Mau Mau rebellion - Knowledge

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get away with murder. It was systematic", Anderson said. An example of this impunity is the case of eight colonial officials accused of having prisoners tortured to death going unpunished even after their actions were reported to London. Huw Bennett of King's College London, who had worked with Anderson on the Chuka Massacre, said in a witness statement to the court that the new documents "considerably strengthen" the knowledge that the British Army were "intimately involved" with the colonial security forces, whom they knew were "systematically abusing and torturing detainees in screening centres and detention camps". In April 2011, lawyers for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office continued to maintain that there was no such policy. As early as November 1952, however, military reports noted that "he Army has been used for carrying out certain functions that properly belonged to the Police, eg. searching of huts and screening of Africans", and British soldiers arrested and transferred Mau Mau suspects to camps where they were beaten and tortured until they confessed. Bennett said that "the British Army retained ultimate operational control over all security forces throughout the Emergency", and that its military intelligence operation worked "hand in glove" with the Kenyan Special Branch "including in screening and interrogations in centres and detention camps".

2006: 6558:, pp. 75–76, 89, 91: "Some detainees, worried that the substance of their lives was draining away, thought their primary duty lay with their families. They therefore confessed to British officers, and sought an early release from detention. Other detainees refused to accept the British demand that they sully other people's reputations by naming those whom they knew to be involved in Mau Mau. This 'hard core' kept their mouths closed, and languished for years in detention. The battle behind the wire was not fought over detainees' loyalty to a Mau Mau movement. Detainees' intellectual and moral concerns were always close to home. ... British officials thought that those who confessed had broken their allegiance to Mau Mau. But what moved detainees to confess was not their broken loyalty to Mau Mau, but their devotion to their families. British officials played on this devotion to hasten a confession. ... The battle behind the wire was not fought between patriotic hard-core Mau Mau and weak-kneed, wavering, broken men who confessed. ... Both hard core and soft core had their families in mind." 2749:—a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight the guerrillas. All of the soldiers involved in the Chuka patrols were placed under open arrest at Nairobi's Buller Camp, but were not prosecuted. Instead, only their commanding officer, Major Gerald Selby Lee Griffiths, stood trial. Furthermore, rather than risk bringing publicity to the incident, Griffiths was charged with the murder of two other suspects in a separate incident that had taken place several weeks earlier. He was acquitted, but following public outcry, Griffiths was then tried under six separate charges of torture and disgraceful conduct for torturing two unarmed detainees, including a man named Njeru Ndwega. At his court-martial, it was stated that Griffiths had made Ndwega take off his pants, before telling a teenage African private to castrate him. When the private, a 16-year-old Somali named Ali Segat, refused to do this, Griffiths instead ordered him to cut off Ndwega's ear, to which Segat complied. On 11 March 1954, Griffiths was found guilty on five counts. He was sentenced to five years in prison and was 2995:

including an incident where a native Kenyan baby was "burnt to death", the "defilement of a young girl", and a soldier in Royal Irish Fusiliers who killed "in cold blood two people who had been his captives for over 12 hours". Baring himself was aware of the "extreme brutality" of the sometimes lethal torture meted out—which included "most drastic" beatings, solitary confinement, starvation, castration, whipping, burning, rape, sodomy, and forceful insertion of objects into orifices—but took no action. Baring's inaction was despite the urging of people like Arthur Young, Commissioner of Police for Kenya for less than eight months of 1954 before he resigned in protest, that "the horror of some of the should be investigated without delay". In February 1956, a provincial commissioner in Kenya, "Monkey" Johnson, wrote to Attorney General

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colonial information staff and African intellectuals, newspaper editors. The Mau Mau had learned much from - and built upon - the experience and advice of newspaper editors since 1945. In some cases, the editors of various publications in the colony were directly involved in producing Mau Mau propaganda. British Officials struggled to compete with the 'hybrid, porous, and responsive character' during the rebellion, and faced the same challenges in responding to Mau Mau propaganda, particularly in instances where the Mau Mau would use creative ways such as hymns to win and maintain followers. This was far more effective than government newspapers; however, once colonial officials brought the insurgency under control by late 1954, information officials gained an uncontested arena through which they won the propaganda war.

3962:, p. 342, which notes they were "always hopeless failures. Naked spearmen fall in swathes before machine-guns, without inflicting a single casualty in return. Meanwhile, the troops burn all the huts and collect all the live stock within reach. Resistance once at an end, the leaders of the rebellion are surrendered for imprisonment ... Risings that followed such a course could hardly be repeated. A period of calm followed. And when unrest again appeared it was with other leaders ... and other motives." A particularly interesting example, albeit outside Kenya and featuring guns instead of spears, of successful armed resistance to maintain crucial aspects of autonomy is the 1781:, was also controversial in that she was accused of presenting an equally binary portrayal of the conflict and of drawing questionable conclusions from limited census data, in particular her assertion that the victims of British punitive measures against the Kikuyu amounted to as many as 300,000 dead. While Elstein regards the "requirement" for the "great majority of Kikuyu" to live inside 800 "fortified villages" as "serv the purpose of protection", Professor David Anderson (amongst others) regards the "compulsory resettlement" of "1,007,500 Kikuyu" inside what, for the "most" part, were "little more than concentration camps" as "punitive ... to punish Mau Mau sympathisers". 2724:, three out of every four Kikuyu men were in detention in 1954. Maathai states that detainees were made to do forced labor and that their land was taken from them and given to collaborators. Maathai further states that the Home Guard in particular, raped women and had a reputation for cruelty in the form of terror and intimidation, whereas the Mau Mau soldiers were initially respectful of women. Only a small handful of rape cases went to trial. Fifty-six British soldiers and colonial police officers were tried for rape, of which 17 were convicted. The harshest sentences imposed were six-year sentences imposed on three British soldiers convicted of gang-raping a woman. 2881:

entail a greater use of force than that which the British public would tolerate. Nissimi argues, though, that such a view fails to "acknowledge the time that elapsed until the rebellion's influence actually took effect explain why the same liberal tendencies failed to stop the dirty war the British conducted against the Mau Mau in Kenya while it was raging on". Others contend that, as the 1950s progressed, nationalist intransigence increasingly rendered official plans for political development irrelevant, meaning that after the mid-1950s British policy increasingly accepted Kenyan nationalism and moved to co-opt its leaders and organisations into collaboration.

9738:, pp. 360–363: "During the run-up to independence and the years that followed, former loyalists also wielded political clout to consolidate their own interests and power. Under Kenyatta many became influential members of the new government. ... This system of loyalist patronage percolated all the way down to the local level of government, with former Home Guards dominating bureaucracies that had once been the preserve of the young British colonial officers in the African districts. Of the numerous vacancies created by decolonization—powerful posts like provincial commissioner and district commissioner—the vast majority were filled by one time loyalists." 8246:, pp. 109–110. "Mau Mau, despite its problematic claims to be called 'nationalist' . . . forced the issue of power in a way that KAU had never done. It was not that Mau Mau won its war against the British; guerrilla movements rarely win in military terms; and militarily Mau Mau was defeated. But in order to crown peace with sustainable civil governance—and thus reopen a prospect of controlled decolonization—the British had to abandon 'multiracialism' and adopt African rule as their vision of Kenya's future. . . . The blood of Mau Mau, no matter how peculiarly ethnic in source and aim, was the seed of Kenya's all-African sovereignty." 162: 2785:, eastern Kenya, was reserved for the most uncooperative of the detainees. They often refused, even when threats of force were made, to join in the colonial "rehabilitation process" or perform manual labour or obey colonial orders. The camp commandant outlined a plan that would force 88 of the detainees to bend to work. On 3 March 1959, the camp commandant put this plan into action—as a result, 11 detainees were clubbed to death by guards. 77 surviving detainees sustained serious permanent injuries. The British government accepts that the colonial administration tortured detainees, but denies liability. 8222:, p. 11: "The co-option of sympathetic African elites during the colonial twilight into the bureaucracy, the legislature and the private property-based economy meant that the allies of colonialism and representatives of transnational capital were able to reap the benefits of independence. . . . The post-colonial state must therefore be seen as a representation of the interests protected and promoted during the latter years of colonial rule. Under Jomo Kenyatta, the post-colonial state represented a 'pact-of-domination' between transnational capital, the elite and the executive." 4234:. "The recruitment of African labor at poor rates of pay and under primitive conditions of work was characteristic of the operation of colonial capitalism in Africa during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. ... olonial states readily colluded with capital in providing the legal framework necessary for the recruitment and maintenance of labor in adequate numbers and at low cost to the employer. ... The colonial state shared the desire of the European settler to encourage Africans into the labour market, whilst also sharing a concern to moderate the wages paid to workers". 279: 268: 138: 12274: 3772:, p. 179: "The administration's refusal to develop mechanisms whereby African grievances against non-Africans might be resolved on terms of equity, moreover, served to accelerate a growing disaffection with colonial rule. The investigations of the Kenya Land Commission of 1932–1934 are a case study in such lack of foresight, for the findings and recommendations of this commission, particularly those regarding the claims of the Kikuyu of Kiambu, would serve to exacerbate other grievances and nurture the seeds of a growing African nationalism in Kenya". 3252:"Squatter or resident labourers are those who reside with their families on European farms usually for the purpose of work for the owners. ... Contract labourers are those who sign a contract of service before a magistrate, for periods varying from three to twelve months. Casual labourers leave their reserves to engage themselves to European employers for any period from one day upwards." In return for his services, a squatter was entitled to use some of the settler's land for cultivation and grazing. Contract and casual workers are together referred to as 2420:, often neighbours and relatives. In short, rewards or collective punishments such as curfews could be served much more readily after villagisation, and this quickly broke Mau Mau's passive wing. Though there were degrees of difference between the villages, the overall conditions engendered by villagisation meant that, by early 1955, districts began reporting starvation and malnutrition. One provincial commissioner blamed child hunger on parents deliberately withholding food, saying the latter were aware of the "propaganda value of apparent malnutrition". 2214:

This failure was partly due to the lack of manpower and resources, as well as the vast numbers of detainees. Officials could scarcely process them all, let alone get them to confess their oaths. Assessing the situation in the summer of 1955, Alan Lennox-Boyd wrote of his "fear that the net figure of detainees may still be rising. If so the outlook is grim." Black markets flourished during this period, with the native Kenyan guards helping to facilitate trading. It was possible for detainees to bribe guards in order to obtain items or stay punishment.

2304:, due to the poor rations provided. Official medical reports detailing the shortcomings of the camps and their recommendations were ignored, and the conditions being endured by detainees were lied about and denied. A British rehabilitation officer found in 1954 that detainees from Manyani were in "shocking health", many of them suffering from malnutrition, while Langata and GilGil were eventually closed in April 1955 because, as the colonial government put it, "they were unfit to hold Kikuyu ... for medical epidemiological reasons". 150: 1646:

colonial labour-legislation and a prejudiced legal-system. The vast majority of Kenyan employees' violations of labour legislation were settled with "rough justice" meted out by their employers. Most colonial magistrates appear to have been unconcerned by the illegal practice of settler-administered flogging; indeed, during the 1920s, flogging was the magisterial punishment-of-choice for native Kenyan convicts. The principle of punitive sanctions against workers was not removed from the Kenyan labour statutes until the 1950s.

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used, and so was fire. Women were choked and held under water; gun barrels, beer bottles, and even knives were thrust into their vaginas. Men had beer bottles thrust up their rectums, were dragged behind Land Rovers, whipped, burned and bayoneted... Some police officers did not bother with more time-consuming forms of torture; they simply shot any suspect who refused to answer, then told the next suspect, to dig his own grave. When the grave was finished, the man was asked if he would now be willing to talk."

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Mau fashion: the preferred method of execution was strangulation then mutilation: "It was just like in the days before our detention", explained one Mau Mau member later. "We did not have our own jails to hold an informant in, so we would strangle him and then cut his tongue out." The end of 1955 also saw screeners being given a freer hand in interrogation, and harsher conditions than straightforward confession were imposed on detainees before they were deemed 'cooperative' and eligible for final release.

257: 246: 235: 222: 209: 196: 1693:, and extended oathing to women and children. By the mid-1950s, 90% of Kikuyu, Embu and Meru were oathed. On 3 October 1952, Mau Mau claimed their first European victim when they stabbed a woman to death near her home in Thika. Six days later, on 9 October, Senior Chief Waruhiu was shot dead in broad daylight in his car, which was an important blow against the colonial government. Waruhiu had been one of the strongest supporters of the British presence in Kenya. His assassination gave 124: 3030:, insisting that the UK government was legally liable for the atrocities. The Foreign Office, however, reaffirmed its position that it was not, in fact, liable for colonial atrocities, and argued that the documents had not "disappeared" as part of a cover-up. Nearly ten years before, in late 2002, as the BBC aired a documentary detailing British human rights abuses committed during the rebellion and 6,000 depositions had been taken for the legal case, former district colonial officer 2413:

resources made available to the Rehabilitation and Community Development Department. Refusal to move could be punished with the destruction of property and livestock, and the roofs were usually ripped off of homes whose occupants demonstrated reluctance. Villagisation also solved the practical and financial problems associated with a further, massive expansion of the Pipeline programme, and the removal of people from their land hugely assisted the enaction of Swynnerton Plan.

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treatment" to an area. Once gangs had been driven out and eliminated, loyalist forces and police were then to take over the area, with military support brought in thereafter only to conduct any required pacification operations. After their successful dispersion and containment, Erskine went after the forest fighters' source of supplies, money and recruits, i.e. the native Kenyan population of Nairobi. This took the form of Operation Anvil, which commenced on 24 April 1954.

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human rights abuses by late 2002. 42 potential claimants were interviewed, from whom five were chosen to prosecute a test case; one of the five, Susan Ciong'ombe Ngondi, has since died. The remaining four test claimants are: Ndiku Mutua, who was castrated; Paulo Muoka Nzili, who was castrated; Jane Muthoni Mara, who was subjected to sexual assault that included having bottles filled with boiling water pushed up her vagina; and Wambugu Wa Nyingi, who survived the

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1955, and it was the only service capable of both psychologically influencing and inflicting considerable casualties on the Mau Mau fighters operating in the dense forests. Lack of timely and accurate intelligence meant bombing was rather haphazard, but almost 900 insurgents had been killed or wounded by air attacks by June 1954, and it did cause forest gangs to disband, lower their morale, and induce their pronounced relocation from the forests to the reserves.

531: 1747:. Not for the first time, the British instead relied on the purported insights of the ethnopsychiatrist; with Mau Mau, it fell to John Colin Carothers to perform the desired analysis. This ethnopsychiatric analysis guided British psychological warfare, which painted Mau Mau as "an irrational force of evil, dominated by bestial impulses and influenced by world communism", and the later official study of the uprising, the Corfield Report. 2185:

were the 'hard core' of Mau Mau. These were moved up the Pipeline to special detention camps. Thus a detainee's position in Pipeline was a straightforward reflection of how cooperative the Pipeline personnel deemed her or him to be. Cooperation was itself defined in terms of a detainee's readiness to confess their Mau Mau oath. Detainees were screened and re-screened for confessions and intelligence, then re-classified accordingly.

6246:, p. 124: "There was an unusual consensus in the ranks of both the military and Baring's civilian government that the colony's capital was the nerve center for Mau Mau operations. Nearly three-quarters of the city's African male population of sixty thousand were Kikuyu, and most of these men, along with some twenty thousand Kikuyu women and children accompanying them, were allegedly 'active or passive supporters of Mau Mau'." 1196: 2717:". Despite this, he said that in order for abuse to remain legal, Mau Mau suspects must be beaten mainly on their upper body, "vulnerable parts of the body should not be struck, particularly the spleen, liver or kidneys", and it was important that "those who administer violence ... should remain collected, balanced and dispassionate"; he also reminded the governor that "If we are going to sin", he wrote, "we must sin quietly." 8262:: "Although the rise of nationalist movements in Africa was certainly a contributing factor in the dismantling of the colonial empires, one cannot wholly attribute the 'demise of colonialism' to the rise of nationalism. ... he decolonization process was shaped by an adaptive reaction of colonial political and economic interests to the political ascendency of a nationalist elite and to the threat of disruption by the masses." 1759:

the colonial government as joined them in rebellion, the conflict is now often regarded in academic circles as an intra-Kikuyu civil war, a characterisation that remains extremely unpopular in Kenya. In August 1952, Kenyatta told a Kikuyu audience "Mau Mau has spoiled the country...Let Mau Mau perish forever. All people should search for Mau Mau and kill it". Kenyatta described the conflict in his memoirs as a

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fraternising with the enemy. The grinding nature of the improved detention and interrogation regimen began to produce results. Most detainees confessed, and the system produced ever greater numbers of spies and informers within the camps, while others switched sides in a more open, official fashion, leaving detention behind to take an active role in interrogations, even sometimes administering beatings.

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all the failings of the Kenya African Union (KAU)—was bound to win power in the end? Did Mau Mau aim at freedom for all Kenyans? or did moderate, constitutional politicians rescue that pluralist prize from the jaws of its ethnic chauvinism? Has the self-sacrificial victory of the poor been unjustly forgotten, and appropriated by the rich? or are Mau Mau's defeats and divisions best buried in oblivion?

59: 1630:—which progressively curtailed squatter rights and subordinated native Kenyan farming to that of the settlers. The Ordinance of 1939 finally eliminated squatters' remaining tenancy rights, and permitted settlers to demand 270 days' labour from any squatters on their land. and, after World War II, the situation for squatters deteriorated rapidly, a situation the squatters resisted fiercely. 1685:(KAU) in 1946. Author Wangari Maathai writes that many of the organizers were ex-soldiers who fought for the British in Ceylon, Somalia, and Burma during the Second World War. When they returned to Kenya, they were never paid and did not receive recognition for their service, whereas their British counterparts were awarded medals and received land, sometimes from the Kenyan veterans. 9902:, pp. 335–336: " often spoke of the need to 'forgive and forget', and to 'bury the past'. He acknowledged the part the freedom fighters had played in the struggle, but he never once made any public statement that conceded to them any rights or any genuine compensation. Mau Mau was a thing best forgotten. ... In Kenyatta's Kenya there would be a deafening silence about Mau Mau". 1558:

number one grievance concerning colonial rule, the situation so acute by 1948 that 1,250,000 Kikuyu had ownership of 2,000 square miles (5,200 km), while 30,000 British settlers owned 12,000 square miles (31,000 km), albeit most of it not on traditional Kikuyu land. "In particular", the British government's 1925 East Africa Commission noted, "the treatment of the

1704:...the insurgents' lack of heavy weaponry and the heavily entrenched police and Home Guard positions meant that Mau Mau attacks were restricted to nighttime and where loyalist positions were weak. When attacks did commence they were fast and brutal, as insurgents were easily able to identify loyalists because they were often local to those communities themselves. The 1415:

primary British interest in Kenya, which had "some of the richest agricultural soils in the world, mostly in districts where the elevation and climate make it possible for Europeans to reside permanently". Though declared a colony in 1920, the formal British colonial presence in Kenya began with a proclamation on 1 July 1895, in which Kenya was claimed as a British

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with their blankets or, using blades fashioned from the corrugated-iron roofs of some of the barracks, would slit their throats", writes Elkins. The camp authorities' preferred method of capital punishment was public hanging. Commandants were told to clamp down hard on intra-camp oathing, with several commandants hanging anyone suspected of administering oaths.

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officially end until around 1962, when Kenya gained its independence from British colonial rule. During the course of the Mau Mau Uprising, it is conservatively estimated that 1.5 million Kenyans were forcibly relocated into these fortified villages. The government of an independent Kenya implementated a similar policy of forced villagization during the

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one fell swoop. 25,000 members of British security forces under the control of General George Erskine were deployed as Nairobi was sealed off and underwent a sector-by-sector purge. All native Kenyans were taken to temporary barbed-wire enclosures. Those who were not Kikuyu, Embu or Meru were released; those who were remained in detention for screening.

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230,000 huts. The government termed them "protected villages", purportedly to be built along "the same lines as the villages in the North of England", though the term was actually a "euphemism for the fact that hundreds of thousands of civilians were corralled, often against their will, into settlements behind barbed-wire fences and watch towers."

2210:, designed to encourage fellow detainees not to give up hope and so to minimise the number of those who confessed their oath and cooperated with camp authorities. Forced labour was performed by detainees on projects like the thirty-seven-mile-long South Yatta irrigation furrow. Family outside and other considerations led many detainees to confess. 2177:. The British did not initially conceive of rehabilitating Mau Mau suspects through brute force and other ill-treatment—Askwith's final plan, submitted to Baring in October 1953, was intended as "a complete blueprint for winning the war against Mau Mau using socioeconomic and civic reform". What developed, however, has been described as a British 2078:

were readied for 'repatriation' to the reserves (many of those slated for deportation had never set foot in the reserves before). Anvil lasted for two weeks, after which the capital had been cleared of all but certifiably loyal Kikuyu; 20,000 Mau Mau suspects had been taken to Langata, and 30,000 more had been deported to the reserves.

5071: 6381:: "The Swynnerton Plan was among the most comprehensive of all the post-war colonial development programmes implemented in British Africa. Largely framed prior to the declaration of the State of Emergency in 1952, but not implemented until two years later, this development is central to the story of Kenya's decolonization". 3085:

time for Kenyans to remember and honour Mau Mau and other Kenyans who participated in the independence struggle. Mashujaa Day will replace Kenyatta Day; the latter has until now also been held on 20 October. In 2001, the Kenyan Government announced that important Mau Mau sites were to be turned into national monuments.

