea is the best site in terms of optical and infrared image quality; for example, the CFHT site has a median seeing of 0.43 arcseconds.
588:
makes Mauna Kea one of the best locations on Earth for ground-based astronomy. It is an ideal location for submillimeter, infrared and optical observations. The
413:, high elevation of 4,205 meters (13,796 ft), position above most of the water vapor in the atmosphere, clean air, good weather and low latitude location.
512:, which required new sites, was eventually canceled. Three or four of the mountain's 13 existing telescopes must be dismantled over the next decade with the
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were promising, but the mountain was too low in the inversion layer and often covered by clouds. On the "Big Island" of Hawaiʻi, Mauna Kea is considered the
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telescope, housing and other needed structures. NASA, in turn, decided to make the project open to competition. Professor of physics, John Jefferies of the
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557:
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Other groups began requesting subleases on the newly accessible mountaintop. By 1970, two 24 in (0.6 m) telescopes had been constructed by the
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2100:
963:
544:; the prize recognized their findings, based on research on supernovae at the observatories, that dark energy is a force causing the universe
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599:(often called Hale Pōhaku), 7 miles (11 km) by unpaved steep road from the summit at 9,300 feet (2,800 m) above sea level.
508:, have attracted controversy due to their potential cultural and ecological impact. The multi-telescope "outrigger" extension to the
395:
378:) are a group of independent astronomical research facilities and large telescope observatories that are located at the summit of
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due to Mauna Kea's centrality in native Hawaiian religion and culture, as well as for a variety of environmental reasons.
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978:
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has a 2.4 m (7.9 ft) mirror, similar in size to the UH88, now the second smallest telescope on the mountain.
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1301:
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261:
190:
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CSO, UKIRT, and Hoku Kea are scheduled for decommissioning as part of the Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan.
697:
446:
221:
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Maunakea is home to a number of astronomical observatories, including Gemini North, one half of the International
2022:
1865:
Recollections of "Tucson Operations": The Millimeter-Wave Observatory of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory
1557:
993:
1318:
1013:
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1975:
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706:
231:
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The Audubon Society objected to further development on Mauna Kea over concerns to habitat of the endangered
790:
93:
1505:
905:
2097:
1504:, and the Association of Canadian Universities for Research in Astronomy. August 21, 2009. Archived from
55:
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879:
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placed a bid on behalf of the university. Jefferies had gained his reputation through observations at
968:
50:
1686:"Nobel Prize in Physics awarded for Accelerating Expansion of the Universe – W. M. Keck Observatory"
1501:
1008:
851:
796:
271:
151:
61:
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1971:
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for its significance to Hawaiian culture. The presence and continued construction of telescopes
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561:
456:
29:
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8:
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137:
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475:
211:
173:
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1431:. Hawai`i State Department of Land and Natural Resources. pp. 6–1. Archived from
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proposal to be the last area on Mauna Kea on which any telescope would ever be built.
1950:
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1815:
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410:
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1946:
The Legacies of a Hawaiian Generation: From Territorial Subject to American Citizen
1607:
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735:
537:
241:
1263:
Robert M. Kamins; Robert E. Potter; University of Hawaii (System) (January 1998).
42:
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1190:
855:
770:
533:
402:
383:
85:
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1135:
1166:
Who Runs the University?: The Politics of Higher Education in Hawaii, 1985-1992
1005:
Historically important observatories (not undergoing substantial development):
761:
726:
672:
430:
1919:
Place, Race, and Story: Essays on the Past and Future of Historic Preservation
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668:
585:
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451:
434:
387:
115:
102:
833:
611:
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1621:
843:
1385:"Mauna Kea Science Reserve Astronomy Development Plan 2000–2020 – Summary"
573:
442:
2070:
1996:
1835:
Michael Dear; Jim Ketchum; Sarah Luria; Doug Richardson (13 April 2011).
1528:"University of Hawaii Develop New Telescope for "Killer" Asteroid Search"
878:
A number of the telescopes sustained minor damage during the October 15,
718:
164:
1358:. Hawai`i State Department of Land and Natural Resources. Archived from
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815:
360:
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1322:
1078:
1059:. University of Hawaii Economic Research Organization. 28 August 2014
688:
684:
578:
379:
81:
73:
1660:"Maunakea Telescopes Confirm First Super-Planet Discovered by Radio"
1612:
1587:
975:
Other major international observatories (under active development):
1212:
Stairway to the Stars: The Story of the World's Largest Observatory
866:
1136:
Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (November 1964).
