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consultations not only by bedside, but also by post, using letters to request and conduct them for various patients. These letters served as social connections for the medical practices he performed, allowing his ideas to reach the public even in the face of criticism. These connections that
Malpighi created in his practice became even more widespread due to the fact that he practised in various countries. However, long distances complicated consults for some of his patients. The manner in which Malpighi practised medicine also reveals that it was customary in his time for Italian patients to have multiple attending physicians as well as consulting physicians. One of Malpighi's principles of medical practice was that he did not rely on anecdotes or experiences concerning remedies for various illnesses. Rather, he used his knowledge of human anatomy and disease pathology to practice what he denoted as "rational" medicine ("rational" medicine was in contrast to "empirics"). Malpighi did not abandon traditional substances or treatments, but he did not employ their use simply based on past experiences that did not draw from the nature of the underlying anatomy and disease process. Specifically in his treatments, Malpighi's goal was to reset fluid imbalances by coaxing the body to correct them on its own. For example, fluid imbalances should be fixed over time by urination and not by artificial methods such as purgatives and vesicants. In addition to Malpighi's "rational" approaches, he also believed in so-called "miraculous," or "supernatural" healing. For this to occur, though, he argued that the body could not have attempted to expel any malignant matter, such as vomit. Cases in which this did occur, when healing could not be considered miraculous, were known as "crises."
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separate works published in the same year titled, De Lingua about taste and the tongue, De
Cerebro about the brain and De Externo Tactus Organo about feeling/touch sensation. In regards to his work on the tongue he discovered small muscle bumps, taste buds, which he called "papillae" and when examining them he described a linked connection to nerve endings that gave the taste sensation when eating. Furthermore, in 1686 through studying a bovine tongue Malpighi dividing the tongue papillae into separate "patches" on the tongues length. When studying the brain, he was one of the first to try to map the grey and white tissue and hypothesized a connection between the brain and spinal cord through nerve endings.
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artery to the veins in the animal's lungs however, the chosen sheep/mammal's large size was limiting for his observation of capillaries as they were too small for magnification. Malpighi's frog dissection in 1661, proved to be a suitable size that could be magnified to display the capillary network not seen in the larger animals. In discovering and observing the capillaries in the frog's lungs, Malpighi studied the movement of the blood in a contained system. This contrasted the previous view of an open circulatory system in which blood would come from the liver/spleen and pool into open spaces in the body. This discovery of capillaries also contributed to
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describe the air pathway as continuous inhalation and exhalation with the alveoli at the ends of the pathway acting as a "imperfect sponge" for the air to enter the body. Extrapolating to humans, he offered an explanation for how air and blood mix in the lungs. Malpighi also used the microscope for his studies of the skin, kidneys, and liver. For example, after he dissected a black male, Malpighi made some groundbreaking headway into the discovery of the origin of black skin. He found that the black pigment was associated with a layer of mucus just beneath the skin.
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360:, one of the first scientific societies. Malpighi questioned the prevailing medical teachings at Pisa, tried experiments on colour changes in blood, and attempted to recast anatomical, physiological, and medical problems of the day. Family responsibilities and poor health prompted Malpighi's return in 1659 to the University of Bologna, where he continued to teach and do research with his microscopes. In 1661 he identified and described the pulmonary and
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doctorates in both medicine and philosophy. He later graduated as a medical doctor at the age of 25. Subsequently, he was appointed as a teacher, whereupon he immediately dedicated himself to further study in anatomy and medicine. For most of his career, Malpighi combined an intense interest in scientific research with a fond love of teaching. He was invited to correspond with the Royal
Society in 1667 by
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limbs and organs. Additionally, seed development in plants (such as the lemon tree), and the transformation of caterpillars into insects. Malpighi also postulated about the embryotic growth of humans, written in a letter to
Girolamo Correr, a patron of scientists, Malphighi suggested that all the components of the circulatory system would have been developed at the same time in
405:), which were destroyed when his house burned down. Weary of philosophical disputation, in 1660, Malpighi returned to Bologna and dedicated himself to the study of anatomy. He subsequently discovered a new structure of the lungs which led him to several disputes with the learned medical men of the times. In 1662, he was made a professor of physics at the Academy of Messina.