3812:, p. 1: The colonial presence in Kenya, in contrast to, say, India, where it lasted almost 200 years, was brief but equally violent. It formally started when Her Majesty's agent and Counsel General at Zanzibar, A.H. Hardinge, in a proclamation on 1 July 1895, announced that he was taking over the 5008:, p. 241: "This article opens with a retelling of colonial accounts of the 'mania of 1911', which took place in the Kamba region of Kenya Colony. The story of this 'psychic epidemic' and others like it were recounted over the years as evidence depicting the predisposition of Africans to episodic mass hysteria." 4202:, p. 29: "This judgment is now widely known to Africans in Kenya, and it has become clear to them that, without their being previously informed or consulted, their rights in their tribal land, whether communal or individual, have 'disappeared' in law and have been superseded by the rights of the Crown." 3051:

will also support the construction of a memorial in Nairobi to the victims of torture and ill-treatment during the colonial era." However he added, "We continue to deny liability on behalf of the Government and British taxpayers today for the actions of the colonial administration in respect of the claims".

2477:, offered an amnesty to Mau Mau activists. The offer was that they would not face prosecution for previous offences, but might still be detained. European settlers were appalled at the leniency of the offer. On 10 June 1955 with no response forthcoming, the offer of amnesty to the Mau Mau was revoked. 3084:

as freedom-independence heroes and heroines who sacrificed their lives in order to free Kenyans from colonial rule. Since 2010, Mashujaa Day (Heroes Day) has been marked annually on 20 October (the same day Baring signed the Emergency order). According to the Kenyan Government, Mashujaa Day will be a

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Once the ban was removed, former Mau Mau members who had been castrated or otherwise tortured were supported by the Kenya Human Rights Commission, in particular by the commission's George Morara, in their attempt to take on the British government; their lawyers had amassed 6,000 depositions regarding

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In 1999, a collection of former fighters calling themselves the Mau Mau Original Group announced that they would attempt a £5 billion claim against the UK on behalf of hundreds of thousands of Kenyans for ill-treatment that they said they had suffered during the rebellion, though nothing came of

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Mau Mau fighters, ... contrary to African customs and values, assaulted old people, women and children. The horrors they practiced included the following: decapitation and general mutilation of civilians, torture before murder, bodies bound up in sacks and dropped in wells, burning the victims alive,

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Caroline Elkins says "tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands" died. Elkins' numbers have been challenged by Blacker, who demonstrated in detail that her numbers were overestimated, explaining that Elkins' figure of 300,000 deaths "implies that perhaps half of the adult male population would

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At the end of 1953, the Administration were faced with the serious problem of the concealment of terrorists and supply of food to them. This was widespread and, owing to the scattered nature of the homesteads, fear of detection was negligible; so, in the first instance, the inhabitants of those areas

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By late 1955, however, the Pipeline had become a fully operational, well-organised system. Guards were regularly shifted around the Pipeline too in order to prevent relationships developing with detainees and so undercut the black markets, and inducements and punishments became better at discouraging

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A detainee's journey between two locations along the Pipeline could sometimes last days. During transit, there was frequently little or no food and water provided, and seldom any sanitation. Once in camp, talking was forbidden outside the detainees' accommodation huts, though improvised communication

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The Pipeline operated a white-grey-black classification system: 'whites' were co-operative detainees, and were repatriated back to the reserves; 'greys' had been oathed but were reasonably compliant, and were moved down the Pipeline to works camps in their local districts before release; and 'blacks'

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When the mass deportations of Kikuyu to the reserves began in 1953, Baring and Erskine ordered all Mau Mau suspects to be screened. Of the scores of screening camps which sprang up, only fifteen were officially sanctioned by the colonial government. Larger detention camps were divided into compounds.

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on 15 January the following year provided a massive intelligence boost on the forest fighters. Erskine's arrival did not immediately herald a fundamental change in strategy, thus the continual pressure on the gangs remained, but he created more mobile formations that delivered what he termed "special

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There continues to be vigorous debate within Kenyan society and among the academic community within and outside Kenya regarding the nature of Mau Mau and its aims, as well as the response to and effects of the uprising. Nevertheless, partly because as many Kikuyu fought against Mau Mau on the side of

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community: "Much of the struggle tore through the African communities themselves, an internecine war waged between rebels and 'loyalists' – Africans who took the side of the government and opposed Mau Mau." Suppressing the Mau Mau Uprising in the Kenyan colony cost Britain £55 million and caused

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is sometimes heard in connection with Mau Mau. KLFA was the name that Dedan Kimathi used for a coordinating body which he tried to set up for Mau Mau. It was also the name of another militant group that sprang up briefly in the spring of 1960; the group was broken up during a brief operation from 26

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issued an amnesty to Mau Mau fighters to surrender to the government. Some Mau Mau members insisted that they should get land and be absorbed into the civil service and Kenya army. On 28 January 1965, the Kenyatta government sent the Kenya army to Meru district, where Mau Mau fighters gathered under

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B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the Mau Mau uprising. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on 13 June 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected

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The British possibly killed more than 20,000 Mau Mau militants, but in some ways more notable is the smaller number of Mau Mau suspects dealt with by capital punishment: by the end of the Emergency, the total was 1,090. At no other time or place in the British Empire was capital punishment dispensed

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One of the colony's ministers blamed the "bad spots" in Central Province on the mothers of the children for "not realis the great importance of proteins", and one former missionary reported that it "was terribly pitiful how many of the children and the older Kikuyu were dying. They were so emaciated

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The government's public relations officer, Granville Roberts, presented villagisation as a good opportunity for rehabilitation, particularly of women and children, but it was, in fact, first and foremost designed to break Mau Mau and protect loyalist Kikuyu, a fact reflected in the extremely limited

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So it was that in June 1954, the War Council took the decision to undertake a full-scale forced-resettlement programme of Kiambu, Nyeri, Murang'a and Embu Districts to cut off Mau Mau's supply lines. Within eighteen months, 1,050,899 Kikuyu in the reserves were inside 804 villages consisting of some

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There were originally two types of works camps envisioned by Baring: the first type were based in Kikuyu districts with the stated purpose of achieving the Swynnerton Plan; the second were punitive camps, designed for the 30,000 Mau Mau suspects who were deemed unfit to return to the reserves. These

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he horror of some of the so-called Screening Camps now present a state of affairs so deplorable that they should be investigated without delay, so that the ever increasing allegations of inhumanity and disregard of the rights of the African citizen are dealt with and so that the Government will have

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It is often assumed that in a conflict there are two sides in opposition to one another, and that a person who is not actively committed to one side must be supporting the other. During the course of a conflict, leaders on both sides will use this argument to gain active support from the "crowd". In

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The psychological war became of critical importance to military and civilian leaders who tried to "emphasise that there was in effect a civil war, and that the struggle was not black versus white", attempting to isolate Mau Mau from the Kikuyu, and the Kikuyu from the rest of the colony's population

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The armed rebellion of the Mau Mau was the culminating response to colonial rule. Although there had been previous instances of violent resistance to colonialism, the Mau Mau revolt was the most prolonged and violent anti-colonial warfare in the British Kenya colony. From the start, the land was the

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yesterday, Martin Tucker, head of corporate records at the Foreign Office, reported that the 13 missing boxes could not be found. 'There were at one time a further 13 boxes of material retrieved from Kenya at independence which are additional to the documents discovered in Hanslope Park in January

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Sir Evelyn Baring, the Governor of Kenya, in a telegram to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, reported allegations of extreme brutality made against eight European district officers. They included 'assault by beating up and burning of two Africans during screening ' and one officer accused of

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Partisan questions about the Mau Mau war have ... echoed round Kenya's political arena during 40 years of independence. How historically necessary was Mau Mau? Did its secretive violence alone have the power to destroy white supremacy? Or did it merely sow discord within a mass nationalism that—for

3050:

On 6 June 2013, the foreign secretary, William Hague, told parliament that the UK government had reached a settlement with the claimants. He said it included "payment of a settlement sum in respect of 5,228 claimants, as well as a gross costs sum, to the total value of £19.9 million. The Government

2968:

editorial noted with satisfaction that "Mr Justice McCombe told the FCO, in effect, to get lost. ... Though the arguments against reopening very old wounds are seductive, they fail morally. There are living claimants and it most certainly was not their fault that the documentary evidence that seems

2880:

There is continuing debate about Mau Mau's and the rebellion's effects on decolonisation and on Kenya after independence. Regarding decolonisation, the most common view is that Kenya's independence came about as a result of the British government's deciding that a continuance of colonial rule would

2483:

In the cities the colonial authorities decided to dispel tensions by raising urban wages, thereby strengthening the hand of moderate union organisations like the KFRTU. By 1956, the British had granted direct election of native Kenyan members of the Legislative Assembly, followed shortly thereafter

2307:

While the Pipeline was primarily designed for adult males, a few thousand women and young girls were detained at an all-women camp at Kamiti, as well as a number of unaccompanied young children. Dozens of babies were born to women in captivity: "We really do need these cloths for the children as it

2241:

The most famous example of side-switching was Peter Muigai Kenyatta—Jomo Kenyatta's son—who, after confessing, joined screeners at Athi River Camp, later travelling throughout the Pipeline to assist in interrogations. Suspected informers and spies within a camp were treated in the time-honoured Mau

2141:

were too high for the cash-strapped colonial government, so Baring tweaked repatriation and augmented the Swynnerton Plan with plans for a massive expansion of the Pipeline coupled with a system of work camps to make use of detainee labour. All Kikuyu employed for public works projects would now be

2086:

For an extended period of time, the chief British weapon against the forest fighters was air power. Between June 1953 and October 1955, the RAF provided a significant contribution to the conflict—and, indeed, had to, for the army was preoccupied with providing security in the reserves until January

1894:

The harshness of the British response was inflated by two factors. First, the settler government in Kenya was, even before the insurgency, probably the most openly racist one in the British empire, with the settlers' violent prejudice attended by an uncompromising determination to retain their grip

1851:

in London received a steady flow of reports from Acting Governor Henry Potter about the escalating seriousness of Mau Mau violence, but it was not until the later part of 1953 that British politicians began to accept that the rebellion was going to take some time to deal with. At first, the British

1823:

Bruce Berman argues that, "While Mau Mau was clearly not a tribal atavism seeking a return to the past, the answer to the question of 'was it nationalism?' must be yes and no." As the Mau Mau rebellion wore on, the violence forced the spectrum of opinion within the Kikuyu, Embu and Meru to polarise

1742:

The British and international view was that Mau Mau was a savage, violent, and depraved tribal cult, an expression of unrestrained emotion rather than reason. Mau Mau was "perverted tribalism" that sought to take the Kikuyu people back to "the bad old days" before British rule. The official British

1721:

In addition to physical warfare, the Mau Mau rebellion also generated a propaganda war, where both the British and Mau Mau fighters battled for the hearts and minds of Kenya's population. Mau Mau propaganda represented the apex of an 'information war' that had been fought since 1945, between

1680:

was the first chairman, but he soon resigned. There is dispute over Thuku's reason for leaving KASU: Bethwell Ogot says Thuku "found the responsibility too heavy"; David Anderson states that "he walked out in disgust" as the militant section of KASU took the initiative. KASU changed its name to the

1637:

The colonial government used the measures brought in as part of its land expropriation and labour 'encouragement' efforts to craft the third plank of its growth strategy for its settler economy: subordinating African farming to that of the Europeans. Nairobi also assisted the settlers with rail and

6767:

Baring informed Lennox-Boyd that eight European officers were facing accusations of a series of murders, beatings and shootings. They included: "One District Officer, murder by beating up and roasting alive of one African." Despite receiving such clear briefings, Lennox-Boyd repeatedly denied that

3041:

In October 2012, Mr Justice McCombe granted the surviving elderly test claimants the right to sue the UK for damages. The UK government then opted for what the claimants' lawyers called the "morally repugnant" decision to appeal McCombe's ruling. In May 2013, it was reported that the appeal was on

3034:

had expressed concern that compensation be paid soon, since most victims were in their 80s and would soon die. He told the BBC: "What went on in the Kenya camps and villages was brutal, savage torture. It is time that the mockery of justice that was perpetrated in this country at that time, should

3018:

Commenting on the papers, David Anderson stated that the "documents were hidden away to protect the guilty", and "that the extent of abuse now being revealed is truly disturbing". "Everything that could happen did happen. Allegations about beatings and violence were widespread. Basically you could

2928:

said of the legal case: "Opponents of these proceedings have pointed out, rightly, that the Mau Mau was a brutal terrorist force, guilty of the most dreadful atrocities. Yet only one of the claimants is of that stamp—Mr Nzili. He has admitted taking the Mau Mau oath and said that all he did was to

2840:

A retaliatory massacre was immediately perpetrated by Kenyan security forces who were partially overseen by British commanders. Official estimates place the death toll from the first Lari massacre at 74, and the retaliatory attack at 150, though neither of these figures account for persons who may

2686:

lectric shock was widely used, as well as cigarettes and fire. Bottles (often broken), gun barrels, knives, snakes, vermin, and hot eggs were thrust up men's rectums and women's vaginas. The screening teams whipped, shot, burned and mutilated Mau Mau suspects, ostensibly to gather intelligence for

2680:

The historian Robert Edgerton describes the methods used during the emergency: "If a question was not answered to the interrogator's satisfaction, the subject was beaten and kicked. If that did not lead to the desired confession, and it rarely did, more force was applied. Electric shock was widely

2659:

to extract information about the Mau Mau threat. Later, prisoners suffered even worse mistreatment in an attempt to force them to renounce their allegiance to the insurgency and to obey commands. Prisoners were questioned with the help of "slicing off ears, boring holes in eardrums, flogging until

2396:

He noted, however, that the British should have "no illusions about the future. Mau Mau has not been cured: it has been suppressed. The thousands who have spent a long time in detention must have been embittered by it. Nationalism is still a very potent force and the African will pursue his aim by

2258:

While oathing, for practical reasons, within the Pipeline was reduced to an absolute minimum, as many new initiates as possible were oathed. A newcomer who refused to take the oath often faced the same fate as a recalcitrant outside the camps: they were murdered. "The detainees would strangle them

2077:

Whilst the operation itself was conducted by Europeans, most suspected members of Mau Mau were picked out of groups of the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru detainees by a native Kenyan informer. Male suspects were then taken off for further screening, primarily at Langata Screening Camp, whilst women and children

2073:

By 1954, Nairobi was regarded as the nerve centre of Mau Mau operations. The insurgents in the highlands of the Aberdares and Mt Kenya were being supplied provisions and weapons by supporters in Nairobi via couriers. Anvil was the ambitious attempt to eliminate Mau Mau's presence within Nairobi in

1589:

The colonial government and white farmers also wanted cheap labour which, for a period, the government acquired from native Kenyans through force. Confiscating the land itself helped to create a pool of wage labourers, but the colony introduced measures that forced more native Kenyans to submit to

7578:

Among the detainees who suffered severe mistreatment was Hussein Onyango Obama, the grandfather of Barack Obama. According to his widow, British soldiers forced pins into his fingernails and buttocks and squeezed his testicles between metal rods. Two of the original five claimants who brought the

2999:

urging him to block any enquiry into the methods used against Mau Mau: "It would now appear that each and every one of us, from the Governor downwards, may be in danger of removal from public service by a commission of enquiry as a result of enquiries made by the CID." The April 2012 release also

2994:

Regarding the Mau Mau Uprising, the records included confirmation of "the extent of the violence inflicted on suspected Mau Mau rebels" in British detention camps documented in Caroline Elkins' study. Numerous allegations of murder and rape by British military personnel are recorded in the files,

2950:

In July 2011, "George Morara strode down the corridor and into a crowded little room where 30 elderly Kenyans sat hunched together around a table clutching cups of hot tea and sharing plates of biscuits. 'I have good news from London', he announced. 'We have won the first part of the battle!' At

2900:

On 12 September 2015, the British government unveiled a Mau Mau memorial statue in Nairobi's Uhuru Park that it had funded "as a symbol of reconciliation between the British government, the Mau Mau, and all those who suffered". This followed a June 2013 decision by Britain to compensate more than

2492:

The number of deaths attributable to the Emergency is disputed. David Anderson estimates 25,000 people died; British demographer John Blacker's estimate is 50,000 deaths—half of them children aged ten or below. He attributes this death toll mostly to increased malnutrition, starvation and disease

2213:

During the first year after Operation Anvil, colonial authorities had little success in forcing detainees to co-operate. Camps and compounds were overcrowded, forced-labour systems were not yet perfected, screening teams were not fully coordinated, and the use of torture was not yet systematised.

2190:

here is something peculiarly chilling about the way colonial officials behaved, most notoriously but not only in Kenya, within a decade of the liberation of the concentration camps and the return of thousands of emaciated British prisoners of war from the Pacific. One courageous judge in Nairobi

2118:

for example, British planes dropped leaflets showing graphic pictures of the Kikuyu women and children who had been hacked to death. Unlike the rather indiscriminate activities of British ground forces, the use of air power was more restrained (though there is disagreement on this point), and air

1911:

A variety of coercive techniques were initiated by the colonial authorities to punish and break Mau Mau's support: Baring ordered punitive communal-labour, collective fines and other collective punishments, and further confiscation of land and property. By early 1954, tens of thousands of head of

1725:

Women formed a core part of the Mau Mau, especially in maintaining supply lines. Initially able to avoid the suspicion, they moved through colonial spaces and between Mau Mau hideouts and strongholds, to deliver vital supplies and services to guerrilla fighters including food, ammunition, medical

1688:

The failure of KAU to attain any significant reforms or redress of grievances from the colonial authorities shifted the political initiative to younger and more militant figures within the native Kenyan trade union movement, among the squatters on the settler estates in the Rift Valley and in KAU

1645:

Kenyan employees were often poorly treated by their European employers, with some settlers arguing that native Kenyans "were as children and should be treated as such". Some settlers flogged their servants for petty offences. To make matters even worse, native Kenyan workers were poorly served by

2437:

The Red Cross helped mitigate the food shortages, but even they were told to prioritise loyalist areas. The Baring government's medical department issued reports about "the alarming number of deaths occurring amongst children in the 'punitive' villages", and the "political" prioritisation of Red

2133:

Baring knew the massive deportations to the already-overcrowded reserves could only make things worse. Refusing to give more land to the Kikuyu in the reserves, which could have been seen as a concession to Mau Mau, Baring turned instead in 1953 to Roger Swynnerton, Kenya's assistant director of

1713:

The Mau Mau command, contrary to the Home Guard who were stigmatised as "the running dogs of British Imperialism", were relatively well educated. General Gatunga had previously been a respected and well-read Christian teacher in his local Kikuyu community. He was known to meticulously record his

1641:

The resentment of colonial rule would not have been decreased by the wanting provision of medical services for native Kenyans, nor by the fact that in 1923, for example, "the maximum amount that could be considered to have been spent on services provided exclusively for the benefit of the native

9238:

A letter was sent to William Hague on March 31 stating: 'The Republic of Kenya fully supports the claimants' case and has publicly denied any notion that responsibility for any acts and atrocities committed by the British colonial administration during the Kenya 'Emergency' was inherited by the

2844:

Aside from the Lari massacres, Kikuyu were also tortured, mutilated and murdered by Mau Mau on many other occasions. Mau Mau were estimated to have killed 1,819 of their fellow native Kenyans, though again, this number may exclude those whose bodies were never found. Anderson estimates the true

2505:

has noted that leading authorities on Africa have taken issue with parts of Elkins' study, in particular her mortality figures: "The senior British historian of Kenya, John Lonsdale, whom Elkins thanks profusely in her book as 'the most gifted scholar I know', warned her to place no reliance on

2449:

Disease prevention was not helped by the colony's policy of returning sick detainees to receive treatment in the reserves, though the reserves' medical services were virtually non-existent, as Baring himself noted after a tour of some villages in June 1956. The policy of "villagization" did not

1633:

In the early 1920s, though, despite the presence of 100,000 squatters and tens of thousands more wage labourers, there was still not enough native Kenyan labour available to satisfy the settlers' needs. The colonial government duly tightened the measures to force more Kenyans to become low-paid

1577:

areas of what became Central Province, were one of the ethnic groups most affected by the colonial government's land expropriation and European settlement; by 1933, they had had over 109.5 square miles (284 km) of their potentially highly valuable land alienated. The Kikuyu mounted a legal

1557:

due to the exclusively European-owned farmland there. In Nyanza the Commission restricted 1,029,422 native Kenyans to 7,114 square miles (18,430 km), while granting 16,700 square miles (43,000 km) to 17,000 Europeans. By the 1930s, and for the Kikuyu in particular, land had become the

2951:

once, the room erupted in cheers." The good news was that a British judge had ruled that the Kenyans could sue the British government for their torture. Morara said that, if the first test cases succeeded, perhaps 30,000 others would file similar complaints of torture. Explaining his decision,

2910:

it. In November 2002, the Mau Mau Trust—a welfare group for former members of the movement—announced that it would attempt to sue the British government for widespread human rights violations it said had been committed against its members. Until September 2003, the Mau Mau movement was banned.