789:
University of Hawaiʻi 36-inch (910 mm) telescope (Hoku Kea):
2092:
1725:"Legislation Would Dramatically Improve Stewardship of Mauna Kea"
954:
Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology
862:
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730:
722:
692:
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651:
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that contained greater detail than any ground-based telescope,
347:
1356:"Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan: UH Management Areas"
1142:
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs
714:
710:
680:
615:
The Submillimeter Array of radio telescopes at night, lit by
1321:. Mauna Kea Observatories Outreach Committee. Archived from
1071:
478:. In 1973, Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6 m
1868:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 136–140.
783:
701:
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Accommodations for research astronomers are located at the
558:
State of Hawaiʻi's Department of Land and Natural Resources
438:
426:
292:
2132:
556:
The Reserve was established in 1968, and is leased by the
1112:
An Acre of Glass: A History and Forecast of the Telescope
1144:. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 35.
1838:
GeoHumanities: Art, History, Text at the Edge of Place
1242:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 276.
2109:
1814:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 18.
1423:
1811:
The Future of Small Telescopes in the New Millennium
1783:"Third Maunakea observatory set for decommissioning"
1289:
784:
University of Hawaiʻi 88-inch (2.2 m) telescope
1266:
Måalamalama: A History of the University of Hawaiʻi
1455:
1453:
808:: California Association for Research in Astronomy
2205:Buildings and structures in Hawaii County, Hawaii
1235:
2181:
1942:
1269:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 210–211.
1239:A History of Astronomy: from 1890 to the Present
584:The altitude and isolation in the middle of the
2023:"Earthquake Update from W. M. Keck Observatory"
1828:
1807:
1450:
1256:
1208:
964:List of largest optical telescopes historically
326:
1997:"2006 October 15 Earthquake Aftermath at CFHT"
1888:
1765:"Thousands Take to the Streets to Protest TMT"
1310:
1283:
1229:
577:Mauna Kea Observatories seen from the base of
1936:
1745:. University of Hawaii Institute of Astronomy
1581:
1579:
1054:"The Economic Impact of Astronomy in Hawai'i"
959:List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
873:
1204:
1202:
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1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
760:, proposed for Mauna Kea, alternatively the
1915:
1909:
1861:
1169:. University of Hawaii Press. p. 232.
1162:
2210:Discoveries by the Mauna Kea Observatories
2075:
1855:
1801:
1731:
1576:
1520:
1490:"Thirty Meter Telescope Selects Mauna Kea"
1342:
1340:
1293:Space Technology & Planetary Astronomy
822:
740:National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
597:Onizuka Center for International Astronomy
401:The location is near ideal because of its
172:
150:
136:
60:
41:
28:
1611:
1426:"Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan"
1199:
1089:
829:Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories
522:
1882:
1697:
1695:
1296:. Indiana University Press. p. 82.
1156:
832:
814:
622:
610:
572:
416:
2098:Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan
1588:"Hawaii prunes Mauna Kea telescope hub"
1558:"Ruling could block Mauna Kea projects"
1377:
1337:
1316:
1129:
1048:
1046:
989:Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory
2182:
1943:Judith Schachter (15 September 2013).
1424:University of Hawai`i (January 2009).
504:Planned new telescopes, including the
2083:Mauna Kea Visitor Information Station
1969:
1692:
1585:
1236:David Leverington (6 December 2012).
2200:Astronomy institutes and departments
2195:Astronomical observatories in Hawaii
1892:Hawaii:: A History of the Big Island
1209:Barry R. PARKER (11 November 2013).
1043:
16:Astronomical observatories in Hawaii
2215:Protected areas established in 1968
1895:. Arcadia Publishing. p. 131.
1482:
1138:"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists"
899:Sunset over Mauna Kea Observatories
405:from lack of light pollution, good
335:Location of Mauna Kea Observatories
13:
1889:Robert F. Oaks (1 November 2003).
1662:. November 8, 2020. Archived from
1498:California Institute of Technology
1319:"Timeline of Astronomy in Hawaiʻi"
979:Roque de los Muchachos Observatory
287:2×10 m visible/infrared telescopes
14:
2236:
2062:
1916:Ned Kaufman (11 September 2009).