597:(the scientific study of the visible conditions caused by the interruption or alteration of normal development) he expressed grave misgivings about the view of his contemporaries that the galls of trees and herbs gave birth to insects. He conjectured (correctly) that the creatures in question arose from eggs previously laid in the plant tissue.
475:, where nowadays can be seen a marble monument to the scientist with an inscription in Latin remembering – among other things – his "SUMMUM INGENIUM / INTEGERRIMAM VITAM / FORTEM STRENUAMQUE MENTEM / AUDACEM SALUTARIS ARTIS AMOREM" (great genius, honest life, strong and tough mind, daring love for the medical art).
456:. He also shared more information regarding his research on plants. At that time, he related his disputes with some younger physicians who were strenuous supporters of the Galenic principles and opposed all new discoveries. Following many other discoveries and publications, in 1691, Malpighi was invited to
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His study of plants led him to conclude that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silkworm (using his microscope, he probably saw the stomata, through which plants exchange carbon dioxide with oxygen). Malpighi observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a
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Malpighi's investigations of the lifecycle of plants and animals led him to the topic of reproduction. He created detailed drawings of his studies of chick embryo development, starting from 2–3 days after fertilization with these drawings of embryos having a focus on the developmental timing of the
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Furthering his analysis of the lungs, Malpighi identified the airways branched into thin membraned spherical cavities which he likened to honeycomb holes surrounded by capillary vessels, in his 1661 work "De pulmonibus observationes anatomicae". These lung structures now known as alveoli he used to
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Around the age of 38, and with a remarkable academic career behind him, Malpighi decided to dedicate his free time to anatomical studies. Although he conducted some of his studies using vivisection and others through the dissection of corpses, his most illustrative efforts appear to have been based
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In 1661, Malpighi observed capillary structures in frog lungs. Malpighi's first attempt at examining circulation in the lungs was in
September 1660, with the dissection of sheep and other mammals where he would inject black ink into the pulmonary artery. Tracing the inks distribution through the
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in 1697, Malpighi says he completed his grammatical studies in 1645, at which point he began to apply himself to the study of peripatetic philosophy. He completed these studies in about 1649, where at the persuasion of his mother
Frances Natalis, he began to study physics. When his parents and
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and was one of nine students who met at the home of the master to conduct dissections. He married
Francesca the daughter of Massari but it was short-lived as she died shortly after. Despite opposition from the university authorities because he was non-Bolognese by birth, in 1653 he was granted
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In the years 1663–1667, at the
University of Messina where his research focus was on studying the human nervous system where he identified and described nerve endings in the body, structure of the brain, and optic nerve. All of his work in 1665 surrounding the nervous system he published in 3
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As a physician, Malpighi's medical consultations with his patients, which were mostly those belonging to social elite classes, proved useful in better understanding the links between the human anatomy, disease pathology, and treatments for said diseases. Furthermore, Malpighi conducted his
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of plant organs, and the serial development of the shoot owing to his instinct shaped in the sphere of animal embryology. He specialized in seedling development, and in 1679, he published a volume containing a series of exquisitely drawn and engraved images of the stages of development of
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Retiring from university life to his villa in the country near
Bologna in 1663, he worked as a physician while continuing to conduct experiments on the plants and insects he found on his estate. There he made discoveries of the structure of plants which he published in his
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to study anatomy. In 1656, he was made a reader at
Bologna, and then a professor of physics at Pisa, where he began to abandon the disputative method of learning and apply himself to a more experimental method of research. Based on this research, he wrote some
545:. He examined the structure in different plants and noted the arrangement of xylem was in either a ring shape or in scattered groupings in the stem. This distinction was later used by biologists to separate the two major families of plants.
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on the use of the microscope. Because of this work, many microscopic anatomical structures are named after Malpighi, including a skin layer (Malpighi layer) and two different Malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen, as well as the
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Malpighi's work on plant anatomy was inspired in Messina when visiting his patron Visconte Ruffo's garden where a chestnut tree's split branch had a structure that intrigued him, this structure in modern literature being
556:(his Melanthi, literally honey-flower) with details of the nectariferous organs. He adds that it is strange that nature has produced on the leaves of the flower shell-like organs in which honey is produced.