2366:

If military operations in the forests and Operation Anvil were the first two phases of Mau Mau's defeat, Erskine expressed the need and his desire for a third and final phase: cut off all the militants' support in the reserves. The means to this terminal end was originally suggested by the man

2340:

Colonial officers also saw the second sort of works camps as a way of ensuring that any confession was legitimate and as a final opportunity to extract intelligence. Probably the worst works camp to have been sent to was the one run out of Embakasi Prison, for Embakasi was responsible for the

1940:

The day after the round up, another prominent loyalist chief, Nderi, was hacked to pieces, and a series of gruesome murders against settlers were committed throughout the months that followed. The violent and random nature of British tactics during the months after Jock Scott served merely to

1862:

Aside from military operations against Mau Mau fighters in the forests, the British attempt to defeat the movement broadly came in two stages: the first, relatively limited in scope, came during the period in which they had still failed to accept the seriousness of the revolt; the second came

1766:

Wunyabari O. Maloba regards the rise of the Mau Mau movement as "without doubt, one of the most important events in recent African history". David Anderson, however, considers Maloba's and similar work to be the product of "swallowing too readily the propaganda of the Mau Mau war", noting the

2959:

It may well be thought strange, or perhaps even dishonourable, that a legal system which will not in any circumstances admit into its proceedings evidence obtained by torture should yet refuse to entertain a claim against the Government in its own jurisdiction for that Government's allegedly

2617:

We knew the slow method of torture was worse than anything we could do. Special Branch there had a way of slowly electrocuting a Kuke—they'd rough up one for days. Once I went personally to drop off one gang member who needed special treatment. I stayed for a few hours to help the boys out,

1362:(which means "Get out! Get out!") and was a military codeword based on a secret language game Kikuyu boys used to play at the time of their circumcision. Majdalany also says the British simply used the name as a label for the Kikuyu ethnic community without assigning any specific definition. 1754:

By the mid-1960s, the view of Mau Mau as simply irrational activists was being challenged by memoirs of former members and leaders that portrayed Mau Mau as an essential, if radical, component of African nationalism in Kenya and by academic studies that analysed the movement as a modern and

1494:

You may travel through the length and breadth of Kitui Reserve and you will fail to find in it any enterprise, building, or structure of any sort which Government has provided at the cost of more than a few sovereigns for the direct benefit of the natives. The place was little better than a

5800:, p. 75: "According to Emergency regulations, the governor could issue Native Land Rights Confiscation Orders, whereby 'ach of the persons named in the schedule ... participated or aided in violent resistance against the forces of law and order' and therefore had his land confiscated". 2849:

along with his parents, Roger and Esme, and one of the Rucks' farm workers, Muthura Nagahu, who had tried to help the family. Newspapers in Kenya and abroad published graphic murder details, including images of young Michael with bloodied teddy bears and trains strewn on his bedroom floor.

2308:

is impossible to keep them clean and tidy while dressed in dirty pieces of sacking and blanket", wrote one colonial officer. Wamumu Camp was set up solely for all the unaccompanied boys in the Pipeline, though hundreds, maybe thousands, of boys moved around the adult parts of the Pipeline.

1376:

Aende Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru", meaning "Let the foreigner go back abroad, let the African regain independence". J. M. Kariuki, a member of Mau Mau who was detained during the conflict, suggests the British preferred to use the term Mau Mau instead of KLFA to deny the Mau Mau rebellion

5035: 2270:

European missionaries and native Kenyan Christians played their part by visiting camps to evangelise and encourage compliance with the colonial authorities, providing intelligence, and sometimes even assisting in interrogation. Detainees regarded such preachers with nothing but contempt.

2026:

and the forests around Mount Kenya, whilst a passive support-wing was fostered outside these areas. Militarily, the British defeated Mau Mau in four years (1952–1956) using a more expansive version of "coercion through exemplary force". In May 1953, the decision was made to send General

2877:, in January 1960, that native Kenyan majority rule was established and the period of colonial transition to independence initiated. Before the conference, it was anticipated by both native Kenyan and European leaders that Kenya was set for a European-dominated multi-racial government. 1808:. Despite the differences between them, there has been a continuous debate and dialogue between these traditions, leading to a great political awareness among the Kikuyu. By 1950, these differences, and the impact of colonial rule, had given rise to three native Kenyan political blocs: 1907:

who famously asked that the British colonial forces not destroy the food used by her villagers, since its destruction could potentially starve the entire region. Instead, she urged the colonial forces guard the yams and bananas and stop the Mau Mau from killing any more residents.

2828:

anyone who attempted escape, before throwing them back into the burning huts. The attack at Lari was so extreme that "African policemen who saw the bodies of the victims ... were physically sick and said 'These people are animals. If I see one now I shall shoot with the greatest

2884:

It has been argued that the conflict helped set the stage for Kenyan independence in December 1963, or at least secured the prospect of Black-majority rule once the British left. However, this is disputed and other sources downplay the contribution of Mau Mau to decolonisation.

1961:. For the next year, the Service's A.M. MacDonald would reorganise the Special Branch of the Kenya Police, promote collaboration with Special Branches in adjacent territories, and oversee coordination of all intelligence activity "to secure the intelligence Government requires". 1717:

The Mau Mau military strategy was mainly guerrilla attacks launched under the cover of darkness. They used improvised and stolen weapons such as guns, as well as weapons such as machetes and bows and arrows in their attacks. They maimed cattle and, in one case, poisoned a herd.

1932:

and 180 other alleged Mau Mau leaders within Nairobi. Jock Scott did not decapitate the movement's leadership as hoped, since news of the impending operation was leaked. Thus, while the moderates on the wanted list awaited capture, the real militants, such as Dedan Kimathi and

5648: 3270:

was the term used by colonial authorities to mean the interrogation of a Mau Mau suspect. The alleged member or sympathiser of Mau Mau would be interrogated in order to obtain an admission of guilt—specifically, a confession that they had taken the Mau Mau oath—as well as for

1824:

and harden into the two distinct camps of loyalist and Mau Mau. This neat division between loyalists and Mau Mau was a product of the conflict, rather than a cause or catalyst of it, with the violence becoming less ambiguous over time, in a similar manner to other situations.

1751:

and the world outside. In driving a wedge between Mau Mau and the Kikuyu generally, these propaganda efforts essentially played no role, though they could apparently claim an important contribution to the isolation of Mau Mau from the non-Kikuyu sections of the population.

3088:

This official celebration of Mau Mau is in marked contrast to post-colonial Kenyan governments' rejection of the Mau Mau as an engine of national liberation. Such a turnabout has attracted criticism of government manipulation of the Mau Mau uprising for political ends.

2796:

gouging out of eyes, splitting open the stomachs of pregnant women. No war can justify such gruesome actions. In man's inhumanity to man, there is no race distinction. The Africans were practicing it on themselves. There was no reason and no restraint on both sides.

2392:

for Mau Mau. By the end of the following summer, Lieutenant General Lathbury no longer needed Lincoln bombers for raids because of a lack of targets, and, by late 1955, Lathbury felt so sure of final victory that he reduced army forces to almost pre-Mau Mau levels.

1520:. The success of this settler economy would depend heavily on the availability of land, labour and capital, and so, over the next three decades, the colonial government and settlers consolidated their control over Kenyan land, and forced native Kenyans to become 1642:

population was slightly over one-quarter of the taxes paid by them". The tax burden on Europeans in the early 1920s, meanwhile, was very light relative to their income. Interwar infrastructure-development was also largely paid for by the indigenous population.

2660:

death, pouring paraffin over suspects who were then set alight, and burning eardrums with lit cigarettes." The use of castration and denying access to medical aid to the detainees by the British were also widespread and common. As described by Ian Cobain of

4503:, p. 180: "The population of the district to which one medical officer is allotted amounts more often than not to over a quarter of a million natives distributed over a large area. ... here are large areas in which no medical work is being undertaken." 7122:, p. 263: "It is accepted policy that cases of pulmonary tuberculosis ... be returned to their reserve to avail themselves of the routine medical control and treatment within their areas". (The quote is of the colony's director of medical services). 2262:

Even as the Pipeline became more sophisticated, detainees still organised themselves within it, setting up committees and selecting leaders for their camps, as well as deciding on their own "rules to live by". Perhaps the most famous compound leader was

1708:

was by comparison rather outstanding and in contrast to regular Mau Mau strikes which more often than not targeted only loyalists without such massive civilian casualties. "Even the attack upon Lari, in the view of the rebel commanders was strategic and

1675:

Mau Mau were the militant wing of a growing clamour for political representation and freedom in Kenya. The first attempt to form a countrywide political party began on 1 October 1944. This fledgling organisation was called the Kenya African Study Union.

3076:

because of the key positions and influential presence of some loyalists in government, business and other elite sectors of Kenyan society post-1963. Unsurprisingly, during this same period opposition groups tactically embraced the Mau Mau rebellion.

1590:

wage labour: the introduction of the Hut and Poll Taxes (1901 and 1910 respectively); the establishment of reserves for each ethnic group, which isolated ethnic groups and often exacerbated overcrowding; the discouragement of native Kenyans' growing

3256:

labourers, in distinction to the permanent presence of the squatters on farms. The phenomenon of squatters arose in response to the complementary difficulties of Europeans in finding labourers and of Africans in gaining access to arable and grazing

1638:

road networks, subsidies on freight charges, agricultural and veterinary services, and credit and loan facilities. The near-total neglect of native farming during the first two decades of European settlement was noted by the East Africa Commission.

2345:, the construction of which was demanded to be finished before the Emergency came to an end. The airport was a massive project with an unquenchable thirst for labour, and the time pressures ensured the detainees' forced labour was especially hard. 1899:

referred to them as "the White Mau Mau". Second, the brutality of Mau Mau attacks on civilians made it easy for the movement's opponents—including native Kenyan and loyalist security forces—to adopt a totally dehumanised view of Mau Mau adherents.

1667:'s population between 1938 and 1952. At the same time, there was a small, but growing, class of Kikuyu landowners who consolidated Kikuyu landholdings and forged ties with the colonial administration, leading to an economic rift within the Kikuyu. 1401:

The principal item in the natural resources of Kenya is the land, and in this term we include the colony's mineral resources. It seems to us that our major objective must clearly be the preservation and the wise use of this most important asset.

1353:

The origin of the term Mau Mau is uncertain. According to some members of Mau Mau, they never referred to themselves as such, instead preferring the military title Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA). Some publications, such as Fred Majdalany's

1966:

Our sources have produced nothing to indicate that Kenyatta, or his associates in the UK, are directly involved in Mau Mau activities, or that Kenyatta is essential to Mau Mau as a leader, or that he is in a position to direct its activities.

3365:

Durrani, Shiraz. Mau Mau, the Revolutionary, Anti-Imperialist Force from Kenya, 1948–63: Selection from Shiraz Durrani's Kenya's War of Independence: Mau Mau and Its Legacy of Resistance to Colonialism and Imperialism, 1948–1990. Vita Books,

1878:

The second stage had three main planks: a large military-sweep of Nairobi leading to the internment of tens of thousands of the city's suspected Mau Mau members and sympathisers ( Operation Anvil); the enacting of major agrarian reform (the

1446:, the first automatic machine gun). During the period in which Kenya's interior was being forcibly opened up for British settlement, there was a great deal of conflict and British troops carried out atrocities against the native population. 2021:

The onset of the Emergency led hundreds, and eventually thousands, of Mau Mau adherents to flee to the forests, where a decentralised leadership had already begun setting up platoons. The primary zones of Mau Mau military strength were the

2984:

During the course of the Mau Mau legal battle in London, a large amount of what was stated to be formerly lost Foreign Office archival material was finally brought to light, while yet more was discovered to be missing. The files, known as

2158:

It would be difficult to argue that the colonial government envisioned its own version of a gulag when the Emergency first started. Colonial officials in Kenya and Britain all believed that Mau Mau would be over in less than three months.

8324: 2845:

number to be around 5,000. Thirty-two European and twenty-six Asian civilians were also murdered by Mau Mau militants, with similar numbers wounded. The best known European victim was Michael Ruck, aged six, who was hacked to death with

2676:. According to his widow, British soldiers forced pins into his fingernails and buttocks and squeezed his testicles between metal rods. Two of the original five claimants who brought the test case against the British were castrated. 2134:

agriculture. The primary goal of the Swynnerton Plan was the creation of family holdings large enough to keep families self-sufficient in food and to enable them to practise alternate husbandry, which would generate a cash income.

2247:

In a half-circle against the reed walls of the enclosure stand eight young, African women. There's neither hate nor apprehension in their gaze. It's like a talk in the headmistress's study; a headmistress who is firm but kindly.

2098:

heavy bombers were deployed, flying missions in Kenya from 18 November 1953 to 28 July 1955, dropping nearly 6 million bombs. They and other aircraft, such as blimps, were also deployed for reconnaissance, as well as in the

6258:, p. 14: "In the first months of the emergency the Mau Mau discipline was so strong that a terrorist in the forest who gave his money to a courier could be almost certain of getting what he wanted from any shop in Nairobi." 3094:

We are determined to have independence in peace, and we shall not allow hooligans to rule Kenya. We must have no hatred towards one another. Mau Mau was a disease which had been eradicated, and must never be remembered again.

1767:

similarity between such analysis and the "simplistic" earlier studies of Mau Mau. This earlier work cast the Mau Mau war in strictly bipolar terms, "as conflicts between anti-colonial nationalists and colonial collaborators".

8965: 9329:

These new documents were withheld because they were considered to be particularly sensitive, so we can but imagine what will be in these documents. . . . Senior members of the Commonwealth Office in London

7251: 2618:

softening him up. Things got a little out of hand. By the time I cut his balls off, he had no ears, and his eyeball, the right one, I think, was hanging out of its socket. Too bad, he died before we got much out of him.

5259:, p. 196: "The impact of colonial capitalism and the colonial state hit the Kikuyu with greater force and effect than any other of Kenya's peoples, setting off new processes of differentiation and class formation." 1540:

The Commission reported in 1934, but its conclusions, recommendations and concessions to Kenyans were so conservative that any chance of a peaceful resolution to native Kenyan land-hunger was ended. Through a series of

5158:, p. 4: "Much of the struggle tore through the African communities themselves, an internecine war waged between rebels and so-called 'loyalists' – Africans who took the side of the government and opposed Mau Mau." 2445:

The lack of food did not just affect the children, of course. The Overseas Branch of the British Red Cross commented on the "women who, from progressive undernourishment, had been unable to carry on with their work".

9768: 7134:, pp. 263–4: "The financial situation has now worsened. ... Schemes of medical help, however desirable and however high their medical priority, could not in circumstances be approved". (The quote is of Baring). 2500:

His study dealt directly with Elkins' claim that "somewhere between 130,000 and 300,000 Kikuyu are unaccounted for" at the 1962 census, and was read by both David Anderson and John Lonsdale prior to publication.

2650:

also known as concentration camps. Most of the rest—more than a million Kikuyu—were held in "enclosed villages" as part of the villagisation program. Although some were Mau Mau guerrillas, most were victims of

1990:, primarily to justify the declaration of the Emergency to critics in London. The trial itself was claimed to have featured a suborned lead defence-witness, a bribed judge, and other serious violations of the 1296:

on 21 October 1956 signalled the defeat of the Mau Mau, and essentially ended the British military campaign. However, the rebellion survived until after Kenya's independence from Britain, driven mainly by the

1324:(1948–60). The Mau Mau movement remained internally divided, despite attempts to unify the factions. On the colonial side, the uprising created a rift between the European colonial community in Kenya and the 2893:

the leadership of Field Marshal Mwariama and Field Marshal Baimungi. These leaders and several Mau Mau fighters were killed. On 14 January 1965, the Minister for Defence Dr Njoroge Mungai was quoted in the

1743:

explanation of the revolt did not include the insights of agrarian and agricultural experts, of economists and historians, or even of Europeans who had spent a long period living amongst the Kikuyu such as

2938:

in 2005, Kenya called for an apology from the UK for atrocities committed during the 1950s. The British government claimed that the issue was the responsibility of the Kenyan government, on the ground of

1912:

livestock had been taken, and were allegedly never returned. Detailed accounts of the policy of seizing livestock from Kenyans suspected of supporting Mau Mau rebels were finally released in April 2012.

2841:

have been 'disappeared'. Whatever the actual number of victims, "he grim truth was that, for every person who died in Lari's first massacre, at least two more were killed in retaliation in the second."

1763:

rather than a rebellion. One reason that the revolt was largely limited to the Kikuyu people was, in part, that they had suffered the most as a result of the negative aspects of British colonialism.

6329:

dropped the amazing total of 50,000 tons of bombs on the forests and fired over 2 million rounds from machine guns during strafing runs. It is not known how many humans or animals were killed."

3288:, p. 7: "Virtually every one of the acquitted men ... would spend the next several years in the notorious detention camps of the Kenyan gulag"; for Elkins, see the UK edition of her 2005 book, 2356:

were made to build and live in concentrated villages. This first step had to be taken speedily, somewhat to the detriment of usual health measures and was definitely a punitive short-term measure.

8316: 2991:, provided details of British human rights abuses (torture, rape, execution) in its former colonies during the final stages of empire, including during Mau Mau, and even after decolonisation. 2709:, detailing the way the regime of abuse at the colony's detention camps was being subtly altered. He said that the mistreatment of the detainees is "distressingly reminiscent of conditions in 11301: 10168: 8106: 2119:

attacks were initially permitted only in the forests. Operation Mushroom extended bombing beyond the forest limits in May 1954, and Churchill consented to its continuation in January 1955.

4445:, p. 166: "In many parts of the territory we were informed that the majority of farmers were having the utmost difficulty in obtaining labour to cultivate and to harvest their crops". 2402:

Whilst they could not be expected to take kindly at first to a departure from their traditional way of life, such as living in villages, they need and desire to be told just what to do.

1622:. By the end of World War I, squatters had become well established on European farms and plantations in Kenya, with Kikuyu squatters constituting the majority of agricultural workers on 13882: 10580: 3005:

Main criticism we shall have to meet is that 'Cowan plan' which was approved by Government contained instructions which in effect authorised unlawful use of violence against detainees.

2599:

David Anderson says the rebellion was "a story of atrocity and excess on both sides, a dirty war from which no one emerged with much pride, and certainly no glory". Political scientist

2480:

In June 1956, a programme of land reform increased the land holdings of the Kikuyu. This was coupled with a relaxation of the ban on native Kenyans growing coffee, a primary cash crop.

8496: 1663:

As a result of the situation in the highlands and growing job opportunities in the cities, thousands of Kikuyu migrated into cities in search of work, contributing to the doubling of

9448:

of this year', he wrote. He found evidence that the files had once been stored in the basement of the Old Admiralty Building in Whitehall, but traces of them had vanished after 1995.

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was named, asserted: "There is only one way to improve the Wakikuyu that is wipe them out; I should be only too delighted to do so, but we have to depend on them for food supplies."

9114: 8954: 8532: 5735: 1787:

reality, conflicts involving more than two persons usually have more than two sides, and if a resistance movement is to be successful, propaganda and politicization are essential.

1533:. From the early 1930s, however, two others began to come to prominence: effective and elected African-political-representation, and land. The British response to this clamour for 6517: 2386:

While some of these villages were to protect loyalist Kikuyu, "most were little more than concentration camps to punish Mau Mau sympathizers." The villagisation programme was the

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negligent failure to prevent torture which it had the means to prevent. Furthermore, resort to technicality ... to rule such a claim out of court appears particularly misplaced.

2484:

by an increase in the number of local seats to fourteen. A Parliamentary conference in January 1960 indicated that the British would accept "one person—one vote" majority rule.

1945:

were recalled from Uganda, Tanganyika and Mauritius, giving the regiment five battalions in all in Kenya, a total of 3,000 native Kenyan troops. To placate settler opinion, one

9338:, to some extent, sanction the use of coercive force; and also, at Cabinet level, the Secretary of State for the Colonies certainly knew of the excesses that were taking place. 1859:

arrived in Kenya to permanently take over from Potter; Baring was given no warning by Mitchell or the Colonial Office about the gathering maelstrom into which he was stepping.

1346: 14079: 3846: 2442:

and so very susceptible to any kind of disease that came along". Of the 50,000 deaths which John Blacker attributed to the Emergency, half were children under the age of ten.

1895:

on power and half-submerged fears that, as a tiny minority, they could be overwhelmed by the indigenous population. Its representatives were so keen on aggressive action that

1473:

in 1947; and the Kolloa Affray of 1950. None of the armed uprisings during the beginning of British colonialism in Kenya were successful. The nature of fighting in Kenya led

13810: 9772: 1602:(1918) to control the movement of labour and to curb desertion; and the exemption of wage labourers from forced labour and other detested obligations such as conscription. 2005: 1626:. An unintended consequence of colonial rule, the squatters were targeted from 1918 onwards by a series of Resident Native Labourers Ordinances—criticised by at least some 1384:

indicates that, to her, the most interesting story of the origin of the name is the Kikuyu phrase for the beginning of a list. When beginning a list in Kikuyu, one says, "

10267: 9166: 8463: 5247:: "Since they were the most affected by the colonial system and the most educated about its ways, the Kikuyu emerged as the most politicized African community in Kenya." 2647: 2151: 9672: 9639: 2523:

Officially 1,819 Native Kenyans were killed by the Mau Mau. David Anderson believes this to be an undercount and cites a higher figure of 5,000 killed by the Mau Mau.

11243: 8735: 1714:

attacks in a series of five notebooks, which when executed were often swift and strategic, targeting loyalist community leaders he had previously known as a teacher.

10071: 7407: 6754: 5449: 3389: 6222: 2173:

Thomas Askwith, the official tasked with designing the British 'detention and rehabilitation' programme during the summer and autumn of 1953, termed his system the

10883:— (2003). "Authority, Gender & Violence: The war within Mau Mau's fight for land & freedom". In Elisha Stephen Atieno-Odhiambo & John Lonsdale (eds.). 9471: 1863:

afterwards. During the first stage, the British tried to decapitate the movement by declaring a State of Emergency before arresting 180 alleged Mau Mau leaders in

10409: 7636: 7565: 3023: 1391:, "the main issues are...", and holds up three fingers to introduce them. Maathai says the three issues for the Mau Mau were land, freedom, and self-governance. 9794: 4834: 1847:

retired as Kenya's governor in summer 1952, having turned a blind eye to Mau Mau's increasing activity. Through the summer of 1952, however, Colonial Secretary

9262: 8797: 7788: 1855:

The British army accepted the gravity of the uprising months before the politicians, but its appeals to London and Nairobi were ignored. On 30 September 1952,

1377:

international legitimacy. Kariuki also wrote that the term Mau Mau was adopted by the rebellion in order to counter what they regarded as colonial propaganda.