1586:Witze, Alexandra (June 4, 2015).
1542:. October 8, 2002. Archived from
767:United Kingdom Infrared Telescope
638:Caltech Submillimeter Observatory
546:to expand at an accelerating rate
2167:
2155:
2143:
2131:
2119:
1705:. Office of Mauna Kea Management
1195:. Intra Press. 1991. p. 45.
1109:J. B. Zirker (18 October 2005).
928:
916:
904:
892:
698:NASA Infrared Telescope Facility
499:
346:
325:
318:
2037:
2015:
2001:Canada–France–Hawaiʻi Telescope
1989:
1963:
1775:
1757:
1717:
1678:
1652:
1628:
1550:
1417:
994:Llano de Chajnantor Observatory
854:who were supported by Governor
648:Canada–France–Hawaiʻi Telescope
2093:Office of Mauna Kea Management
1949:. Berghahn Books. p. 43.
1183:
1163:David Yount (1 January 1996).
1014:Kitt Peak National Observatory
447:second-highest island mountain
256:8×6 m arrayed radio telescopes
135:4,205 m (13,796 ft)
1:
2220:Research institutes in Hawaii
2190:1967 establishments in Hawaii
1976:Canadian Astronomical Society
1398:. August 1999. Archived from
1290:Joseph N. Tatarewicz (1990).
1115:. JHU Press. pp. 89–95.
1036:
786:(UH88): University of Hawaiʻi
707:James Clerk Maxwell Telescope
606:
551:
1862:Mark Gordon (18 July 2007).
939:, operated by NSF’s NOIRLab.
791:University of Hawaii at Hilo
773:Advanced Technology Center,
7:
944:
568:
461:Sacramento Peak Observatory
392:Historical Preservation Act
302:UH Hilo Hoku Ke'a Telescope
10:
2241:
1841:. Routledge. p. 476.
885:
880:2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake
874:2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake
826:
425:After studying photos for
2045:"At the Foot of Maunakea"
1922:. Routledge. p. 14.
1787:University of Hawaii News
1739:"Mauna Kea Observatories"
969:Extremely large telescope
837:Snowy sunrise on Maunakea
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92:
69:
49:
36:
27:
2088:Mauna Kea Weather Center
2025:. W. M. Keck Observatory
1808:Terry D. Oswalt (2003).
1502:University of California
1317:Pickles, Andrew (2003).
1009:Mount Wilson Observatory
852:Hawaiian Audubon Society
797:Very Long Baseline Array
352:Related media on Commons
1536:Institute for Astronomy
1465:Institute for Astronomy
1392:Institute for Astronomy
1348:Institute for Astronomy
911:At the Foot of Maunakea
823:Opposition and protests
472:United States Air Force
396:is highly controversial
372:Mauna Kea Observatories
206:3.58 m visible/infrared
23:Mauna Kea Observatories
1789:. University of Hawaii
1640:www.capitol.hawaii.gov
1461:"Mauna Kea Telescopes"
1083:Maunakea Observatories
950:Lists and comparisons
838:
819:
806:W. M. Keck Observatory
758:Thirty Meter Telescope
665:Gemini North Telescope
629:
620:
581:
530:Nobel Prize in Physics
523:Scientific discoveries
506:Thirty Meter Telescope
494:Hubble Space Telescope
297:2.2 m visible/infrared
246:8.2 m visible/infrared
216:8.1 m visible/infrared
167:.maunakeaobservatories
37:Alternative names
2225:University of Hawaiʻi
1562:Pacific Business News
1405:on September 20, 2009
836:
818:
779:University of Arizona
775:University of Hawaiʻi
660:University of Hawaiʻi
626:
614:
576:
562:University of Hawaiʻi
417:Origin and background
384:Big Island of Hawaiʻi
51:Observatory code
1972:"News from the JCMT"
1970:Davis, Gary (2007).