205:, who is referred to as the "Founder of microscopical anatomy, histology & Father of physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name is borne by several physiological features related to the biological
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on 30 November 1694, at the age of 66. In accordance with his wishes, an autopsy was performed. The Royal Society published his studies in 1696. Asteroid 11121 Malpighi is named in his honour.
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published two volumes of his botanical and zoological works in 1675 and 1679. Another edition followed in 1687, and a supplementary volume in 1697. In his autobiography, Malpighi speaks of his
257:(1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the
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network connecting small arteries with small veins. Malpighi's views evoked increasing controversy and dissent, mainly from envy and lack of understanding on the part of his colleagues.
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trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he correctly interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being blocked above the ring.
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had applied the principle of the compound lens to the making of his microscope patented in 1609, its possibilities as a microscope had remained unexploited for half a century, until
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do not use lungs to breathe, but small holes in their skin called tracheae. Malpighi also studied the anatomy of the brain and concluded this organ is a gland. In terms of modern
413:. At the end of 1666, Malpighi was invited to return to the public academy at Messina, which he did in 1667. Although he accepted temporary chairs at the universities of
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as papal physician. He taught medicine in the Papal Medical School and wrote a long treatise about his studies which he donated to the Royal Society of London.
421:, throughout his life he continuously returned to Bologna to practice medicine, a city that repaid him by erecting a monument in his memory after his death.
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529:'s theory of blood circulation, with capillaries acting as the connection from veins to arteries and confirming a closed system of circulation in animals.
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In 1668, Malpighi received a letter from Mr. Oldenburg of the Royal Society in London, inviting him to correspond. Malpighi wrote his history of the
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was published in London by the Royal Society, and he simultaneously wrote to Mr. Oldenburg, telling him of his recent discoveries regarding the
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in 1668, and sent the manuscript to Mr. Oldenburg. As a result, Malpighi was made a member of the Royal Society in 1669. In 1671, Malpighi's
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A talented sketch artist, Malpighi seems to have been the first author to have made detailed drawings of individual organs of flowers. In his
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History of Nephrology 2: Reports from the First Congress on the International Association for the History of Nephrology, Kos, October 1996
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improved the instrument. Following this, Marcello Malpighi, Hooke, and two other early investigators associated with the Royal Society,
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Although a Dutch spectacle maker created the compound lens and inserted it in a microscope around the turn of the 17th century, and
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Because Malpighi had a wide knowledge of both plants and animals, he made contributions to the scientific study of both. The
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Anatome plantarum: Cui subjungitur appendix, iteratas & auctas ejusdem authoris de ovo incubato observationes continens
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to become a papal physician and professor of medicine at the Papal Medical School. He remained in Rome until his death.
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572:(squash, melons). Later, he published material depicting the development of the date palm. The great Swedish botanist
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Lorch, Jacob (1978). "The discovery of nectar and nectaries and its relation to views on flowers and insects".
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1080:"A Physician and a Man of Science: Patients, Physicians, and Diseases in Marcello Malpighi's Medical Practice"
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Arber, Agnes (1942). "Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694): an essay in comparison".
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In 1653, his father, mother, and grandmother being dead, Malpighi left his family villa and returned to the
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grandmother became ill, he returned to his family home near Bologna to care for them. Malpighi studied
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667:, two volumes published in 1675 and 1679, an exhaustive study of botany published by the Royal Society
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Bowler, Peter (1971). "Preformation and pre-existence in the seventeenth century: a brief analysis".
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were fortunate to have a virtually untried tool in their hands as they began their investigations.
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1143:"Malpighi and the holy body: medical experts and miraculous evidence in seventeenth-century Italy"
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Malpighi, Marcello (2008). Redfern, Margaret; Cameron, Alexander J.; Down, Kevin (eds.).
605:. His discoveries helped to illuminate philosophical arguments surrounding the topics of
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315:. The son of well-to-do parents, Malpighi was educated in his native city, entering the
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and were spearheaded at the University Bologna by fellow physician but inveterate foe
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Murray Scott, Flora (1927). "The Botany of Marcello Malpighi, Doctor of Medicine".