389: 9573: 9540: 9038: 8919: 2497:

have been wiped out—yet the censuses of 1962 and 1969 show no evidence of this—the age-sex pyramids for the Kikuyu districts do not even show indentations."

9606: 9504: 8766: 12817: 8172: 5201:

There was lots of suffering on the other side too. This was a dirty war. It became a civil war—though that idea remains extremely unpopular in Kenya today.

1689:

branches in Nairobi and the Kikuyu districts of central province. Around 1943, residents of Olenguruone Settlement radicalised the traditional practice of

5394: 4357: 11971:

Ogot, Bethwell Allan (2012). "Essence of ethnicity: an African perspective". In Hiroyuki Hino; John Lonsdale; Gustav Ranis & Frances Stewart (eds.).

7827: 11402:

Shilaro, Priscilla M. (2002). "Colonial Land Policies: The Kenya Land Commission and the Kakamega Gold Rush, 1932–4". In William Robert Ochieng (ed.).

1834:

Between 1952 and 1956, when the fighting was at its worst, the Kikuyu districts of Kenya became a police state in the very fullest sense of that term.

2897:

saying: "They are now outlaws, who will be pursued and brought to punishment. They must be outlawed as well in the minds of all the people of Kenya."

10426: 7758: 5036:"A Study of Mental Derangement in Africans, and an Attempt to Explain its Peculiarities, More Especially in Relation to the African Attitude to Life" 2996: 2987: 9837: 12296: 10138: 4253:, p. 173: "Casual labourers leave their reserves ... to earn the wherewithal to pay their 'Hut Tax' and to get money to purchase trade goods." 1651:

The greater part of the wealth of the country is at present in our hands. ... This land we have made is our land by right—by right of achievement.

8099: 6640:, p. 148. It is debatable whether Peter Kenyatta was sympathetic to Mau Mau in the first place and therefore whether he truly switched sides. 1578:

challenge against the expropriation of their land, but a Kenya High Court decision of 1921 reaffirmed its legality. In terms of lost acreage, the

3534: 13467: 9366: 2416:

The villages were surrounded by deep, spike-bottomed trenches and barbed wire, and the villagers themselves were watched over by members of the

14064: 9766: 7885: 4215: 3140: 1495:

wilderness when I first knew it 25 years ago, and it remains a wilderness to-day as far as our efforts are concerned. If we left that district

8886: 8487: 6595: 3072:

It is often argued that the Mau Mau Uprising was suppressed as a subject for public discussion in Kenya during the periods under Kenyatta and

9397: 9316: 8559: 6659: 3011: 2781:. By January 1959, the camp had a population of 506 detainees, of whom 127 were held in a secluded "closed camp". This more remote camp near 9078: 9105: 7938: 1545:, the government seized about 7,000,000 acres (28,000 km; 11,000 sq mi) of land, most of it in the fertile hilly regions of 12050:(2010) . "Detained: A Writer's Prison Diary". In Roy R. Grinker; Stephen C. Lubkemann & Christopher B. Steiner (eds.). 11363:

Ranger, T. O. (1968). "Connexions between 'Primary Resistance' Movements and Modern Mass Nationalism in East and Central Africa. Part I".

11125: 4854: 4811: 2837:". A total of 309 rebels would be prosecuted for the massacre, of which 136 were convicted. Seventy-one of those convicted were executed. 10305:

Branch, Daniel; Cheeseman, Nicholas (2006). "The Politics of Control in Kenya: Understanding the Bureaucratic-Executive State, 1952–78".

8522: 6507: 5727: 2706: 2474: 1856: 1694: 272: 10844:

Lonsdale, John (2000). "KAU's Cultures: Imaginations of Community and Constructions of Leadership in Kenya after the Second World War".

2520:

suggests that more than one hundred thousand Africans, mostly Kikuyus, may have died in the concentration camps and emergency villages.

14039: 7472: 2425:

From the health point of view, I regard villagisation as being exceedingly dangerous and we are already starting to reap the benefits.

1224: 382: 9430: 9225: 9001: 8855: 8647: 1852:

discounted the Mau Mau rebellion because of their own technical and military superiority, which encouraged hopes for a quick victory.

11130: 10133:

Bennett, Huw. Fighting the Mau Mau: The British army and counter-insurgency in the Kenya emergency. Cambridge University Press, 2013.

2623:

One settler's description of British interrogation. The extent to which such accounts can be taken at face value has been questioned.

1690: 1477:

to express concern about the scale of the fighting: "No doubt the clans should have been punished. 160 have now been killed outright

1166: 11059:

Mungeam, G. H. (1970). "Masai and Kikuyu Responses to the Establishment of British Administration in the East Africa Protectorate".

9767:

Jacob Ole Miaron, Permanent Secretary of the Vice President Ministry of State for National Heritage and Culture (26 February 2009).

3836: 2276:

The number of cases of pulmonary tuberculosis which is being disclosed in Prison and Detention Camps is causing some embarrassment.

1562:

was very bad. This tribe was moved backwards and forwards so as to secure for the Crown areas which could be granted to Europeans."

1527:

Until the mid-1930s, the two primary complaints were low native Kenyan wages and the requirement to carry an identity document, the

13918: 13437: 13040: 12810: 5282: 2824:, on the night of 25–26 March 1953, in which they herded men, women and children into huts and set fire to them, hacking down with 2506:

anecdotal sources, and regards her statistical analysis—for which she cites him as one of three advisors—as 'frankly incredible'."

8678: 14084: 9878: 8704: 8430: 8403: 6147: 6096: 4052:, p. 2, notes that the (British taxpayer) loans were never repaid on the Uganda Railway; they were written off in the 1930s. 8376: 13900: 12152: 11233: 10216: 8454: 8023: 5337:, p. 502: "There was no reason and no restraint on both sides, although Elkins sees no atrocities on the part of Mau Mau." 1848: 1778: 1482: 1435: 997: 9163: 4459: 1499:

the only permanent evidence of our occupation would be the buildings we have erected for the use of our tax-collecting staff.

13233: 12351: 12258: 12078: 12059: 12037: 12018: 11999: 11980: 11944: 11925: 11906: 11878: 11810: 11788: 11769: 11750: 11711: 11692: 11671: 11649: 11591: 11572: 11553: 11534: 11515: 11496: 11468: 11449: 11430: 11411: 11353: 11290: 11268: 11182: 11163: 11049: 11030: 10999: 10980: 10961: 10892: 10834: 10799: 10771: 10738: 10719: 10700: 10678: 10659: 10640: 10590: 10569: 10547: 10524: 10479: 10363: 10295: 10184:

Blacker, John (2007). "The Demography of Mau Mau: Fertility and Mortality in Kenya in the 1950s: A Demographer's Viewpoint".

10124: 10101: 10046: 10027: 9963: 9664: 9629: 7916: 7401: 6216: 4981: 4566: 3443: 2319: 2318:

Short rations, overwork, brutality, humiliating and disgusting treatment and flogging—all in violation of the United Nations

1875:; the second stage began in earnest in 1954, when they undertook a series of major economic, military and penal initiatives. 1126: 1111: 375: 12907: 12238: 8727: 6746: 1044: 13990: 13263: 13076: 12646: 11237: 10057: 7967:

Lewis, Joanna (April 2007). "Nasty, Brutish and in shorts? British colonial rule, violence and the historians of Mau Mau".

7215: 3871: 1489:

will be under a cloud. Surely it cannot be necessary to go on killing these defenceless people on such an enormous scale."

940: 835: 12125: 5446: 3393: 13906: 13840: 12803: 10846: 10307: 10143: 9461: 2874: 2702: 2342: 1337:

among the Mau Mau and other forces, with some estimates considerably higher. This included 1,090 executions by hanging.

1069: 955: 880: 13118: 12464: 10761: 10405: 9915: 9751: 7276:

Pinckney, Thomas C.; Kimuyu, Peter K. (1 April 1994). "Land Tenure Reform in East Africa: Good, Bad or Unimportant?1".

5531: 4764: 3616: 2833:", and it "even shocked many Mau Mau supporters, some of whom would subsequently try to excuse the attack as 'a mistake 2048: 2034:

By September 1953, the British knew the leading personalities in Mau Mau, and the capture and 68 hour interrogation of

1007: 465: 11173:— (2003). "Mau Mau & Nationhood: The Untold Story". In Elisha Stephen Atieno-Odhiambo & John Lonsdale (eds.). 7628: 7557: 14029: 13719: 13064: 12913: 12361: 11223: 10394: 10018:

Anderson, David (2004). "Kenya, 1895–1939: Registration and Rough Justice". In Douglas Hay & Paul Craven (eds.).

10000: 9807: 9252: 8789: 7600: 4840: 1512:

during the colonial period could own a disproportionate share of land. The first settlers arrived in 1902 as part of

1161: 9563: 9530: 9028: 7780: 5665: 1438:, "The only person who has up to the present time benefited from our enterprise in the heart of Africa has been Mr. 1093: 13936: 12943: 11918:

Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa, 1951–1964

10902:

Mahone, Sloan (2006). "The Psychology of Rebellion: Colonial Medical Responses to Dissent in British East Africa".

9291: 9187: 9141: 8909: 8824: 8611: 8053: 7720: 5815: 5422: 5366: 5188: 3000:

included detailed accounts of the policy of seizing livestock from Kenyans suspected of supporting Mau Mau rebels.

2532: 2111:, but were used for only ten days of operations. Some light aircraft of the Police Air Wing also provided support. 2094:

training aircraft were used, for direct ground support and also some camp interdiction. As the campaign developed,

895: 775: 17: 9698: 9494: 8758: 3654: 14059: 14034: 13984: 13569: 12901: 12770: 12474: 12331: 12165: 11601:

Branch, Daniel (2006). "Loyalists, Mau Mau, and Elections in Kenya: The First Triumph of the System, 1957–1958".

11280: 9858:

Changing Kenyatta Day to Mashujaa Day is not just an innocuous and harmless exercise in constitutional semantics.

9596: 3112: 1887:

programme for more than a million rural Kikuyu. In 2012, the UK government accepted that prisoners had suffered "

1449:

Opposition to British imperialism had existed from the start of British occupation. The most notable include the

8585: 4889:"'The Rooting Out of Mau Mau from the Minds of the Kikuyu is a Formidable Task': Propaganda and the Mau Mau War" 14054: 13924: 13281: 13196: 12865: 11992:

African Rank-and-File: Social Implications of Colonial Military Service in the King's African Rifles, 1902–1964

11822: 11365: 11306: 11202: 11061: 10904: 10491: 10224: 10087: 8259: 8195: 7667: 7359: 7165: 6120: 5575: 5559: 5143: 4622: 4347: 4020: 3736: 3226:

In English, the Kikuyu people also are known as the "Kikuyu" and as the "Wakikuyu" people, but their preferred

2459: 1431: 1217: 721: 239: 5382: 1941:

alienate ordinary Kikuyu and drive many of the wavering majority into Mau Mau's arms. Three battalions of the

14049: 14044: 13377: 13365: 13353: 13323: 13299: 13293: 13287: 13269: 13245: 12311: 12109: 7814: 2170:

The screening centres were staffed by settlers who had been appointed temporary district-officers by Baring.

1136: 713: 13317: 9933:

Adekson, J. 'Bayo (1981). "The Algerian and Mau Mau Revolts: a Comparative Study in Revolutionary Warfare".

1997:

Native Kenyan political activity was permitted to resume at the end of the military phase of the Emergency.

1957:

to Nairobi on the first day of Operation Jock Scott. In November 1952, Baring requested assistance from the

1820:. It has also been argued that Mau Mau was not explicitly national, either intellectually or operationally. 822: 13635: 12847: 12827: 12457: 12263: 12248: 12233: 11340:(1977). "Armed Resistance and Counter-Insurgency: Reflections on the Anya Nya and Mau Mau Experiences". In 10512: 8177:

This episode is not mentioned in histories of the Mau Mau revolt, suggesting that such incidents were rare.

2820:

Mau Mau militants perpetrated numerous war crimes. One such incident was their attack on the settlement of

1181: 1101: 1064: 1054: 950: 13305: 12795: 10459: 7742: 1031: 13822: 13774: 13359: 13160: 12550: 12326: 12306: 12253: 9845: 3212: 1258: 1017: 585: 179: 6768:

the abuses were happening, and publicly denounced those colonial officials who came forward to complain.

5503:, p. 197: "eveloping conflicts ... in Kikuyu society were expressed in a vigorous internal debate." 1730:, exemplified this key role. An unknown number also fought in the war, with the most high-ranking being 1305:. General Baimungi, one of the last Mau Mau leaders, was killed shortly after Kenya attained self-rule. 13383: 13311: 13251: 13100: 12616: 12452: 12410: 12341: 12145: 9355: 8346: 6091: 6063: 1176: 632: 617: 12122:

Podcast about the Mau Mau Uprising and British repression from Radiolab (WNYC – New York Public Radio)

5308: 4269:: "African reserves in Kenya were legally constituted in the Crown Lands Amendment Ordinance of 1926". 3518: 14024: 13641: 13028: 12955: 12871: 12574: 12481: 12102:. Includes footage of: military operations against Mau Mau; the capture of Dedan Kimathi; capture of 12047: 10378: 7187:

Whittaker, Hannah (2012). "Forced Villagization during the Shifta Conflict in Kenya, ca. 1963–1968".

6142: 2929:

ferry food to the fighters in the forest. None has been accused, let alone convicted, of any crime."

2754: 2368: 2206:

was rife. Such communication included propaganda and disinformation, which went by such names as the

1210: 1146: 513: 13894: 13707: 13653: 13539: 13527: 13497: 13239: 13130: 12931: 12925: 12724: 12714: 12527: 12442: 12425: 12196: 12191: 11404:

Historical Studies and Social Change in Western Kenya: Essays in Memory of Professor Gideon S. Were

10091: 8878: 7873: 6587: 4804:"Mau Mau reed shafted arrows with some barbed 'wire' iron arrow heads and bound nocks, Kenya, 1953" 3186: 2741: 2573: 1986:

In January 1953, six of the most prominent detainees from Jock Scott, including Kenyatta, were put

1942: 1546: 1513: 1486: 1079: 798: 416: 64: 50: 31: 10811:"Mau Mau" Detainee: The Account by a Kenya African of his Experiences in Detention Camps 1953–1960 9389: 9308: 9015:'murder by beating up and roasting alive of one African'. No action was taken against the accused. 8555: 8272:

Anaïs Angelo (2017). "Jomo Kenyatta and the repression of the 'last' Mau Mau leaders, 1961–1965".

7852: 6651: 3459:

Osborne, Myles (2010). "The Kamba and Mau Mau: Ethnicity, Development, and Chiefship, 1952–1960".

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the final impetus to request permission from the Colonial Office to declare a State of Emergency.

13858: 13792: 13629: 13593: 13395: 13371: 13329: 13202: 13190: 13112: 13106: 12889: 12586: 12487: 12369: 12336: 10748: 9068: 1904: 1116: 992: 13479: 13172: 6923:, p. 294, gives a slightly lower figure (1,007,500) for the number of individuals affected. 969: 13834: 13443: 13425: 13419: 13208: 13142: 13010: 12895: 12877: 12321: 12301: 11151: 11139: 11023:

The Settler Economies: Studies in the Economic History of Kenya and Southern Rhodesia 1900–1963

10112: 4862: 4791: 4788:

These guns were more powerful psychologically than they were physically, with Jonathan Ferguson

2091: 1595: 1416: 567: 553: 530: 7391: 7001: 6876: 6836: 6732: 6188: 6033: 5591: 5473: 5214:

Newsinger, John (1981). "Revolt and Repression in Kenya: The "Mau Mau" Rebellion, 1952–1960".

5096: 4706: 4532: 4426: 4410: 4394: 4314: 4282: 4231: 3829: 3632: 3243:

Though finalised in 1926, reserves were first instituted by the Crown Lands Ordinance of 1915.

13491: 13094: 13034: 12961: 12744: 12699: 12679: 12631: 12601: 12522: 12420: 12400: 12273: 12211: 12138: 11009: 10600:— (2011). "Alchemy of Evidence: Mau Mau, the British Empire, and the High Court of Justice". 9802: 9723: 8306:

Kenya National Assembly Official Record. 12 July 2000. Parliamentary debates. pages 1552-1553

6892: 6406: 6202: 6172: 6014: 5714: 5695: 5021: 4588: 4516: 4330: 4298: 3983: 3947: 3931: 3891: 3571: 3433: 3035:

be, must be righted. I feel ashamed to have come from a Britain that did what it did here ."

2669: 2652: 2337:

provided a much needed source of labour to continue the colony's infrastructure development.

2264: 1991: 1012: 905: 609: 5759:"'Constituencies of Control' – Collective Punishments in Kenya's Mau Mau Emergency, 1952–55" 5244: 5124: 4266: 4180: 4125: 4076: 2142:

employed on Swynnerton's poor-relief programmes, as would many detainees in the work camps.

656: 13888: 13677: 13623: 13551: 13473: 13461: 13257: 13016: 12937: 12537: 12517: 12447: 12430: 11103: 9420: 9215: 8991: 8847: 8639: 4807: 2944: 2940: 2894: 2541: 2104: 1950: 1925: 1864: 1844: 1627: 1550: 1454: 1171: 1131: 850: 453: 433: 421: 10695:. London: James Currey; Nairobi: Heinemann Kenya; Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. 4803: 2655:

that colonial authorities imposed on large areas of the country. Thousands were beaten or

8: 14074: 13762: 13575: 13533: 12986: 12853: 12669: 12591: 12415: 12223: 11147: 9992: 9526: 8992:"Brutal beatings and the 'roasting alive' of a suspect: what secret Mau Mau files reveal" 8960: 4343: 3081: 2802: 2698: 2014: 1682: 1462: 945: 910: 875: 865: 830: 622: 261: 154: 7685:"The Prosecution of Rape in Wartime: Evidence from the Mau Mau Rebellion, Kenya 1952–60" 5270: 2638:

in Kenya. Many Kikuyu were forced to move. According to British authorities 80,000 were

2220:

no reason to be ashamed of the acts which are done in its own name by its own servants.

13930: 13798: 13780: 13731: 13695: 13683: 13671: 13617: 13389: 13347: 13178: 13154: 13124: 13052: 12641: 12621: 12606: 12560: 12469: 12437: 12405: 12284: 12243: 12011:

Britain, Kenya and the Cold War: Imperial Defence, Colonial Security and Decolonisation

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British Government Policy and Decolonisation, 1945–1963: Scrutinising the Official Mind

11682: 11628: 11620: 11390: 11382: 11325: 11112: 11086: 11078: 10929: 10921: 10871: 10863: 10630: 10617: 10500: 10451: 10342: 10334: 10259: 10251: 10203: 10160: 10006: 8670: 8289: 7992: 7857: 7712: 7289: 7243: 7196: 5780: 5223: 4918: 4455: 3476: 3227: 2934: 2862: 2629: 2593: 2334: 1921: 1773: 1470: 1074: 860: 699: 482: 448: 9874: 8700: 8426: 8399: 7158:"The prosecution of rape in wartime: Evidence from Kenya's Mau Mau rebellion, 1952-60" 3816:

as well as the interior that included the Kikuyu land, now known as Central Province."

13942: 13852: 13713: 13659: 13515: 13166: 13088: 13058: 12949: 12704: 12636: 12626: 12388: 12374: 12346: 12316: 12181: 12074: 12055: 12033: 12014: 11995: 11976: 11959: 11940: 11921: 11902: 11874: 11861: 11806: 11784: 11765: 11746: 11707: 11688: 11667: 11645: 11632: 11587: 11568: 11549: 11530: 11511: 11492: 11464: 11445: 11426: 11407: 11394: 11349: 11286: 11264: 11219: 11178: 11159: 11090: 11045: 11026: 10995: 10976: 10957: 10951: 10933: 10888: 10875: 10830: 10795: 10767: 10734: 10715: 10696: 10674: 10655: 10636: 10621: 10586: 10565: 10543: 10536: 10520: 10475: 10455: 10390: 10359: 10346: 10329: 10291: 10263: 10120: 10097: 10042: 10023: 9996: 9959: 9164:'Whether the Government will make available to this House the text of the Cowan plan' 8372: 8293: 7996: 7984: 7750: 7704: 7663: 7596: 7397: 7355: 7293: 7247: 7235: 6212: 6208: 5784: 5063: 5055: 4922: 4910: 4770: 4760: 4618: 4562: 3732: 3526: 3468: 3439: 2858: 2846: 2821: 2746: 2417: 1474: 1321: 1141: 1059: 920: 788: 548: 540: 340: 310: 200: 167: 11527:

Fighting the Mau Mau: The British Army and Counter-Insurgency in the Kenya Emergency

9975:

Smallholder Agriculture in Colonial Kenya: the Official Mind and the Swynnerton Plan

8027: 2288:

The lack of decent sanitation in the camps meant that epidemics of diseases such as

13972: 13960: 13954: 13912: 13816: 13786: 13701: 13521: 13503: 13485: 13455: 13070: 12919: 12859: 12763: 12739: 12661: 12555: 12505: 12173: 12095: 11839: 11831: 11612: 11374: 11315: 11211: 11070: 10913: 10855: 10609: 10443: 10382: 10324: 10316: 10288:

Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization

10241: 10233: 10195: 10152: 9988: 9942: 8281: 7976: 7696: 7285: 7227: 5770: 5047: 4945: 4900: 3231: 3191: 3128: 2969:

to support their claims was for so long 'lost' in the governmental filing system."

2745:

of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. The people executed belonged to the

2600: 2300:

swept through them. Detainees would also develop vitamin deficiencies, for example

1934: 1450: 1366: 1049: 855: 694: 637: 590: 522: 306: 283: 226: 11820:

Lonsdale, John (1990). "Mau Maus of the Mind: Making Mau Mau and Remaking Kenya".