1540:University of Hawaii
1469:University of Hawaii
1396:University of Hawaii
1352:University of Hawaii
999:La Silla Observatory
795:One receiver of the
745:Sub-Millimeter Array
457:University of Hawaii
277:25 m radio telescope
196:10.4 m submillimeter
116:19.8222°N 155.4749°W
1743:Maunakea Telescopes
1604:2015Natur.522...15W
1019:Palomar Observatory
984:Paranal Observatory
644: — closed 2015
407:astronomical seeing
112: /
24:
2103:2020-09-20 at the
2003:. January 11, 2007
1508:on August 10, 2010
937:Gemini Observatory
923:Sunset at Maunakea
839:
820:
630:
621:
582:
476:Lowell Observatory
236:15 m submillimeter
121:19.8222; -155.4749
22:
1956:978-1-78238-012-2
1929:978-1-135-88972-2
1902:978-1-4396-1403-7
1875:978-1-4020-3236-3
1848:978-1-136-88347-7
1821:978-94-010-0253-0
1666:on April 21, 2022
1546:on June 12, 2010.
1276:978-0-8248-2006-0
1249:978-1-4471-2124-4
1222:978-1-4899-6052-8
1176:978-0-8248-1821-0
1122:978-0-8018-8234-0
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2071:Official website
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2019:
2013:
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1727:. 20 March 2022.
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1564:. August 8, 2006
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2174:Solar System
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2039:
2027:. Retrieved
2017:
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1979:. Retrieved
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1791:. Retrieved
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1707:. Retrieved
1680:
1668:. Retrieved
1664:the original
1654:
1643:. Retrieved
1639:
1636:"SB2402.DOC"
1630:
1595:
1591:
1566:. Retrieved
1561:
1552:
1544:the original
1531:
1522:
1510:. Retrieved
1506:the original
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1484:
1472:. Retrieved
1440:. Retrieved
1433:the original
1419:
1407:. Retrieved
1400:the original
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1360:the original
1327:. Retrieved
1323:the original
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1215:. Springer.
1211:
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1061:. Retrieved
877:
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560:(DLNR). The
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212:Gemini North
2162:Outer space
2150:Spaceflight
1709:February 2,
1592:Nature News
1568:November 4,
1442:January 18,
719:South Korea
145:Established
119: /
107:155°28′30″W
94:Coordinates
19:Observatory
2184:Categories
2029:August 27,
2007:August 27,
1793:3 December
1749:3 December
1645:2022-09-11
1512:August 29,
1474:August 29,
1409:August 19,
1369:August 19,
1329:October 2,
1037:References
607:Telescopes
552:Management
403:dark skies
181:Telescopes
148:1956
104:19°49′20″N
2126:Astronomy
1703:"History"
1150:0096-3402
1025:Projects
769:(UKIRT):
689:Argentina
685:Australia
579:Mauna Kea
443:Haleakalā
380:Mauna Kea
82:Mauna Kea
74:Mauna Kea
2101:Archived
2050:July 26,
1769:Maui Now
1622:26040874
945:See also
799:(VLBA):
709:(JCMT):
700:(IRTF):
650:(CFHT):
569:Location
411:humidity
274:receiver
132:Altitude
70:Location
2112:Portals
1981:14 July
1600:Bibcode
1063:14 July
886:Gallery
867:endemic
747:(SMA):
642:Caltech
640:(CSO):
382:on the
160:Website
1953:
1926:
1899:
1872:
1845:
1818:
1620:
1300:
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1119:
1079:"Home"
863:Palila
749:Taiwan
731:Canada
723:Taiwan
693:Brazil
677:Canada
656:France
652:Canada
590:seeing
540:, and
409:, low
345:
86:Hawaii
58:
2138:Stars
1436:(PDF)
1429:(PDF)
1403:(PDF)
1388:(PDF)
1363:(PDF)
1057:(PDF)
715:Japan
711:China
681:Chile
617:flash
359:[
262:UKIRT
2052:2021
2031:2010
2009:2010
1983:2015
1951:ISBN
1924:ISBN
1897:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1843:ISBN
1816:ISBN
1795:2015
1751:2015
1711:2015
1672:2022
1618:PMID
1570:2010
1514:2010
1476:2010
1444:2012
1411:2010
1371:2010
1331:2010
1298:ISBN
1271:ISBN
1244:ISBN
1217:ISBN
1171:ISBN
1146:ISSN
1117:ISBN
1065:2015
844:Hilo
702:NASA
480:CFHT
474:and
439:Maui
427:NASA
370:The
293:UH88
272:VLBA
232:JCMT
222:IRTF
202:CFHT
169:.org
88:, US
40:MKO
1608:doi
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514:TMT
465:him
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376:MKO
252:SMA
191:CSO
165:www
56:568
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374:(
363:]
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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