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Bolam, Jeanne (1973). "The Botanical Works of Nehemiah Grew, F.R.S. (1641–1712)".
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in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded
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Mechanism, Experiment, Disease: Marcello Malpighi and Seventeenth-Century Anatomy
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1343:"Marcello Malpighi and the discovery of the pulmonary capillaries and alveoli"
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Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation: Doty/Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation
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952:. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 497.
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10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199802)253:1<10::AID-AR7>3.0.CO;2-I
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Human Anatomy: A Visual History from the Renaissance to the Digital Age
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Fughelli Patrizia; Stella Andrea; Sterpetti Antonio V. (10 May 2019).
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American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology
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at the age of 17. In a posthumous work delivered and dedicated to the
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356:, mathematician and naturalist, who was a prominent supporter of the
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The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas
727:] (in Latin). Bologna, (Italy): Giacomo Monti. pp. 151–172.
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1634:"Marcello Malpighi and the foundations of functional microanatomy"
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640:(an old-fashioned term for a stroke or stroke-like symptoms) in
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invited him to the professorship of theoretical medicine at the
913:. Baltimore, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 456.
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while he was very young. He joined the school of anatomy under
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609:, pre-existence, preformation, epigenesis, and metamorphosis.
709:(Treatise on cardiac polyp) was included as a chapter of his
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291:, as "the most elegant format in the whole literate world."
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The use of the microscope enabled Malpighi to discover that
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842:. Basel, Sewitzerland: S. Karger Publishing. p. 198.
792:. Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 440.
713:(Essay on the anatomical structure of the viscera, 1666).
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are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or
590:, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants.
1403:"Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), Founder of Microanatomy"
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is also named after him. He was the first person to see
908:
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Saraf, Pradeep G.; Cockett, Abraham T.K. (June 1984).
1822:
Some places and memories related to Marcello Malpighi
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352:. There Malpighi began his lifelong friendship with
341:, and became a fellow of the society the next year.
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813:Benjamin A. Rifkin and Michael J. Ackerman (2011).
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1729:Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology
838:Garabed Eknoyan, Natale Gaspare De Santo (1997).
687:Dissertatio epistolica de formatione pulli in ovo
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1500:. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1201:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
725:Essay on the anatomical structure of the viscera
1731:5 vol., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y.
1043:The ovary of eve: egg and sperm in preformation
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1194:
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448:, and several other discoveries involving the
2781:History of the creation-evolution controversy
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1745:De Externo Tactus Organo Anatomica Observatio
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467:Marcello Malpighi is buried in the church of
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2920:Academic staff of the University of Messina
2397:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1531:"Malpighi and the Discovery of Capillaries"
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720:De Viscerum Structura Exercitatio Anatomica
711:De viscerum structura exercitatio anatomica
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1866:
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582:in honour of Malpighi's work with plants;
194:(10 March 1628 – 30 November 1694) was an
37:Marcello Malpighi, a lifetime portrait by
31:
2811:Relationship between religion and science
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992:"The Origin of the University of Bologna"
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552:is a longitudinal section of a flower of
2915:Academic staff of the University of Pisa
2048:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
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1253:. Princeton University Press. p.
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817:. NY, USA: Abrams Books. p. 343.
303:Malpighi was born on 10 March 1628 at
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1494:Doty, Richard L., ed. (12 May 2015).
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1839:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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593:Because Malpighi was concerned with
559:Malpighi had success in tracing the
502:in the excretory system of insects.
397:(those who followed the precepts of
2275:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
1873:
1778:(in Latin). London: Johannis Martyn
1759:(in Latin). London: Johannis Martyn
1084:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
790:Histories of Scientific Observation
733:Forrester, John M. (October 1995).
287:, decorated with the engravings of
13:
2688:Central dogma of molecular biology
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1056:
648:Some of Malpighi's important works
14:
2931:
1827:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913).
1815:
1341:West, John B. (1 February 2013).
671:De viscerum structura exercitatio
485:Timeline of microscope technology
376:Portrait of Marcello Malpighi in
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2823:
2465:
1159:10.1111/j.1477-4658.2007.00463.x
1045:. University Of Chicago Press.