8285: 7908: 5775: 5758: 2873:

Although Mau Mau was effectively crushed by the end of 1956, it was not until the

2388: 14069: 13864: 13804: 13743: 13737: 13665: 13545: 13449: 13431: 13082: 13004: 12674: 12611: 12542: 12532: 11729: 11684:

Africa's "Agitators": Militant Anti-Colonialism in Africa and the West, 1918–1939

10973:

Conflict and Accommodation in Western Kenya: The Gusii and the British, 1907–1963

10613: 10557: 10447: 10186: 9979: 9361: 9170: 8527: 7347: 6124: 5453: 3160: 3073: 3031: 2952: 2757:

in London. None of the other ranks involved in the massacre has been prosecuted.

2721: 2643: 2635: 2577: 2517: 2138: 2128: 1880: 1768: 1554: 1534: 1509: 1381: 1317: 1039: 1002: 808: 761: 736: 731: 684: 674: 669: 664: 470: 12106:; the survivors of the Lari massacre and the defendants' trial; Operation Anvil. 11584:

Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa; Book Two: Violence & Ethnicity

11442:

Empire of Secrets: British Intelligence, the Cold War and the Twilight of Empire

10489:

Coray, Michael S. (1978). "The Kenya Land Commission and the Kikuyu of Kiambu".

9253:"It's not just Kenya. Squaring up to the seamier side of empire is long overdue" 6588:"Taking on the Boss: The quiet whistleblowers on events in Kenya deserve praise" 3966:

of 1880–1881, whose ultimate legacy remains tangible even today, in the form of

3042:

hold while the UK government held compensation negotiations with the claimants.

2371:'diagnosis' of the uprising, JC Carothers: he advocated a Kenyan version of the 1937:(both later principal leaders of Mau Mau's forest armies), fled to the forests. 1309: 13996: 13725: 13647: 13605: 13599: 13587: 13275: 12831: 12779: 12729: 12719: 12709: 12684: 12651: 12596: 12218: 12201: 11337: 11098: 6354: 3963: 3813: 3133: 2774: 2733: 2656: 2604: 2066: 2028: 2023: 2010: 1987: 1973: 1896: 1868: 1793: 1731: 1623: 1574: 1559: 1517: 1458: 1286: 1151: 982: 870: 726: 443: 256: 250: 245: 234: 221: 208: 195: 129: 11835: 11378: 11320: 11278:

Percox, David A. (2005). "Kenya: Mau Mau Revolt". In Kevin Shillington (ed.).

11215: 11101:(1981). "Revolt and Repression in Kenya: The 'Mau Mau' Rebellion, 1952–1960". 11074: 10917: 10320: 10237: 9946: 8582:"'He came with pliers'—Kenyan alleges torture by British colonial authorities" 7980: 7700: 7231: 4905: 4888: 4787: 1755:

nationalist response to the unfairness and oppression of colonial domination.

14018: 14002: 13978: 13876: 13870: 13768: 13136: 13022: 12992: 12694: 12186: 12103: 11798: 10062: 7988: 7822: 7754: 7708: 7297: 7239: 6137: 6086: 6058: 5347: 5059: 4914: 4774: 3530: 3472: 3385: 3027: 2921: 2915: 2889: 2815: 2766: 2502: 2372: 2115: 2035: 1929: 1884: 1800:

Broadly speaking, throughout Kikuyu history, there have been two traditions:

1727: 1705: 1566: 1542: 1466: 1423: 1329: 1302: 1293: 1278: 1262: 1261:(KLFA), also known as the Mau Mau, and the British authorities. Dominated by 987: 935: 925: 915: 845: 840: 783: 756: 494: 438: 322: 302: 298: 293: 288: 142: 88: 12119: 12115:"Lost" Mau Mau-era government-documents posted by the BBC's Dominic Casciani 12099: 11963: 11733: 2701:, the attorney general of the British administration in Kenya, wrote to the 13846: 13689: 13563: 13214: 13184: 12967: 12825: 12784: 12206: 11721: 11603: 11194:

Histories of the Hanged: Britain's Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire

10688: 10434: 10199: 9806:. National Council for Law Reporting. Article 9, p. 15. Archived from 9634: 9601: 9568: 9535: 9499: 9466: 9257: 9033: 8169:

Bioterrorism and Biocrimes: The Illicit Use of Biological Agents Since 1900

6512: 5067: 5051: 3146: 3119: 2737: 2714: 2710: 2673: 2511: 2297: 2095: 1903:

Resistance to both the Mau Mau and the British response was illustrated by

1744: 1583: 1579: 1570: 1282: 1274: 1254: 1200: 1156: 1121: 885: 803: 580: 213: 13509: 11196:. By David Anderson. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2005. Pp. viii+406. 9597:"Kenyan Mau Mau victims in talks with UK government over legal settlement" 4949: 3284:

is used by David Anderson and Caroline Elkins. For Anderson, see his 2005

13966: 13611: 13407: 13341: 13148: 12998: 12734: 11616: 11565:

Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa; Book One: State & Class

10818: 10731:

Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World

9287: 9183: 9137: 8820: 8607: 8049: 5811: 5661: 5184: 3875: 2778: 2545: 2376: 1677: 1521: 1439: 1298: 1270: 1266: 1106: 900: 746: 741: 627: 11726:

From the Cape to Cairo: The First Traverse of Africa from South to North

11461:

Politics of Decolonization: Kenya Europeans and the Land Issue 1960–1965

11329: 11116: 11042:

The Counter-Insurgency Myth: The British Experience of Irregular Warfare

9823:

The national days . . . Mashujaa Day, to be observed on 20 October

7716: 7684: 7200: 5227: 3480: 2901:

5,000 Kenyans it had tortured and abused during the Mau Mau insurgency.

2470:

Kenyans were granted nearly all of the demands made by the KAU in 1951.

13413: 13335: 13046: 12883: 12052:

Perspectives on Africa: A Reader in Culture, History and Representation

11624: 11425:. Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. 11341: 10925: 10867: 10826: 10504: 10386: 10338: 10255: 10246: 10207: 10020:

Masters, Servants, and Magistrates in Britain and the Empire, 1562–1955

9694: 8100:"Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire" 5410: 5354: 3650: 2943:

for former colonies, relying on an obscure legal precedent relating to

2639: 2565: 2451: 2100: 1872: 977: 793: 642: 575: 11853: 11844: 11386: 11082: 10859: 10164: 10010: 9462:"The colonial papers: FCO transparency is a carefully cultivated myth" 9216:"Tales of brutality and violence that could open the claims floodgate" 8581: 8317:"British-backed Mau Mau memorial set to open in rare colonial apology" 1289:(British colonists, local auxiliary militia, and pro-British Kikuyu). 13828: 13581: 13401: 10358:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. 10039:

Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire

9630:"Kenyan Mau Mau: official policy was to cover up brutal mistreatment" 9425: 9220: 9073: 8996: 8914: 8013:. (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana: 1993) pp. 142–143. 7540:

Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire

2750: 2561: 2549: 2537: 2510:

so aggressively—the total is more than double the number executed by

2293: 1946: 1760: 1591: 1537:

came in the early 1930s when they set up the Carter Land Commission.

1443: 1422:

Even before 1895, however, Britain's presence in Kenya was marked by

1369: 1325: 930: 689: 317: 10956:(revised ed.). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. 7157: 2267:. Punishments for violating the "rules to live by" could be severe. 367: 13557: 12114: 11546:

Control & Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination

11463:(digital reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10156: 9029:"My critics ignored evidence of torture in Mau Mau detention camps" 8790:"Mau Mau torture claim Kenyans win right to sue British government" 6127:

Herbert A. Friedman (Ret.) 4 January 2006, accessed 9 November 2013

6117: 5947:, p. 454. See also the relevant footnote, n.96 of p. 454. 2589: 2557: 1427: 890: 751: 11406:. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. pp. 110–128. 11200:. By Caroline Elkins (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005). Pp. xiv+475". 10427:"Air Power in the Mau Mau Conflict: The Government's Chief Weapon" 10375:

The African Mind in Health and Disease: A Study in Ethnopsychiatry

10217:"The Enemy Within: Loyalists and the War Against Mau Mau in Kenya" 8955:"Kenyans were tortured during Mau Mau rebellion, High Court hears" 7629:"Sins of colonialists lay concealed for decades in secret archive" 7558:"Kenya: UK Expresses Regret Over Abuse as Mau Mau Promised Payout" 2465: 2191:

explicitly drew the parallel: Kenya's Belsen, he called one camp.

12130: 11762:

Kenya Cowboy: A Police Officer's Account of the Mau Mau Emergency

11508:

Mau Mau from Within: The Story of the Kenya Land and Freedom Army

9977:. By Anne Thurston. Cambridge: University Press, 1987. Pp. 141". 9769:"Speech to the 52nd Commemoration of the Memory of Dedan Kimathi" 4352: 3967: 3894:

wrote of how, on occasion, they massacred Kikuyu by the hundreds.

3841: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3173: 2825: 2782: 2569: 2455: 2289: 1888: 1664: 1529: 595: 30:

This article is about the conflict in Kenya. For other uses, see

12054:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 462–470. 10582:

Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya

9531:"The Kenyans tortured by the British must now be justly treated" 8846:

Macintyre, Ben; Ralph, Alex; McConnell, Tristan (21 July 2011).

7393:

The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War

4556: 2861:

was used by members of Mau Mau to kill cattle in an incident of

1920:

On 20 October 1952, Governor Baring signed an order declaring a

1891:

and ill-treatment at the hands of the colonial administration".

11154:. In Bethwell Allan Ogot & William Robert Ochieng' (eds.). 10139:"Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Modernity: The Paradox of Mau Mau" 10115:. In Bethwell Allan Ogot & William Robert Ochieng' (eds.). 8759:"Mau Mau victims seek compensation from UK for alleged torture" 8640:"Kenyan veterans celebrate first victory in compensation claim" 8171:(Reprint of 1st ed.). Amsterdam: Fredonia Books. pp. 4348:"Native Labour; House of Commons Debate, 10 November 1937" 2301: 2058: 2053: 1373: 9421:"Hundreds more top secret files missing in Mau Mau abuse case" 9283:

For more on Anderson's reaction to the 'missing' papers, see:

4965:

Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion and Social Change in Kenya

3845:. Series 4, Vol. 25, cc. 181–270. 1 June 1894. 3638: 3038:

Thirteen boxes of "top secret" Kenya files are still missing.

2397:

other means. Kenya is in for a very tricky political future."

58: 12689: 12161: 7872:

Anderson, David; Bennett, Huw; Branch, Daniel (August 2006).

2854: 2770: 2585: 2581: 2178: 1954: 1915: 1345: 679: 12126:

Surrender Pass issued under Baring's 18 January 1955 Amnesty

12030:

Mau Mau's Children: The Making of Kenya's Postcolonial Elite

11642:

Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918–1940

10022:. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. 8068: 2646:

estimated that between 160,000 and 320,000 were interned in

2603:

describes the campaign against the Mau Mau as an example of

1700:

The Mau Mau attacks were mostly well organised and planned.

11025:(reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10994:(revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9138:"British colonial files released following legal challenge" 9069:"New documents show how Britain sanctioned Mau Mau torture" 6945: 6943: 6941: 5812:"British colonial files released following legal challenge" 5304: 4936:

Leakey, L.S.B. (1954). "The religious element in Mau Mau".

4836:

Mau Mau Blasters: The Homemade Guns of the Mau Mau Uprising

2553: 2152:

List of British Detention Camps during the Mau Mau Uprising

2108: 2062: 11975:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–126. 10975:. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. 10585:(US ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. 9334:

know what was happening; senior legal officials in London

7519: 7507: 7373: 7371: 6747:"Secret memo gave guidelines on abuse of Mau Mau in 1950s" 6549: 5908: 5862: 5860: 5835: 5833: 5506: 3775: 2327:—One colonial officer's description of British works camps 11423:

The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1918–77

11285:. New York, NY: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 751–752. 10712:

Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism

9665:"Statement to Parliament on settlement of Mau Mau claims" 8989: 8728:"Kenyans sue UK for alleged colonial human rights abuses" 6621: 6619: 6617: 6615: 6613: 6326: 4538: 4474: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 3837:"Class V; House of Commons Debate, 1 June 1894" 3435:

State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South

2668:

Among the detainees who suffered severe mistreatment was

1977: 1958: 11661:

The Origins and Growth of Mau Mau: an Historical Survey

9893: 9564:"Fury as Britain fights ruling on Kenya torture victims" 8124: 8080: 7019: 6938: 6539: 6537: 6535: 4242: 4240: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3921: 3881: 3750: 3748: 2281:—Memorandum to Commissioner of Prisons John 'Taxi' Lewis 1281:

who fought against the European colonists in Kenya, the

10654:. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 10635:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. 10356:

The Giriama and Colonial Resistance in Kenya, 1800–1920

10093:

The Defence of the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5

9741: 9443:

In a statement to the court dated March 8, released to

8845: 7939:"MoD 'refusing to release file on massacre of Kenyans'" 7368: 7189:

The International Journal of African Historical Studies

6316: 5896: 5872: 5857: 5830: 4736: 4724: 4594: 4522: 4191: 4189: 3461:

The International Journal of African Historical Studies

3415: 3413: 3411: 3349: 3347: 3024:

Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs

2947:

and the declaration of martial law in Jamaica in 1860.

1928:

was launched: the British carried out a mass-arrest of

11956:

The Last Mau Mau (Kenya's Freedom Heroes or Villains?)

10056:

Anderson, David; Bennett, Huw; Branch, Daniel (2006).

9905: 9729: 9244: 7495: 7422: 7328: 7125: 7101: 7043: 6979: 6898: 6854: 6802: 6744: 6722: 6686: 6610: 6424: 6273: 5662:"Mau Mau case: UK government accepts abuse took place" 5102: 4082: 2955:

said the claimants had an "arguable case", and added:

2283:

from Kenya's Director of Medical Services, 18 May 1954

1320:

strategy, which they had developed in suppressing the

1308:

The KLFA failed to capture widespread public support.

14080:

Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Africa

11175:

Mau Mau and Nationhood: Arms, Authority and Narration

10885:

Mau Mau and Nationhood: Arms, Authority and Narration

9495:"Mau Mau torture case: Kenyans win ruling against UK" 8187: 8185: 7871: 6866: 6532: 6501: 6499: 6249: 6178: 5086: 5011: 4987: 4490: 4432: 4237: 4131: 4026: 3989: 3787: 3745: 2533:

List of war crimes § 1952–1960: Mau Mau uprising

9588: 9098: 9096: 8750: 8719: 8213: 7473:"Mau Mau uprising: Bloody history of Kenya conflict" 7062: 7060: 7058: 6792: 6790: 6788: 6674: 6566: 6564: 6448: 6006: 6004: 5989: 5845: 5609: 5185:"Mau Mau uprising: Bloody history of Kenya conflict" 4186: 3487: 3408: 3344: 2607:, though this verdict has been fiercely criticised. 2103:, conducting large-scale leaflet-drops. A flight of 12032:. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. 11704:

Legacy of violence: a history of the British empire

11232: 9209: 9207: 9205: 9020: 8633: 8631: 8629: 8608:"Mau Mau case: UK government cannot be held liable" 8488:"Mau Mau veterans to sue over British 'atrocities'" 6955: 6581: 6579: 6025: 6023: 5967: 5965: 5523: 5521: 4938:

African Music: Journal of the African Music Society

4839:(MA). University of Central Florida. Archived from 4712: 4496: 4480: 4438: 4246: 4195: 4137: 4000: 3793: 3698: 3696: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3080:Members of Mau Mau are currently recognised by the 2473:On 18 January 1955, the Governor-General of Kenya, 2031:to oversee the restoration of order in the colony. 1827: 11510:. Daraja Press, republishing original 1966 title. 11198:Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya 10953:Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt 10562:Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya 10535: 9354: 9104: 8985: 8983: 8953: 8781: 8486: 8453: 8249: 8182: 8136: 8011:Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt 7453:Bethwell, Ogot (2005). "Review: Britain's Gulag". 7113: 7072: 6882: 6773: 6496: 5728:"Ciokaraine: The Story of the Female Meru Diviner" 5706: 5704: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5271:"Historian, Kenya native's book on Mau Mau revolt" 5135: 5133: 4416: 4384: 4304: 4272: 4221: 3765: 3763: 3669: 3556:The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army 3506:The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army 3290:Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya 2432:four months after the institution of villagisation 2017:(centre), observing operations against the Mau Mau 1610:Native Kenyan labourers were of three categories: 11973:Ethnic Diversity and Economic Stability in Africa 11156:Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–93 10766:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 10747: 10290:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 10117:Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–93 9713: 9453: 9093: 7316: 7304: 7055: 7031: 7007: 6967: 6926: 6910: 6842: 6826: 6814: 6785: 6698: 6631: 6561: 6484: 6472: 6460: 6436: 6412: 6384: 6360: 6332: 6304: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6255: 6237: 6039: 6001: 5938: 5581: 5537: 5494: 5463: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5250: 5234: 4674: 4672: 4670: 4559:An Economic History of Kenya and Uganda 1800–1970 4506: 4356:. Series 5, Vol. 328, cc. 1757-9. 3681: 2232: 14016: 11644:. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 10794:. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. 10671:The British Way in Counter-Insurgency, 1945–1967 10602:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 9621: 9202: 9181: 9062: 9060: 9058: 9056: 8839: 8818: 8626: 8225: 8160: 8148: 7609: 7434: 7396:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 301–303. 7091: 7089: 7087: 6991: 6907:, pp. 234–235. See also n.3 of p. 235. 6576: 6372: 6261: 6020: 5977: 5962: 5950: 5884: 5763:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 5518: 5179: 5177: 4684: 4631: 4400: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4164: 4162: 4115: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4058: 3693: 3622: 3601: 3561: 3369: 3301:Other estimates are as high as 450,000 interned. 2225:—Letter from Police Commissioner Arthur Young to 1726:care, and of course, information. Women such as 358:12,000–20,000+ killed (including 1,090 executed) 12071:Economic and Social Origins of Mau Mau, 1945–53 11896: 10813:. New York and London: Oxford University Press. 10785:. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. 10517:Web of Deceit: Britain's Real Role in the World 10304: 10110: 9419:Macintyre, Ben; Kenber, Billy (15 April 2011). 9418: 9412: 9162:Question, House of Lords, London 12 May 1959 – 9106:"Cabinet 'hushed up' torture of Mau Mau rebels" 9026: 8980: 8901: 8219: 8201: 7657: 6719:, Chapter 5: The Birth of Britain's Gulag. 6325:, p. 86: "Before the Emergency ended, the 6162: 5791: 5701: 5680: 5638: 5621: 5565: 5549: 5484: 5482: 5447:"Daniel Goldhagen and Kenya: recycling fantasy" 5130: 5114: 4696: 4643: 4612: 4580: 4578: 4372: 4147: 3927: 3861: 3819: 3760: 3726: 3708: 3390:"Daniel Goldhagen and Kenya: recycling fantasy" 3141:Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers 2466:Political and social concessions by the British 2430:—Meru's District Commissioner, 6 November 1954, 2407:—Council of Kenya-Colony's Ministers, July 1954 2367:brought in by the colonial government to do an 2057:British Army patrol crossing a stream carrying 1598:(1906) and an identification pass known as the 11581: 11562: 10474:. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. 9762: 9760: 9356:"Mau Mau case casts light on colonial records" 9250: 9129: 8870: 8821:"Mau Mau Kenyans allowed to sue UK government" 7537: 7275: 6285: 5803: 5323: 4667: 4655: 4320: 4288: 4205: 3320: 1516:'s plan to have a settler economy pay for the 355:3,000 native Kenyan police and soldiers killed 12811: 12146: 11008: 10943:State of Emergency: The Full Story of Mau Mau 10649: 10472:Mau Mau Memoirs: History, Memory and Politics 9868: 9866: 9835: 9594: 9306: 9213: 9175: 9053: 8990:Ben Macintyre; Billy Kenber (13 April 2011). 8910:"Torture device No 1: the legal rubber stamp" 8907: 8812: 7861:(Supplement). 3 September 1954. p. 5124. 7579:test case against the British were castrated. 7389: 7084: 6649: 6396: 5654: 5597: 5305:"Pulitzer Prize Winners: General Non-Fiction" 5174: 4971: 4211: 4159: 4055: 4010: 3973: 3909: 3887: 3870:, p. 4. Francis Hall, an officer in the 3577: 3384: 3332: 3176:, contemporary Kikuyu insurgency within Kenya 2974:If we are going to sin, we must sin quietly. 1605: 1356:State of Emergency: The Full Story of Mau Mau 1218: 383: 12046: 11868: 11505: 9595:Cobain, Ian; Hatcher, Jessica (5 May 2013). 9102: 8934: 8787: 8756: 8725: 8662: 8271: 7682: 5479: 4754: 4575: 4342: 3937: 3897: 3803: 2979:—Kenyan Attorney-General Eric Griffith-Jones 2253:—A contemporary BBC-description of screening 11720: 10792:Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, 1905–63 9757: 9352: 8516: 8514: 8451: 7683:Anderson, David M.; Weis, Julianne (2018). 7555: 6352:Mau Mau! A Case study in Colonial Air Power 5262: 4999: 4855:"When the Mau Mau Used a Biological Weapon" 4557:R. M. A. 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London: Bodley Head. 11745:. London: Frank Cass. 11544:Berman, Bruce (1990). 11236:; et al. (1925). 11014:Kenya Diary, 1902–1906 11010:Meinertzhagen, Richard 10669:French, David (2011). 10137:Berman, Bruce (1991). 10096:. London: Allen Lane. 7927:– via AllAfrica. 7743:"KENYA: Court-Martial" 7689:Law and History Review 7390:Gary D. Solis (2010). 5415:London Review of Books 5359:London Review of Books 5052:10.1192/bjp.93.392.548 4792:Royal Armouries Museum 4561:. The Bowering Press. 4458:. kenyaembassydc.org. 3266:During the Emergency, 3097: 3064: 3007: 2976: 2962: 2798: 2755:Wormwood Scrubs Prison 2689: 2678: 2672:, the grandfather of 2620: 2546:laws or customs of war 2544:as "violations of the 2460:North Eastern Province 2427: 2404: 2358: 2324: 2278: 2250: 2222: 2193: 2161: 2070: 2069:(4th and 5th soldiers) 2018: 2013:, Commander-in-Chief, 1976:, Director General of 1969: 1836: 1789: 1711: 1653: 1514:Governor Charles Eliot 1501: 1430:. In 1894, British MP 1404: 1350: 1142:2014 Mpeketoni attacks 554:List of years in Kenya 188:Commanders and leaders 14055:20th century in Kenya 13492:Second Anglo-Sikh War 13149:Cotiote (Wayanad) War 13035:French and Indian War 12276: 11954:Njagi, David (1991). 11525:Bennett, Huw (2012). 11104:Science & Society 11021:Mosley, Paul (1983). 10629:Ellis, John (1986) . 9390:"Kenya: White Terror" 8556:"Kenya: White Terror" 8009:Maloba, Wunyabari O. 7591:Edgerton, R. (1990). 6201:Cashner, Bob (2013). 6123:26 April 2020 at the 5269:Thomas, Beth (1993). 5216:Science & Society 4950:10.21504/amj.v1i1.235 3892:Richard Meinertzhagen 3092: 3059: 3003: 2972: 2957: 2888:On 12 December 1964, 2793: 2775:British colonial rule 2742:King's African Rifles 2684: 2670:Hussein Onyango Obama 2666: 2653:collective punishment 2615: 2512:the French in Algeria 2423: 2400: 2353: 2316: 2274: 2265:Josiah Mwangi Kariuki 2245: 2217: 2188: 2156: 2150:Further information: 2056: 2008: 1992:right to a fair trial 1964: 1943:King's African Rifles 1832: 1802:moderate-conservative 1784: 1732:Field Marshal Muthoni 1702: 1649: 1553:, later known as the 1551:Rift Valley Provinces 1492: 1399: 1348: 1013:Josiah Mwangi Kariuki 906:Kenya in World War II 350:Casualties and losses 335:10,000 regular troops 65:King's African Rifles 14050:Wars of independence 14045:Wars involving Kenya 13654:Hunza–Nagar Campaign 13462:First Anglo-Sikh War 13438:Egyptian–Ottoman War 12352:World Heritage Sites 12312:Environmental issues 11779:Kyle, Keith (1999). 11617:10.1353/at.2006.0069 11234:Ormsby-Gore, William 11148:Ogot, Bethwell Allan 10652:Anatomy of Rebellion 10492:Agricultural History 10200:10.1093/afraf/adm014 9935:Comparative Strategy 9315:. BBC. 02:38–03:31. 9169:9 April 2024 at the 6658:. BBC. 00:40–00:54. 4843:on 12 November 2022. 4808:National Army Museum 4346:(10 November 1937). 4344:Creech Jones, Arthur 3928:Atieno-Odhiambo 1995 2945:Patagonian toothfish 2736:, which happened in 2720:According to Author 2542:Nuremberg principles 2105:de Havilland Vampire 1959:MI5 Security Service 1951:Lancashire Fusiliers 1926:Operation Jock Scott 1905:Ciokaraine M'Barungu 1865:Operation Jock Scott 1818:militant nationalist 1814:moderate nationalist 1455:Koitalel Arap Samoei 1434:had observed in the 1380:Author and activist 1172:2018 Kenya handshake 1132:Operation Linda Nchi 993:Kenya People's Union 871:Kenya-Uganda Railway 851:Kenya-Uganda Railway 454:Christmas Eve Battle 434:Ruck Family massacre 422:Operation Jock Scott 104:Rebellion suppressed 13907:Waziristan campaign 13841:Waziristan campaign 13534:Revolt of Rajab Ali 13011:War of Jenkins' Ear 12224:Kenya African Union 11487:Ali, Tariq (2022). 11138:(3). Archived from 10519:. London: Vintage. 10465:on 20 October 2013. 10179:– via Scribd. 10088:Andrew, Christopher 9239:Republic of Kenya.' 8961:The Daily Telegraph 8460:The Daily Telegraph 8077:, pp. 119–180. 7528:, pp. 124–145. 7516:, pp. 324–330. 7110:, pp. 260–261. 7052:, pp. 259–260. 6988:, pp. 236–237. 6863:, pp. 240–241. 6695:, pp. 171–177. 6683:, pp. 176–177. 6628:, pp. 179–191. 6546:, pp. 154–191. 6433:, pp. 128–129. 6282:, pp. 121–125. 5935:, pp. 236–286. 5929:, pp. 456–457. 5111:, pp. 183–185. 4996:, pp. 182–183. 4547:, pp. 320–321. 4487:, pp. 155–156. 3558:(1994) p. 346. 3525:. 17 January 1964. 3396:on 15 December 2018 3010:Colonial Secretary 2905:Compensation claims 2699:Eric Griffith-Jones 2335:forced-labour camps 2146:Detention programme 2015:East Africa Command 2001:Military operations 1777:, awarded the 2006 1683:Kenya African Union 1624:settler plantations 1463:Mekatilili wa Menza 1442:" (inventor of the 946:The Kennedy Airlift 911:Kenya African Union 876:Mekatilili Wa Menza 866:British East Africa 831:Johann Ludwig Krapf 714:Swahili city-states 628:Elmenteitan Culture 623:Kalokol Pillar Site 576:Koobi Fora Hominins 13781:Bambatha Rebellion 13696:Anglo-Zanzibar War 13684:Chitral Expedition 13618:Anglo-Egyptian War 13390:Anglo-Ashanti wars 13095:Lord Dunmore's War 13053:Anglo-Cherokee War 12962:King William's War 12551:Telecommunications 12297:Biosphere reserves 12278: 12244:Goldenberg scandal 12048:Thiong'o, Ngugi wa 11342:Ali A. Mazrui 11338:Pirouet, M. Louise 9848:on 21 January 2012 8321:The Economic Times 8030:on 21 October 2004 7858:The London Gazette 7479:. 18 August 2016. 5350:'s angry letters: 5346:See in particular 4212:Emerson Welch 1980 3888:Meinertzhagen 1957 3784:, pp. 15, 22. 3217:March to 30 April. 3151:Something of Value 2953:Mr Justice McCombe 2941:"state succession" 2935:Imperial Reckoning 2890:President Kenyatta 2863:biological warfare 2789:Mau Mau war crimes 2657:sexually assaulted 2630:British war crimes 2611:British war crimes 2594:military necessity 2548:", which includes 2454:in 1966 of ethnic 2107:jets flew in from 2071: 2019: 1922:state of emergency 1774:Imperial Reckoning 1483:H. of C. 1457:of 1895–1905; the 1351: 1075:Terrorism in Kenya 861:German East Africa 747:History of Malindi 742:History of Mombasa 633:Cushitic expansion 483:Capture of Kimathi 449:Operation Mushroom 345:35,000+ insurgents 14012: 14011: 13943:Malayan Emergency 13853:Malabar rebellion 13714:Siege of Malakand 13660:Anglo-Manipur War 13516:Anglo-Persian War 13065:Anglo-Spanish War 13017:King George's War 12938:King Philip's War 12914:Anglo-Spanish War 12793: 12792: 12753: 12752: 12617:Human trafficking 12569: 12568: 12500: 12499: 12465:Political parties 12411:Foreign relations 12383: 12382: 12317:Great Rift Valley 12234:1963 Constitution 12229:Mau Mau rebellion 12096:Archive newsreels 12080:978-0-85255-024-3 12061:978-1-444-33522-4 12039:978-0-299-28784-9 12020:978-1-84885-966-1 12001:978-0-325-00140-1 11982:978-1-107-02599-8 11946:978-1-86064-406-1 11927:978-0-19-820505-0 11908:978-0-521-08348-5 11880:978-0-954-47132-3 11873:. Mawenzi Books. 11812:978-0-586-08870-8 11790:978-0-333-72008-0 11771:978-1-920-14323-7 11752:978-0-7146-5220-7 11713:978-0-307-27242-3 11694:978-0-231-70056-6 11673:978-0-521-13090-5 11651:978-0-870-81207-1 11593:978-0-852-55099-1 11574:978-0-852-55021-2 11555:978-0-852-55069-4 11536:978-1-107-02970-5 11517:978-1-988832-59-3 11498:978-1-78873-577-3 11470:978-0-521-10023-6 11451:978-0-007-45796-0 11432:978-0-520-03988-9 11413:978-9966-25-152-7 11355:978-9-004-05646-6 11292:978-1-579-58245-6 11270:978-1-84884-438-4 11184:978-0-852-55478-4 11165:978-0-8214-1051-6 11142:on 22 March 2012. 11051:978-0-415-66745-6 11032:978-0-521-10245-2 11001:978-0-521-03480-7 10982:978-0-838-63350-2 10963:978-0-852-55745-7 10894:978-0-852-55478-4 10860:10.1080/713674307 10836:978-0-714-61688-9 10801:978-9966-46-326-5 10773:978-0-521-85409-2 10753:Man Hunt in Kenya 10740:978-0-521-88058-9 10721:978-1-850-43784-0 10702:978-0-821-40940-4 10680:978-0-199-58796-4 10661:978-0-873-95441-9 10642:978-0-801-83358-8 10592:978-0-805-07653-0 10571:978-0-224-07363-9 10549:978-0-029-08920-0 10526:978-0-099-44839-6 10481:978-1-555-87537-4 10365:978-0-520-04216-2 10297:978-0-521-13090-5 10126:978-0-8214-1051-6 10103:978-0-7139-9885-6 10048:978-0-297-84719-9 10029:978-0-807-82877-9 9965:978-1-4039-8374-9 9775:on 9 October 2011 7749:. 22 March 1954. 7660:Unbowed: a memoir 7403:978-1-139-48711-5 7352:Unbowed: a memoir 6811:, pp. 151–2. 6457:, pp. 62–90. 6218:978-1-78096-903-9 6209:Osprey Publishing 6092:The Sunday Herald 5998:, pp. 37–38. 5917:, pp. 62–63. 5854:, pp. 35–36. 5618:, pp. 31–32. 5515:, pp. 11–12. 4790:August 28, 2024. 4757:Mau Mau Rebellion 4721:, pp. 66–67. 4615:Unbowed: a memoir 4568:978-0-333-17671-9 3890:, pp. 51–52 3729:Unbowed: a memoir 3678:, pp. 23–25. 3445:978-1-134-04246-3 3082:Kenyan Government 2988:migrated archives 2859:African milk bush 2747:Kikuyu Home Guard 2707:Sir Evelyn Baring 2592:not warranted by 2418:Kikuyu Home Guard 2067:Lee–Enfield No. 5 1510:Settler societies 1475:Winston Churchill 1432:Sir Charles Dilke 1322:Malayan Emergency 1239:Mau Mau rebellion 1235: 1234: 1060:HIV/AIDS in Kenya 921:Mau Mau Rebellion 789:Portuguese Empire 675:Nilotic expansion 549:Timeline of Kenya 503: 502: 401:Mau Mau rebellion 366: 365: 362:2,714 surrendered 341:Kikuyu Home Guard 201:Winston Churchill 168:Southern Rhodesia 110: 109: 44:Mau Mau rebellion 16:(Redirected from 14092: 14025:Mau Mau Uprising 13961:Cyprus Emergency 13787:Maritz rebellion 13775:Tibet expedition 13708:Benin Expedition 13528:Indian Rebellion 13522:Second Opium War 13504:Eureka Rebellion 13480:British Honduras 13456:New Zealand Wars 13041:Seven Years' War 12987:Queen Anne's War 12820: 12813: 12806: 12797: 12796: 12773: 12766: 12580: 12579: 12546: 12511: 12510: 12491: 12482:Deputy President 12394: 12393: 12290: 12289: 12254:2007–2008 crisis 12155: 12148: 12141: 12132: 12131: 12084: 12065: 12043: 12024: 12005: 11986: 11967: 11950: 11931: 11912: 11893: 11884: 11865: 11847: 11816: 11794: 11775: 11756: 11737: 11722:Grogan, Ewart S. 11717: 11698: 11677: 11655: 11636: 11597: 11578: 11559: 11540: 11521: 11502: 11474: 11455: 11436: 11417: 11398: 11359: 11333: 11323: 11296: 11274: 11255: 11253: 11251: 11229: 11188: 11169: 11143: 11120: 11094: 11055: 11036: 11017: 11005: 10986: 10967: 10946: 10937: 10898: 10879: 10840: 10814: 10805: 10786: 10777: 10756: 10744: 10725: 10706: 10684: 10665: 10646: 10625: 10596: 10575: 10558:Elkins, Caroline 10553: 10541: 10530: 10508: 10485: 10466: 10464: 10458:. 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murder of 2433: 2408: 2369:ethnopsychiatric 2362: 2343:Embakasi Airport 2328: 2284: 2254: 2228: 2201: 2165: 2164:—Caroline Elkins 1982: 1935:Stanley Mathenge 1849:Oliver Lyttelton 1840: 1796: 1738:British reaction 1659: 1658:30 November 1946 1505: 1498: 1461:Uprising led by 1451:Nandi Resistance 1436:House of Commons 1410: 1390: 1333:at least 11,000 1285:, and the local 1243:Mau Mau uprising 1227: 1220: 1213: 1201:Kenya portal 1199: 1198: 1197: 1050:Wagalla massacre 856:Nandi Resistance 657:African Iron Age 638:Eburran industry 591:Enkapune Ya Muto 533: 523:History of Kenya 508: 507: 404: 402: 392: 385: 378: 369: 368: 325: 313: 307:Stanley Mathenge 296: 284:Terence Gavaghan 282: 281: 280: 271: 270: 269: 262:Kenneth O'Connor 260: 259: 249: 248: 238: 237: 227:Harold Macmillan 225: 224: 212: 211: 199: 198: 166: 164: 163: 153: 152: 151: 141: 140: 139: 128: 126: 125: 100:British victory 73: 72: 61: 41: 40: 21: 18:Mau Mau Uprising 14100: 14099: 14095: 14094: 14093: 14091: 14090: 14089: 14015: 14014: 14013: 14008: 13949:Kenya Emergency 13755: 13749: 13744:Second Boer War 13738:Boxer Rebellion 13666:Pahang Uprising 13546:Ambela campaign 13468:Río de la Plata 13450:First Opium War 13432:Aden Expedition 13264:Río de la Plata 13226: 13220: 13191:Irish Rebellion 13083:First Carib War 12979: 12973: 12896:Confederate War 12890:Irish Rebellion 12840: 12834: 12824: 12794: 12789: 12776: 12769: 12762: 12749: 12725:Public holidays 12656: 12565: 12544: 12496: 12489: 12488:Prime Minister 12443:Law enforcement 12379: 12356: 12332:Protected areas 12279: 12268: 12259:2010 referendum 12212:In World War II 12168: 12159: 12092: 12087: 12081: 12062: 12040: 12021: 12002: 11983: 11947: 11928: 11909: 11881: 11813: 11791: 11772: 11753: 11714: 11695: 11674: 11652: 11594: 11575: 11556: 11537: 11518: 11499: 11482: 11480:Further reading 11477: 11471: 11452: 11433: 11414: 11362: 11356: 11293: 11283:, Volume 2, H–O 11271: 11249: 11247: 11226: 11185: 11166: 11099:Newsinger, John 11097: 11058: 11052: 11033: 11002: 10983: 10964: 10895: 10837: 10802: 10774: 10741: 10722: 10703: 10681: 10662: 10643: 10593: 10572: 10550: 10527: 10482: 10462: 10429: 10415: 10413: 10397: 10366: 10298: 10276: 10274: 10270: 10219: 10187:African Affairs 10174: 10172: 10127: 10104: 10077: 10075: 10055: 10049: 10030: 10003: 9980:African Affairs 9966: 9932: 9928: 9923: 9922: 9910: 9906: 9898: 9894: 9884: 9882: 9871: 9864: 9851: 9849: 9834: 9830: 9816: 9814: 9813:on 2 April 2013 9810: 9797: 9793: 9792: 9788: 9778: 9776: 9765: 9758: 9746: 9742: 9734: 9730: 9718: 9714: 9704: 9702: 9697:. 6 June 2013. 9693: 9692: 9688: 9678: 9676: 9663: 9662: 9655: 9645: 9643: 9626: 9622: 9612: 9610: 9593: 9589: 9579: 9577: 9560: 9556: 9546: 9544: 9524: 9520: 9510: 9508: 9491: 9487: 9477: 9475: 9458: 9454: 9436: 9434: 9417: 9413: 9403: 9401: 9386: 9382: 9372: 9370: 9362:Financial Times 9351: 9347: 9322: 9320: 9297: 9295: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9268: 9266: 9249: 9245: 9231: 9229: 9212: 9203: 9193: 9191: 9180: 9176: 9171:Wayback Machine 9161: 9157: 9147: 9145: 9134: 9130: 9120: 9118: 9111:The Independent 9101: 9094: 9084: 9082: 9065: 9054: 9044: 9042: 9025: 9021: 9007: 9005: 8988: 8981: 8971: 8969: 8952: 8951: 8947: 8939: 8935: 8925: 8923: 8906: 8902: 8892: 8890: 8875: 8871: 8861: 8859: 8844: 8840: 8830: 8828: 8817: 8813: 8803: 8801: 8786: 8782: 8772: 8770: 8755: 8751: 8741: 8739: 8724: 8720: 8710: 8708: 8699: 8698: 8694: 8684: 8682: 8667: 8663: 8653: 8651: 8636: 8627: 8617: 8615: 8606: 8605: 8601: 8591: 8589: 8580: 8579: 8575: 8565: 8563: 8552: 8548: 8538: 8536: 8528:Harvard Gazette 8519: 8512: 8502: 8500: 8493:The Independent 8483: 8479: 8469: 8467: 8450: 8446: 8436: 8434: 8423: 8419: 8409: 8407: 8396: 8392: 8382: 8380: 8371: 8370: 8366: 8356: 8354: 8353:. 8 August 1999 8351:The Irish Times 8345: 8344: 8340: 8330: 8328: 8315: 8314: 8310: 8305: 8301: 8270: 8266: 8254: 8250: 8242: 8238: 8230: 8226: 8218: 8214: 8206: 8202: 8190: 8183: 8165: 8161: 8153: 8149: 8141: 8137: 8129: 8125: 8115: 8113: 8109: 8105:. p. 175. 