909:Domenico Bertoloni Meli (2011).
612:
2890:17th-century Italian physicians
2875:17th-century Italian scientists
2507:List of natural history dealers
2175:The Natural History of Selborne
1720:
1674:
1579:
1522:
1436:"Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694)"
1427:
1420:10.4067/S0717-95022011000200015
1401:Reveron, Rafael Romero (2011).
1235:
1134:
16:Italian biologist and physician
2870:17th-century Italian botanists
2713:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
2409:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1775:Anatome plantarum: Pars altera
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956:
902:
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699:
298:
1:
1452:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.314936
1285:"Marcello malpighi—A tribute"
693:
493:Portrait of Marcello Malpighi
2905:Fellows of the Royal Society
1301:10.1016/0090-4295(84)90087-6
1041:Pinto-Correia, Clara (1997)
990:Franchini, Guiseppe (1932).
707:De polypo cordis dissertatio
657:Opera Omnia (Complete Works)
7:
2165:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
1772:Malpighi, Marcello (1679).
1753:Malpighi, Marcello (1675).
1742:Malpighi, Marcello (1685).
1243:Gillispie, Charles Coulston
739:: an annotated translation"
717:Malpighi, Marcello (1666).
478:
403:Giovanni Girolamo Sbaraglia
10:
2936:
2187:A History of British Birds
1748:. Naples: Aegidium Longum.
1359:10.1152/ajplung.00016.2013
943:"Malpighi, Marcello"
636:Marcello Malpighi died of
621:Malpighi's tomb in Bologna
586:is the type genus for the
482:
2819:
2741:
2673:
2560:
2502:Natural History Societies
2474:
2463:
2379:
2370:The Royal Natural History
2222:Ornithological Dictionary
2209:
2131:Johan Christian Fabricius
2057:
1963:
1890:
1881:
1830:"Marcello Malpighi"
1632:Motta, Pietro M. (1998).
1529:Pearce, J. M. S. (2007).
1078:BRESADOLA, MARCO (2011).
996:Annals of Medical History
755:10.1017/s0025727300060385
367:
185:
175:
163:
145:
119:
112:
102:
92:
70:
45:
30:
23:
2348:The Naturalist's Library
2251:On the Origin of Species
1727:Adelmann, Howard (1966)
788:Lorraine Daston (2011).
231:splenic lymphoid nodules
223:Malpighian tubule system
170:Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
2900:Italian Roman Catholics
2880:17th-century zoologists
2482:Natural history museums
2084:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1141:Pomata, Gianna (2007).
949:Encyclopædia Britannica
519:Antoine van Leeuwenhoek
346:Ferdinand II of Tuscany
326:Aristotelian philosophy
321:Royal Society in London
237:. The botanical family
2860:People from Crevalcore
2733:Spontaneous generation
2683:Germ theory of disease
2660:Zoology (through 1859)
2334:William Jackson Hooker
2282:Alexander von Humboldt
2199:Philosophie zoologique
1982:Pinax theatri botanici
1683:The History of Biology
1213:10.1098/rsnr.1973.0017
965:The Scientific Monthly
731:English translation:
660:
622:
494:
391:Dialogues against the
381:
180:Antonio Maria Valsalva
2754:Philosophy of biology
2420:The Study of Instinct
2359:Kunstformen der Natur
2263:The Malay Archipelago
2258:Alfred Russel Wallace
2194:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1836:Catholic Encyclopedia
1638:The Anatomical Record
1506:10.1002/9781118971758
1096:10.1353/bhm.2011.0048
676:De pulmonis epistolae
655:
620:
492:
469:Santi Gregorio e Siro
386:University of Bologna
375:
358:Accademia del Cimento
330:University of Bologna
317:University of Bologna
235:Malpighian corpuscles
211:Malpighian corpuscles
158:University of Messina
150:University of Bologna
107:University of Bologna
2786:Human Genome Project
2698:Great chain of being
2665:Zoology (since 1859)
2600:Evolutionary thought
2570:Agricultural science
2339:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2292:The Birds of America
1793:De Gallis – On Galls
1440:Circulation Research
2791:Humboldtian science
2728:Sequence hypothesis
2635:Molecular evolution
2387:Martinus Beijerinck
1930:De Natura Animalium
1147:Renaissance Studies
977:1927SciMo..25..546S
215:Malpighian pyramids
2895:History of anatomy
2885:Italian zoologists
2865:Italian anatomists
2801:Natural philosophy
2749:History of science
2549:History of biology
2492:Parson-naturalists
2324:Philip Henry Gosse
2287:John James Audubon
2270:Henry Walter Bates
2158:Histoire Naturelle
2146:Historia Plantarum
2034:Avium Praecipuarum
2018:Historia animalium
1919:Historia Plantarum
1907:History of Animals
1695:10.1007/BF00138311
1535:European Neurology
661:
623:
500:Malpighian tubules
495:
382:
350:University of Pisa
334:Bartolomeo Massari
154:University of Pisa
2837:
2836:
2703:Hierarchy of life
2650:Plant systematics
2630:Molecular biology
2515:
2514:
2461:
2460:
2079:Marcello Malpighi
1973:Ulisse Aldrovandi
1953:De Materia Medica
1799:. Vol. 170.