8102: 8098: 8097: 8093: 8085: 8081: 8073: 8069: 8059: 8057: 8048: 8047: 8043: 8033: 8031: 8022: 8021: 8017: 8008: 8004: 7969:The Round Table 7965: 7961: 7952: 7950: 7943:Telegraph.co.uk 7937: 7936: 7932: 7922: 7920: 7905: 7901: 7891: 7889: 7870: 7866: 7850: 7846: 7836: 7834: 7830: 7817: 7811: 7804: 7794: 7792: 7779: 7778: 7774: 7764: 7762: 7741: 7740: 7736: 7726: 7724: 7681: 7677: 7670: 7656: 7652: 7642: 7640: 7627: 7626: 7622: 7614: 7610: 7603: 7589: 7585: 7571: 7569: 7554: 7547: 7536: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7512: 7508: 7500: 7496: 7486: 7484: 7471: 7470: 7466: 7451: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7427: 7423: 7413: 7411: 7404: 7388: 7384: 7376: 7369: 7362: 7345: 7341: 7333: 7329: 7321: 7317: 7309: 7305: 7274: 7267: 7257: 7255: 7212: 7208: 7185: 7181: 7171: 7169: 7154: 7150: 7142: 7138: 7130: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7106: 7102: 7094: 7085: 7077: 7073: 7065: 7056: 7048: 7044: 7036: 7032: 7024: 7020: 7012: 7008: 6996: 6992: 6984: 6980: 6972: 6968: 6960: 6956: 6948: 6939: 6931: 6927: 6919:, p. 235. 6915: 6911: 6903: 6899: 6887: 6883: 6871: 6867: 6859: 6855: 6847: 6843: 6831: 6827: 6819: 6815: 6807: 6803: 6795: 6786: 6778: 6774: 6760: 6758: 6743: 6739: 6727: 6723: 6715: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6691: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6665: 6663: 6648: 6644: 6636: 6632: 6624: 6611: 6601: 6599: 6584: 6577: 6569: 6562: 6554: 6550: 6542: 6533: 6523: 6521: 6504: 6497: 6489: 6485: 6477: 6473: 6465: 6461: 6453: 6449: 6441: 6437: 6429: 6425: 6417: 6413: 6401: 6397: 6389: 6385: 6377: 6373: 6365: 6361: 6349: 6345: 6337: 6333: 6321: 6317: 6309: 6305: 6297: 6286: 6278: 6274: 6266: 6262: 6254: 6250: 6242: 6238: 6228: 6226: 6219: 6199: 6195: 6183: 6179: 6167: 6163: 6153: 6151: 6136: 6135: 6131: 6125:Wayback Machine 6116: 6112: 6102: 6100: 6085: 6084: 6080: 6070: 6068: 6057: 6056: 6052: 6044: 6040: 6028: 6021: 6009: 6002: 5994: 5990: 5982: 5978: 5970: 5963: 5955: 5951: 5943: 5939: 5930: 5925: 5921: 5913: 5909: 5901: 5897: 5889: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5865: 5858: 5850: 5846: 5838: 5831: 5821: 5819: 5808: 5804: 5796: 5792: 5755: 5751: 5741: 5739: 5726: 5725: 5721: 5709: 5702: 5690: 5681: 5671: 5669: 5660: 5659: 5655: 5643: 5639: 5631: 5622: 5614: 5610: 5602: 5598: 5586: 5582: 5570: 5566: 5554: 5550: 5542: 5538: 5526: 5519: 5511: 5507: 5499: 5495: 5487: 5480: 5468: 5464: 5454:Wayback Machine 5444: 5440: 5428: 5426: 5409: 5400: 5398: 5381: 5372: 5370: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5333: 5324: 5314: 5312: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5288: 5286: 5267: 5263: 5255: 5251: 5239: 5235: 5212: 5208: 5194: 5192: 5183: 5182: 5175: 5171:(1997), p. 641. 5166: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5138: 5131: 5119: 5115: 5107: 5103: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5075: 5032: 5028: 5016: 5012: 5004: 5000: 4992: 4988: 4976: 4972: 4961: 4957: 4934: 4930: 4885: 4878: 4868: 4866: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4831: 4827: 4817: 4815: 4802: 4801: 4797: 4786: 4782: 4767: 4753: 4749: 4741: 4737: 4729: 4725: 4717: 4713: 4701: 4697: 4689: 4685: 4677: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4648: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4611: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4583: 4576: 4569: 4555: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4527: 4523: 4511: 4507: 4495: 4491: 4479: 4475: 4465: 4463: 4454: 4453: 4449: 4437: 4433: 4421: 4417: 4405: 4401: 4389: 4385: 4377: 4373: 4363: 4361: 4341: 4337: 4325: 4321: 4309: 4305: 4293: 4289: 4277: 4273: 4261: 4257: 4245: 4238: 4226: 4222: 4210: 4206: 4194: 4187: 4175: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4136: 4132: 4120: 4116: 4108: 4104: 4096: 4083: 4071: 4056: 4048: 4047:, pp. 1–5. 4043: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4015: 4011: 3999: 3990: 3978: 3974: 3958: 3954: 3942: 3938: 3926: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3902: 3898: 3886: 3882: 3874:and after whom 3866: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3835: 3833: 3824: 3820: 3808: 3804: 3792: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3768: 3761: 3753: 3746: 3739: 3725: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3701: 3694: 3686: 3682: 3674: 3670: 3660: 3658: 3649: 3648: 3639: 3627: 3623: 3611: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3582: 3578: 3566: 3562: 3554: 3550: 3540: 3538: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3504: 3500: 3492: 3488: 3457: 3453: 3446: 3430: 3426: 3418: 3409: 3399: 3397: 3383: 3370: 3364: 3360: 3352: 3345: 3337: 3333: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3261: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3225: 3221: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3183: 3170: 3161:Weep Not, Child 3108: 3103: 3099: 3074:Daniel arap Moi 3070: 3066: 3057: 3048: 3032:John Nottingham 3016: 3009: 2982: 2978: 2907: 2871: 2834: 2830: 2818: 2812: 2807: 2800: 2791: 2763: 2730: 2722:Wangari Maathai 2695: 2691: 2648:detention camps 2644:Caroline Elkins 2636:civil liberties 2632: 2626: 2622: 2613: 2535: 2529: 2518:Wangari Maathai 2490: 2468: 2435: 2431: 2429: 2410: 2406: 2364: 2360: 2351: 2330: 2326: 2314: 2286: 2282: 2280: 2256: 2252: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2224: 2203: 2195: 2167: 2163: 2154: 2148: 2139:Swynnerton Plan 2131: 2129:Swynnerton Plan 2125: 2123:Swynnerton Plan 2090:At first armed 2084: 2051: 2045: 2043:Operation Anvil 2003: 1984: 1980: 1971: 1918: 1881:Swynnerton Plan 1845:Philip Mitchell 1842: 1839:—David Anderson 1838: 1830: 1798: 1791: 1769:Caroline Elkins 1740: 1673: 1671:Mau Mau warfare 1661: 1657: 1655: 1608: 1555:White Highlands 1535:agrarian reform 1507: 1503: 1496: 1412: 1408: 1406: 1397: 1388: 1382:Wangari Maathai 1343: 1318:divide and rule 1251:Kenya Emergency 1231: 1195: 1193: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1096: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1040:Daniel Arap Moi 1034: 1024: 1023: 1022: 1003:Kisumu Massacre 972: 962: 961: 960: 825: 815: 814: 813: 809:Said bin Sultan 778: 768: 767: 766: 762:Jumba la Mtwana 752:History of Lamu 737:Kilwa Sultanate 732:Swahili culture 716: 706: 705: 704: 670:Bantu expansion 665:Sirikwa culture 659: 649: 648: 647: 612: 602: 601: 600: 570: 560: 559: 558: 543: 517: 506: 505: 504: 499: 471:Swynnerton Plan 466:Operation Anvil 405: 400: 398: 396: 361: 359: 338: 336: 316: 305: 301: 297: 278: 276: 275: 267: 265: 264: 254: 253: 243: 242: 232: 231: 229: 219: 218: 216: 206: 205: 203: 193: 175:Mau Mau rebels 161: 159: 149: 147: 137: 135: 123: 121: 91: 62: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14098: 14088: 14087: 14082: 14077: 14072: 14067: 14062: 14057: 14052: 14047: 14042: 14037: 14032: 14027: 14010: 14009: 14007: 14006: 14000: 13994: 13988: 13982: 13976: 13970: 13964: 13958: 13952: 13946: 13940: 13934: 13928: 13922: 13916: 13910: 13904: 13898: 13892: 13889:Barzani revolt 13886: 13880: 13874: 13868: 13862: 13856: 13850: 13844: 13838: 13832: 13826: 13820: 13814: 13808: 13802: 13796: 13790: 13784: 13778: 13772: 13766: 13759: 13757: 13751: 13750: 13748: 13747: 13741: 13735: 13729: 13726:Tirah campaign 13723: 13717: 13711: 13705: 13699: 13693: 13687: 13681: 13675: 13669: 13663: 13657: 13651: 13645: 13639: 13636:Central Africa 13633: 13627: 13621: 13615: 13609: 13606:First Boer War 13603: 13597: 13591: 13588:Anglo-Zulu War 13585: 13579: 13573: 13567: 13561: 13555: 13549: 13543: 13537: 13531: 13525: 13519: 13513: 13507: 13501: 13495: 13489: 13483: 13477: 13471: 13465: 13459: 13453: 13447: 13441: 13435: 13429: 13423: 13417: 13411: 13405: 13399: 13393: 13387: 13381: 13375: 13369: 13363: 13357: 13351: 13345: 13339: 13333: 13327: 13321: 13315: 13309: 13303: 13297: 13291: 13285: 13279: 13276:Froberg mutiny 13273: 13267: 13261: 13255: 13249: 13243: 13237: 13230: 13228: 13222: 13221: 13219: 13218: 13212: 13206: 13200: 13194: 13188: 13182: 13176: 13170: 13164: 13158: 13152: 13146: 13140: 13134: 13128: 13122: 13116: 13110: 13104: 13098: 13092: 13086: 13080: 13074: 13068: 13062: 13056: 13050: 13044: 13038: 13032: 13026: 13020: 13014: 13008: 13002: 12996: 12990: 12983: 12981: 12975: 12974: 12972: 12971: 12965: 12959: 12956:Williamite War 12953: 12947: 12941: 12935: 12929: 12923: 12917: 12911: 12905: 12899: 12893: 12887: 12881: 12875: 12869: 12863: 12857: 12851: 12844: 12842: 12836: 12835: 12832:British Empire 12823: 12822: 12815: 12808: 12800: 12791: 12790: 12788: 12787: 12782: 12775: 12774: 12767: 12759: 12758: 12755: 12754: 12751: 12750: 12748: 12747: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12712: 12707: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12687: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12666: 12664: 12658: 12657: 12655: 12654: 12649: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12594: 12589: 12587:Child marriage 12583: 12577: 12571: 12570: 12567: 12566: 12564: 12563: 12558: 12553: 12548: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12514: 12508: 12502: 12501: 12498: 12497: 12495: 12494: 12484: 12479: 12478: 12477: 12467: 12462: 12461: 12460: 12450: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12434: 12433: 12428: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12397: 12391: 12385: 12384: 12381: 12380: 12378: 12377: 12372: 12366: 12364: 12358: 12357: 12355: 12354: 12349: 12344: 12339: 12334: 12329: 12324: 12319: 12314: 12309: 12304: 12299: 12293: 12287: 12281: 12280: 12271: 12269: 12267: 12266: 12264:2013 Elections 12261: 12256: 12251: 12249:1992 Elections 12246: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12226: 12221: 12219:Ilemi Triangle 12216: 12215: 12214: 12204: 12202:Uganda Railway 12199: 12194: 12189: 12184: 12178: 12176: 12170: 12169: 12158: 12157: 12150: 12143: 12135: 12129: 12128: 12123: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12091: 12090:External links 12088: 12086: 12085: 12079: 12066: 12060: 12044: 12038: 12025: 12019: 12006: 12000: 11987: 11981: 11968: 11951: 11945: 11932: 11926: 11913: 11907: 11894: 11885: 11879: 11866: 11830:(3): 393–421. 11817: 11811: 11799:Lapping, Brian 11795: 11789: 11776: 11770: 11757: 11751: 11738: 11718: 11712: 11699: 11693: 11678: 11672: 11656: 11650: 11637: 11598: 11592: 11579: 11573: 11560: 11554: 11541: 11535: 11522: 11516: 11503: 11497: 11483: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11475: 11469: 11456: 11450: 11437: 11431: 11418: 11412: 11399: 11373:(3): 437–453. 11360: 11354: 11334: 11297: 11291: 11275: 11269: 11256: 11230: 11224: 11189: 11183: 11170: 11164: 11144: 11121: 11111:(2): 159–185. 11095: 11069:(1): 127–143. 11056: 11050: 11037: 11031: 11018: 11006: 11000: 10987: 10981: 10968: 10962: 10947: 10938: 10912:(2): 241–258. 10899: 10893: 10880: 10854:(1): 107–124. 10841: 10835: 10815: 10806: 10800: 10787: 10778: 10772: 10757: 10749:Henderson, Ian 10745: 10739: 10726: 10720: 10707: 10701: 10685: 10679: 10666: 10660: 10647: 10641: 10626: 10608:(5): 731–748. 10597: 10591: 10576: 10570: 10554: 10548: 10531: 10525: 10509: 10499:(1): 179–193. 10486: 10480: 10467: 10422: 10401: 10395: 10370: 10364: 10351: 10315:(107): 11–31. 10302: 10296: 10283: 10232:(2): 291–315. 10212: 10181: 10157:10.2307/485216 10151:(2): 181–206. 10134: 10131: 10125: 10108: 10102: 10084: 10053: 10047: 10034: 10028: 10015: 10001: 9970: 9964: 9951: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9921: 9920: 9904: 9892: 9862: 9828: 9786: 9756: 9740: 9728: 9712: 9686: 9653: 9620: 9587: 9554: 9518: 9485: 9452: 9411: 9380: 9345: 9343: 9342: 9304: 9276: 9243: 9201: 9174: 9155: 9128: 9092: 9052: 9019: 8979: 8945: 8933: 8900: 8869: 8838: 8811: 8780: 8749: 8718: 8692: 8661: 8625: 8599: 8573: 8546: 8510: 8477: 8444: 8417: 8390: 8364: 8338: 8308: 8299: 8280:(3): 442–459. 8264: 8256:Wasserman 1976 8248: 8236: 8234:, p. 752. 8224: 8212: 8200: 8192:Wasserman 1976 8181: 8159: 8147: 8135: 8133:, p. 132. 8123: 8091: 8089:, p. 127. 8079: 8067: 8041: 8015: 8002: 7959: 7930: 7899: 7864: 7844: 7802: 7772: 7734: 7695:(2): 267–294. 7675: 7668: 7650: 7620: 7608: 7601: 7583: 7545: 7530: 7518: 7506: 7504:, p. 324. 7494: 7464: 7445: 7433: 7421: 7402: 7382: 7367: 7360: 7339: 7327: 7325:, p. 366. 7315: 7313:, p. xiv. 7303: 7265: 7226:(4): 515–535. 7206: 7195:(3): 343–364. 7179: 7148: 7136: 7124: 7112: 7100: 7083: 7081:, p. 263. 7071: 7069:, p. 260. 7054: 7042: 7040:, p. 252. 7030: 7028:, p. 293. 7018: 7016:, p. 238. 7006: 6990: 6978: 6976:, p. 239. 6966: 6954: 6952:, p. 294. 6937: 6935:, p. 240. 6925: 6909: 6897: 6889:McCulloch 2006 6881: 6865: 6853: 6851:, p. 153. 6841: 6825: 6823:, p. 227. 6813: 6801: 6799:, p. 262. 6784: 6772: 6737: 6721: 6709: 6707:, p. 144. 6697: 6685: 6673: 6642: 6630: 6609: 6575: 6573:, p. 178. 6560: 6548: 6531: 6495: 6493:, p. 136. 6483: 6481:, p. 108. 6471: 6469:, p. 109. 6459: 6447: 6445:, p. 125. 6435: 6423: 6411: 6395: 6393:, p. 127. 6383: 6371: 6359: 6355:Air Enthusiast 6343: 6331: 6315: 6303: 6284: 6272: 6260: 6248: 6236: 6217: 6211:. p. 15. 6207:. Oxford, UK: 6193: 6177: 6161: 6129: 6110: 6078: 6050: 6038: 6019: 6000: 5988: 5976: 5974:, p. 189. 5961: 5949: 5937: 5919: 5907: 5895: 5883: 5871: 5856: 5844: 5829: 5802: 5790: 5769:(2): 323–350. 5749: 5719: 5700: 5679: 5653: 5637: 5620: 5608: 5596: 5580: 5564: 5548: 5546:, p. 199. 5536: 5517: 5505: 5493: 5478: 5462: 5460:, p. 294. 5445:See Elstein's 5438: 5436: 5435: 5407: 5379: 5339: 5322: 5296: 5261: 5249: 5233: 5222:(2): 159–185. 5206: 5173: 5160: 5148: 5129: 5113: 5101: 5085: 5026: 5018:McCulloch 2006 5010: 4998: 4986: 4970: 4955: 4928: 4876: 4846: 4825: 4795: 4780: 4766:978-1473864603 4765: 4747: 4745:, p. 239. 4735: 4733:, p. 252. 4723: 4711: 4695: 4683: 4666: 4654: 4642: 4640:, p. 198. 4630: 4623: 4605: 4603:, p. 282. 4593: 4574: 4567: 4549: 4537: 4521: 4505: 4489: 4473: 4447: 4431: 4415: 4399: 4383: 4371: 4335: 4319: 4303: 4287: 4271: 4255: 4236: 4220: 4204: 4185: 4158: 4146: 4144:, p. 159. 4130: 4114: 4102: 4081: 4054: 4037: 4025: 4009: 4007:, p. 187. 3988: 3972: 3964:Basuto Gun War 3952: 3936: 3920: 3908: 3896: 3880: 3860: 3818: 3802: 3800:, p. 149. 3786: 3774: 3759: 3757:, p. 320. 3744: 3737: 3719: 3707: 3705:, p. 167. 3692: 3688:Majdalany 1963 3680: 3668: 3637: 3621: 3600: 3588: 3576: 3560: 3548: 3510: 3498: 3486: 3451: 3444: 3424: 3407: 3368: 3358: 3343: 3341:, p. 206. 3331: 3318: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3304: 3303: 3294: 3273: 3259: 3245: 3236: 3219: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3194: 3189: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3169: 3166: 3165: 3164: 3157: 3144: 3137: 3131: 3126: 3117: 3107: 3104: 3091: 3067:—John Lonsdale 3058: 3056: 3053: 3047: 3044: 3002: 2971: 2906: 2903: 2870: 2867: 2814:Main article: 2811: 2810:Lari massacres 2808: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2762: 2759: 2734:Chuka massacre 2729: 2728:Chuka massacre 2726: 2697:In June 1957, 2683: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2605:eliminationism 2531:Main article: 2528: 2525: 2489: 2486: 2467: 2464: 2438:Cross relief. 2422: 2399: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2273: 2244: 2234: 2231: 2216: 2187: 2155: 2147: 2144: 2127:Main article: 2124: 2121: 2101:propaganda war 2083: 2080: 2047:Main article: 2044: 2041: 2029:George Erskine 2011:George Erskine 2002: 1999: 1974:Percy Sillitoe 1963: 1917: 1914: 1897:George Erskine 1869:Kapenguria Six 1831: 1829: 1826: 1794:Louise Pirouet 1783: 1771:' 2005 study, 1739: 1736: 1672: 1669: 1648: 1607: 1604: 1543:expropriations 1522:wage labourers 1518:Uganda Railway 1491: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1372:was adopted: " 1342: 1339: 1287:Kenya Regiment 1247:Mau Mau revolt 1233: 1232: 1230: 1229: 1222: 1215: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1152:Uhuru Kenyatta 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1098: 1097: 1094:Recent history 1092: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 983:Pio Gama Pinto 980: 974: 973: 968: 967: 964: 963: 959: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 827: 826: 821: 820: 817: 816: 812: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 780: 779: 774: 773: 770: 769: 765: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 727:Swahili people 724: 718: 717: 712: 711: 708: 707: 703: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 661: 660: 655: 654: 651: 650: 646: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 614: 613: 608: 607: 604: 603: 599: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 572: 571: 566: 565: 562: 561: 557: 556: 551: 545: 544: 539: 538: 535: 534: 526: 525: 519: 518: 511: 501: 500: 498: 497: 486: 485: 474: 473: 468: 457: 456: 451: 446: 444:Chuka massacre 441: 436: 425: 424: 419: 410: 407: 406: 395: 394: 387: 380: 372: 364: 363: 360:2,633 captured 356: 352: 351: 347: 346: 343: 332: 331: 327: 326: 286: 251:George Erskine 190: 189: 185: 184: 183: 182: 172: 171: 170: 157: 145: 130:United Kingdom 117: 116: 112: 111: 108: 107: 106: 105: 97: 93: 92: 87: 85: 81: 80: 77: 69: 68: 63:Troops of the 54: 53: 46: 45: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14097: 14086: 14083: 14081: 14078: 14076: 14073: 14071: 14068: 14066: 14063: 14061: 14058: 14056: 14053: 14051: 14048: 14046: 14043: 14041: 14038: 14036: 14033: 14031: 14028: 14026: 14023: 14022: 14020: 14004: 14001: 13998: 13995: 13992: 13989: 13986: 13983: 13980: 13977: 13974: 13971: 13968: 13965: 13962: 13959: 13956: 13953: 13950: 13947: 13944: 13941: 13938: 13935: 13932: 13929: 13926: 13923: 13920: 13917: 13914: 13911: 13908: 13905: 13902: 13899: 13896: 13893: 13890: 13887: 13884: 13881: 13878: 13877:Ikhwan revolt 13875: 13872: 13869: 13866: 13863: 13860: 13857: 13854: 13851: 13848: 13845: 13842: 13839: 13836: 13833: 13830: 13827: 13824: 13821: 13818: 13815: 13812: 13809: 13806: 13803: 13800: 13797: 13794: 13791: 13788: 13785: 13782: 13779: 13776: 13773: 13770: 13767: 13764: 13761: 13760: 13758: 13752: 13745: 13742: 13739: 13736: 13733: 13730: 13727: 13724: 13721: 13718: 13715: 13712: 13709: 13706: 13703: 13700: 13697: 13694: 13691: 13688: 13685: 13682: 13679: 13676: 13673: 13670: 13667: 13664: 13661: 13658: 13655: 13652: 13649: 13646: 13643: 13640: 13637: 13634: 13631: 13628: 13625: 13622: 13619: 13616: 13613: 13610: 13607: 13604: 13601: 13598: 13595: 13592: 13589: 13586: 13583: 13580: 13577: 13574: 13571: 13568: 13565: 13562: 13559: 13556: 13553: 13550: 13547: 13544: 13541: 13538: 13535: 13532: 13529: 13526: 13523: 13520: 13517: 13514: 13511: 13508: 13505: 13502: 13499: 13496: 13493: 13490: 13487: 13484: 13481: 13478: 13475: 13472: 13469: 13466: 13463: 13460: 13457: 13454: 13451: 13448: 13445: 13442: 13439: 13436: 13433: 13430: 13427: 13424: 13421: 13418: 13415: 13412: 13409: 13406: 13403: 13400: 13397: 13394: 13391: 13388: 13385: 13382: 13379: 13376: 13373: 13370: 13367: 13364: 13361: 13358: 13355: 13352: 13349: 13346: 13343: 13340: 13337: 13334: 13331: 13328: 13325: 13324:Spice Islands 13322: 13319: 13316: 13313: 13310: 13307: 13304: 13301: 13298: 13295: 13292: 13289: 13286: 13283: 13282:Santo Domingo 13280: 13277: 13274: 13271: 13268: 13265: 13262: 13259: 13256: 13253: 13250: 13247: 13244: 13241: 13238: 13235: 13232: 13231: 13229: 13223: 13216: 13213: 13210: 13207: 13204: 13201: 13198: 13195: 13192: 13189: 13186: 13183: 13180: 13177: 13174: 13171: 13168: 13165: 13162: 13159: 13156: 13153: 13150: 13147: 13144: 13141: 13138: 13135: 13132: 13129: 13126: 13123: 13120: 13117: 13114: 13111: 13108: 13105: 13102: 13099: 13096: 13093: 13090: 13087: 13084: 13081: 13078: 13075: 13072: 13071:Pontiac's War 13069: 13066: 13063: 13060: 13057: 13054: 13051: 13048: 13045: 13042: 13039: 13036: 13033: 13030: 13027: 13024: 13023:Carnatic Wars 13021: 13018: 13015: 13012: 13009: 13006: 13003: 13000: 12997: 12994: 12993:Tuscarora War 12991: 12988: 12985: 12984: 12982: 12976: 12969: 12966: 12963: 12960: 12957: 12954: 12951: 12948: 12945: 12942: 12939: 12936: 12933: 12930: 12927: 12924: 12921: 12918: 12915: 12912: 12909: 12906: 12903: 12900: 12897: 12894: 12891: 12888: 12885: 12882: 12879: 12876: 12873: 12870: 12867: 12864: 12861: 12858: 12855: 12852: 12849: 12846: 12845: 12843: 12837: 12833: 12829: 12821: 12816: 12814: 12809: 12807: 12802: 12801: 12798: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12777: 12772: 12768: 12765: 12761: 12760: 12756: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12713: 12711: 12708: 12706: 12703: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12667: 12665: 12663: 12659: 12653: 12650: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12600: 12598: 12595: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12584: 12581: 12578: 12576: 12572: 12562: 12559: 12557: 12554: 12552: 12549: 12547: 12541: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12526: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12515: 12512: 12509: 12507: 12503: 12493: 12492: 12485: 12483: 12480: 12476: 12473: 12472: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12459: 12456: 12455: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12423: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12398: 12395: 12392: 12390: 12386: 12376: 12373: 12371: 12368: 12367: 12365: 12363: 12359: 12353: 12350: 12348: 12345: 12343: 12340: 12338: 12335: 12333: 12330: 12328: 12325: 12323: 12320: 12318: 12315: 12313: 12310: 12308: 12305: 12303: 12300: 12298: 12295: 12294: 12291: 12288: 12286: 12282: 12275: 12265: 12262: 12260: 12257: 12255: 12252: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12213: 12210: 12209: 12208: 12205: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12187:Wanga Kingdom 12185: 12183: 12180: 12179: 12177: 12175: 12171: 12167: 12163: 12156: 12151: 12149: 12144: 12142: 12137: 12136: 12133: 12127: 12124: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12105: 12101: 12097: 12094: 12093: 12082: 12076: 12072: 12067: 12063: 12057: 12053: 12049: 12045: 12041: 12035: 12031: 12026: 12022: 12016: 12012: 12007: 12003: 11997: 11993: 11988: 11984: 11978: 11974: 11969: 11965: 11961: 11957: 11952: 11948: 11942: 11938: 11933: 11929: 11923: 11919: 11914: 11910: 11904: 11900: 11895: 11891: 11886: 11882: 11876: 11872: 11867: 11863: 11859: 11855: 11851: 11846: 11841: 11837: 11833: 11829: 11825: 11824: 11818: 11814: 11808: 11804: 11803:End of Empire 11800: 11796: 11792: 11786: 11782: 11777: 11773: 11767: 11763: 11758: 11754: 11748: 11744: 11739: 11735: 11731: 11727: 11723: 11719: 11715: 11709: 11705: 11700: 11696: 11690: 11686: 11685: 11679: 11675: 11669: 11665: 11662: 11657: 11653: 11647: 11643: 11638: 11634: 11630: 11626: 11622: 11618: 11614: 11610: 11606: 11605: 11599: 11595: 11589: 11585: 11580: 11576: 11570: 11566: 11561: 11557: 11551: 11547: 11542: 11538: 11532: 11528: 11523: 11519: 11513: 11509: 11504: 11500: 11494: 11490: 11485: 11484: 11472: 11466: 11462: 11457: 11453: 11447: 11443: 11438: 11434: 11428: 11424: 11419: 11415: 11409: 11405: 11400: 11396: 11392: 11388: 11384: 11380: 11376: 11372: 11368: 11367: 11361: 11357: 11351: 11347: 11343: 11339: 11335: 11331: 11327: 11322: 11317: 11313: 11309: 11308: 11303: 11298: 11294: 11288: 11284: 11282: 11276: 11272: 11266: 11262: 11257: 11245: 11241: 11240: 11235: 11231: 11227: 11225:0-297-84719-8 11221: 11217: 11213: 11209: 11205: 11204: 11199: 11195: 11190: 11186: 11180: 11176: 11171: 11167: 11161: 11157: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11133: 11132: 11127: 11122: 11118: 11114: 11110: 11106: 11105: 11100: 11096: 11092: 11088: 11084: 11080: 11076: 11072: 11068: 11064: 11063: 11057: 11053: 11047: 11043: 11038: 11034: 11028: 11024: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11007: 11003: 10997: 10993: 10988: 10984: 10978: 10974: 10969: 10965: 10959: 10955: 10954: 10948: 10944: 10939: 10935: 10931: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10915: 10911: 10907: 10906: 10900: 10896: 10890: 10886: 10881: 10877: 10873: 10869: 10865: 10861: 10857: 10853: 10849: 10848: 10842: 10838: 10832: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10812: 10807: 10803: 10797: 10793: 10788: 10784: 10779: 10775: 10769: 10765: 10764: 10758: 10754: 10750: 10746: 10742: 10736: 10732: 10727: 10723: 10717: 10713: 10708: 10704: 10698: 10694: 10690: 10689:Füredi, Frank 10686: 10682: 10676: 10672: 10667: 10663: 10657: 10653: 10648: 10644: 10638: 10634: 10633: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10615: 10611: 10607: 10603: 10598: 10594: 10588: 10584: 10583: 10577: 10573: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10545: 10540: 10539: 10532: 10528: 10522: 10518: 10514: 10510: 10506: 10502: 10498: 10494: 10493: 10487: 10483: 10477: 10473: 10468: 10461: 10457: 10453: 10449: 10445: 10441: 10437: 10436: 10428: 10423: 10411: 10407: 10402: 10398: 10396:9789241400176 10392: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10376: 10371: 10367: 10361: 10357: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10340: 10336: 10331: 10326: 10322: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10309: 10303: 10299: 10293: 10289: 10284: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10257: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10226: 10218: 10213: 10209: 10205: 10201: 10197: 10193: 10189: 10188: 10182: 10170: 10166: 10162: 10158: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10145: 10140: 10135: 10132: 10128: 10122: 10118: 10114: 10109: 10105: 10099: 10095: 10094: 10089: 10085: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10064: 10063:History Today 10059: 10054: 10050: 10044: 10040: 10035: 10031: 10025: 10021: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10004: 10002:0-902-99319-4 9998: 9994: 9990: 9986: 9982: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9967: 9961: 9957: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9936: 9931: 9930: 9917: 9913: 9908: 9901: 9900:Anderson 2005 9896: 9880: 9876: 9869: 9867: 9859: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9832: 9824: 9809: 9805: 9804: 9796: 9790: 9774: 9770: 9763: 9761: 9753: 9749: 9744: 9737: 9732: 9725: 9721: 9720:Lonsdale 2003 9716: 9700: 9696: 9690: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9660: 9658: 9641: 9637: 9636: 9631: 9624: 9608: 9604: 9603: 9598: 9591: 9575: 9571: 9570: 9565: 9558: 9542: 9538: 9537: 9532: 9528: 9522: 9506: 9502: 9501: 9496: 9489: 9473: 9469: 9468: 9463: 9456: 9449: 9446: 9432: 9428: 9427: 9422: 9415: 9399: 9395: 9394:Correspondent 9391: 9384: 9368: 9364: 9363: 9357: 9349: 9339: 9337: 9333: 9318: 9314: 9310: 9305: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9284: 9280: 9264: 9260: 9259: 9254: 9247: 9240: 9227: 9223: 9222: 9217: 9210: 9208: 9206: 9189: 9185: 9178: 9172: 9168: 9165: 9159: 9143: 9139: 9132: 9116: 9112: 9107: 9099: 9097: 9080: 9076: 9075: 9070: 9063: 9061: 9059: 9057: 9040: 9036: 9035: 9030: 9023: 9016: 9003: 8999: 8998: 8993: 8986: 8984: 8967: 8963: 8962: 8956: 8949: 8942: 8937: 8921: 8917: 8916: 8911: 8904: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8873: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8842: 8826: 8822: 8815: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8784: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8753: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8722: 8706: 8702: 8696: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8665: 8649: 8645: 8641: 8634: 8632: 8630: 8613: 8609: 8603: 8587: 8583: 8577: 8561: 8557: 8550: 8534: 8530: 8529: 8524: 8517: 8515: 8498: 8494: 8489: 8481: 8465: 8461: 8456: 8448: 8432: 8428: 8421: 8405: 8401: 8394: 8378: 8374: 8368: 8352: 8348: 8342: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8312: 8303: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8268: 8261: 8257: 8252: 8245: 8244:Lonsdale 2000 8240: 8233: 8228: 8221: 8216: 8209: 8204: 8197: 8193: 8188: 8186: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8163: 8157:, p. 42. 8156: 8151: 8145:, p. 94. 8144: 8143:Anderson 2005 8139: 8132: 8131:Anderson 2005 8127: 8108: 8101: 8095: 8088: 8087:Anderson 2005 8083: 8076: 8075:Anderson 2005 8071: 8055: 8051: 8045: 8029: 8025: 8019: 8012: 8006: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7963: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7934: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7903: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7878:History Today 7875: 7868: 7860: 7859: 7854: 7848: 7829: 7825: 7824: 7823:History Today 7816: 7809: 7807: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7776: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7738: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7679: 7671: 7665: 7661: 7654: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7624: 7618:, p. 66. 7617: 7612: 7604: 7602:1-85043-207-4 7598: 7594: 7587: 7580: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7552: 7550: 7541: 7534: 7527: 7522: 7515: 7510: 7503: 7498: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7468: 7460: 7456: 7449: 7443:, p. 87. 7442: 7437: 7430: 7429:Anderson 2005 7425: 7409: 7405: 7399: 7395: 7394: 7386: 7380:, p. 84. 7379: 7378:Anderson 2005 7374: 7372: 7363: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7343: 7336: 7335:Anderson 2005 7331: 7324: 7319: 7312: 7307: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7272: 7270: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7210: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7183: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7152: 7145: 7140: 7133: 7128: 7121: 7116: 7109: 7104: 7097: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7080: 7075: 7068: 7063: 7061: 7059: 7051: 7046: 7039: 7034: 7027: 7026:Anderson 2005 7022: 7015: 7010: 7003: 6999: 6994: 6987: 6982: 6975: 6970: 6963: 6958: 6951: 6950:Anderson 2005 6946: 6944: 6942: 6934: 6929: 6922: 6921:Anderson 2005 6918: 6913: 6906: 6901: 6894: 6890: 6885: 6878: 6874: 6869: 6862: 6857: 6850: 6845: 6838: 6834: 6829: 6822: 6817: 6810: 6805: 6798: 6793: 6791: 6789: 6782:, p. 84. 6781: 6780:Peterson 2008 6776: 6769: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6734: 6730: 6725: 6718: 6713: 6706: 6701: 6694: 6689: 6682: 6677: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6646: 6639: 6634: 6627: 6622: 6620: 6618: 6616: 6614: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6582: 6580: 6572: 6567: 6565: 6557: 6556:Peterson 2008 6552: 6545: 6540: 6538: 6536: 6519: 6515: 6514: 6509: 6502: 6500: 6492: 6487: 6480: 6475: 6468: 6463: 6456: 6451: 6444: 6439: 6432: 6427: 6420: 6419:Anderson 1988 6415: 6408: 6404: 6399: 6392: 6387: 6380: 6379:Anderson 1988 6375: 6369:, p. 86. 6368: 6367:Edgerton 1989 6363: 6356: 6353: 6350:Smith, J. T. 6347: 6341:, p. 67. 6340: 6339:Chappell 2011 6335: 6328: 6324: 6323:Edgerton 1989 6319: 6313:, p. 68. 6312: 6311:Chappell 2011 6307: 6300: 6299:Chappell 2011 6295: 6293: 6291: 6289: 6281: 6276: 6270:, p. 63. 6269: 6264: 6257: 6252: 6245: 6240: 6224: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6205: 6197: 6190: 6186: 6181: 6174: 6170: 6165: 6149: 6145: 6144: 6139: 6133: 6126: 6122: 6119: 6114: 6098: 6094: 6093: 6088: 6082: 6066: 6065: 6060: 6054: 6048:, p. 83. 6047: 6046:Edgerton 1989 6042: 6035: 6031: 6026: 6024: 6016: 6012: 6007: 6005: 5997: 5992: 5986:, p. 37. 5985: 5980: 5973: 5968: 5966: 5959:, p. 39. 5958: 5953: 5946: 5941: 5934: 5928: 5923: 5916: 5915:Anderson 2005 5911: 5905:, p. 69. 5904: 5903:Anderson 2005 5899: 5893:, p. 38. 5892: 5887: 5881:, p. 68. 5880: 5879:Anderson 2005 5875: 5869:, p. 63. 5868: 5867:Anderson 2005 5863: 5861: 5853: 5848: 5842:, p. 62. 5841: 5840:Anderson 2005 5836: 5834: 5817: 5813: 5806: 5799: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5716: 5712: 5707: 5705: 5697: 5693: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5667: 5663: 5657: 5650: 5646: 5641: 5634: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5617: 5616:Edgerton 1989 5612: 5605: 5600: 5593: 5589: 5584: 5577: 5573: 5568: 5561: 5557: 5552: 5545: 5540: 5533: 5529: 5524: 5522: 5514: 5513:Anderson 2005 5509: 5502: 5497: 5490: 5485: 5483: 5475: 5471: 5466: 5459: 5458:Anderson 2005 5455: 5451: 5448: 5442: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5348:David Elstein 5343: 5336: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5265: 5258: 5253: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5210: 5202: 5190: 5186: 5180: 5178: 5170: 5167:John Reader, 5164: 5157: 5156:Anderson 2005 5152: 5145: 5141: 5136: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5110: 5105: 5098: 5094: 5089: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5030: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5007: 5002: 4995: 4990: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4966: 4959: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4881: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4837: 4829: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4793: 4789: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4758: 4751: 4744: 4743:Anderson 2005 4739: 4732: 4731:Anderson 2005 4727: 4720: 4719:Edgerton 1989 4715: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4693:, p. 65. 4692: 4691:Edgerton 1989 4687: 4681:, p. 32. 4680: 4675: 4673: 4671: 4663: 4658: 4652:, p. 25. 4651: 4646: 4639: 4634: 4626: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4601:Anderson 2005 4597: 4590: 4586: 4581: 4579: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4546: 4541: 4534: 4530: 4529:Anderson 2004 4525: 4518: 4514: 4513:Swainson 1980 4509: 4502: 4500: 4497:Ormsby-Gore, 4493: 4486: 4484: 4481:Ormsby-Gore, 4477: 4461: 4457: 4451: 4444: 4442: 4439:Ormsby-Gore, 4435: 4428: 4424: 4423:Anderson 2004 4419: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4396: 4392: 4391:Anderson 2004 4387: 4381:, p. 17. 4380: 4375: 4359: 4355: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4339: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4316: 4312: 4311:Anderson 2004 4307: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4284: 4280: 4279:Anderson 2004 4275: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4252: 4250: 4247:Ormsby-Gore, 4243: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4228:Anderson 2004 4224: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4201: 4199: 4196:Ormsby-Gore, 4192: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4155: 4154:Edgerton 1989 4150: 4143: 4141: 4138:Ormsby-Gore, 4134: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4111: 4106: 4100:, p. 10. 4099: 4098:Anderson 2005 4094: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4051: 4046: 4045:Edgerton 1989 4041: 4034: 4033:Anderson 2005 4029: 4022: 4018: 4013: 4006: 4004: 4001:Ormsby-Gore, 3997: 3995: 3993: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3917: 3916:Brantley 1981 3912: 3905: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3868:Edgerton 1989 3864: 3848: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3815: 3814:Coastal areas 3811: 3806: 3799: 3797: 3794:Ormsby-Gore, 3790: 3783: 3782:Anderson 2005 3778: 3771: 3766: 3764: 3756: 3751: 3749: 3740: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3717:, p. 24. 3716: 3711: 3704: 3699: 3697: 3690:, p. 75. 3689: 3684: 3677: 3672: 3656: 3652: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3597: 3592: 3585: 3580: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3557: 3552: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3508:(1994) p. 350 3507: 3502: 3495: 3494:Anderson 2005 3490: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3447: 3441: 3438:. Routledge. 3437: 3436: 3428: 3421: 3420:Anderson 2005 3416: 3414: 3412: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3386:David Elstein 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3362: 3355: 3354:Anderson 2005 3350: 3348: 3340: 3335: 3329:, p. 11. 3328: 3323: 3319: 3298: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3271:intelligence. 3269: 3263: 3255: 3249: 3240: 3233: 3229: 3223: 3215: 3214: 3207: 3203: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3163: 3162: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3142: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3118: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3109: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3086: 3083: 3078: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3052: 3043: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3029: 3028:William Hague 3025: 3020: 3015: 3013: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2992: 2990: 2989: 2981: 2975: 2970: 2967: 2961: 2956: 2954: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2923: 2922:Ben Macintyre 2919: 2917: 2916:Hola massacre 2911: 2902: 2898: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2876: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2848: 2842: 2838: 2827: 2823: 2817: 2816:Lari massacre 2806: 2804: 2803:Bethwell Ogot 2797: 2786: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2767:Hola massacre 2761:Hola massacre 2758: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2725: 2723: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2503:David Elstein 2498: 2494: 2485: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2475:Evelyn Baring 2471: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2389:coup de grâce 2384: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2373:villagisation 2370: 2363: 2357: 2346: 2344: 2338: 2336: 2329: 2323: 2321: 2309: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2277: 2272: 2268: 2266: 2260: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2239: 2229: 2221: 2215: 2211: 2209: 2208:Kinongo Times 2202: 2199: 2192: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2160: 2153: 2143: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2120: 2117: 2116:Lari massacre 2112: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2079: 2075: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2040: 2037: 2036:General China 2032: 2030: 2025: 2016: 2012: 2007: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1930:Jomo Kenyatta 1927: 1923: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1901: 1898: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1885:villagisation 1882: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1860: 1858: 1857:Evelyn Baring 1853: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1835: 1825: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1797: 1795: 1788: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1764: 1762: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1746: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1728:Wamuyu Gakuru 1723: 1719: 1715: 1710: 1707: 1706:Lari massacre 1701: 1698: 1696: 1695:Evelyn Baring 1692: 1686: 1684: 1679: 1668: 1666: 1660: 1652: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1561: 1560:Giriama tribe 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1500: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1467:forced labour 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1424:dispossession 1420: 1418: 1411: 1403: 1392: 1387: 1386:maũndũ ni mau 1383: 1378: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1347: 1338: 1336: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1304: 1303:Musa Mwariama 1300: 1295: 1294:Dedan Kimathi 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1209: 1208: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1192: 1191: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1095: 1090: 1089: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1027: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 989: 988:Bildad Kaggia 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 975: 971: 966: 965: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 937: 936:Oginga Odinga 934: 932: 929: 927: 926:Dedan Kimathi 924: 922: 919: 917: 916:Jomo Kenyatta 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 846:Nabongo Mumia 844: 842: 841:Wanga Kingdom 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 828: 824: 819: 818: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 784:Vasco da Gama 782: 781: 777: 772: 771: 763: 760: 758: 757:Ruins of Gedi 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 719: 715: 710: 709: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 680:Urewe culture 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 662: 658: 653: 652: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 615: 611: 606: 605: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 573: 569: 564: 563: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 542: 537: 536: 532: 528: 527: 524: 521: 520: 515: 510: 509: 496: 495:Hola massacre 493: 492: 491: 490: 484: 481: 480: 479: 478: 472: 469: 467: 464: 463: 462: 461: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 439:Lari massacre 437: 435: 432: 431: 430: 429: 423: 420: 418: 415: 414: 413: 408: 403: 393: 388: 386: 381: 379: 374: 373: 370: 357: 354: 353: 348: 344: 342: 337:21,000 police 334: 333: 328: 324: 319: 314: 308: 304: 303:Waruhiu Itote 300: 299:Musa Mwariama 295: 290: 289:Dedan Kimathi 287: 285: 274: 273:Evelyn Baring 263: 258: 252: 247: 241: 240:Ian Henderson 236: 228: 223: 215: 210: 202: 197: 192: 191: 186: 181: 178: 177: 176: 173: 169: 158: 156: 146: 144: 134: 133: 132: 131: 119: 118: 113: 103: 102: 101: 98: 95: 94: 90: 89:British Kenya 86: 83: 82: 78: 75: 74: 70: 66: 60: 55: 52: 47: 42: 37: 33: 19: 13948: 13847:Iraqi Revolt 13702:Matabeleland 13678:North Borneo 13672:Matabeleland 13624:Saskatchewan 13426:Upper Canada 13420:Lower Canada 13378:Persian Gulf 13294:Persian Gulf 13234:Newfoundland 13215:Polygar Wars 13185:Kandyan Wars 13137:Nootka Sound 12745:Video gaming 12680:Coat of arms 12632:Prostitution 12602:Demographics 12523:Central bank 12486: 12421:Human rights 12401:Constitution 12362:Subdivisions 12228: 12207:Kenya Colony 12070: 12051: 12029: 12010: 11991: 11972: 11955: 11936: 11917: 11898: 11889: 11870: 11827: 11821: 11802: 11780: 11761: 11742: 11725: 11703: 11683: 11664: 11660: 11641: 11611:(2): 27–50. 11608: 11604:Africa Today 11602: 11583: 11564: 11545: 11526: 11507: 11488: 11460: 11441: 11422: 11403: 11370: 11364: 11345: 11314:(1): 73–91. 11311: 11305: 11279: 11260: 11250:10 September 11248:. 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