1548:10.1159/000107974
1515:978-1-118-97175-8
1446:(10): 1430–1432.
665:Anatome Plantarum
627:Pope Innocent XII
550:Anatome plantarum
462:Pope Innocent XII
434:Anatomy of Plants
285:Anatome Plantarum
192:Marcello Malpighi
189:
188:
176:Doctoral students
114:Scientific career
25:Marcello Malpighi
2927:
2910:Papal physicians
2827:
2826:
2806:Natural theology
2542:
2535:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2469:
2442:The Dancing Bees
2366:Richard Lydekker
2314:Jean-Henri Fabre
2299:William Buckland
2104:Regnier de Graaf
1998:Andrea Cesalpino
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1353:(6): L383–L390.
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737:De polypo cordis
728:
703:
681:De polypo cordis
576:named the genus
440:, fibres of the
354:Giovanni Borelli
255:De polypo cordis
207:excretory system
165:Doctoral advisor
77:
74:30 November 1694
55:
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2625:Model organisms
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2438:Karl von Frisch
2375:
2344:William Jardine
2234:Le Règne Animal
2205:
2153:Comte de Buffon
2114:Systema Naturae
2053:
2025:Frederik Ruysch
2003:Valerius Cordus
1993:Hieronymus Bock
1959:
1941:Natural History
1936:Pliny the Elder
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743:Medical History
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629:invited him to
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253:. His treatise
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940:, ed. (1911).
938:Chisholm, Hugh
926:
920:978-0801899041
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880:10.1086/347742
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86:Papal States
76:(1694-11-30)
64:Papal States
18:
2855:1694 deaths
2850:1628 births
2766:Ethnobotany
2655:RNA biology
2563:disciplines
2452:Shearwaters
2309:Mary Anning
2094:Hans Sloane
2044:John Gerard
2038:New Herball
1965:Renaissance
1948:Dioscorides
1884:naturalists
1797:Ray Society
1782:13 December
1763:13 December
1053:. pp. 22–25
874:(1): 7–16.
705:Malpighi's
566:Leguminosae
299:Early years
243:capillaries
93:Nationality
2844:Categories
2708:Lamarckism
2615:Immunology
1882:Pioneering
1051:0226669548
694:References
607:emboîtment
595:teratology
483:See also:
305:Crevalcore
136:embryology
132:physiology
60:Crevalcore
52:1628-03-10
2776:Dysgenics
2759:Teleology
2723:RNA world
2718:Protocell
2693:Darwinism
2674:Theories,
2645:Phycology
1902:Aristotle
1894:antiquity
1892:Classical
1660:1097-0185
1616:144205554
1557:0014-3022
1478:149443383
1367:1040-0605
1309:0090-4295
1229:143696615
1183:161081155
1167:0269-1213
1104:0007-5140
1008:0743-3131
896:143008947
584:Malpighia
579:Malpighia
446:testicles
362:capillary
344:In 1656,
203:physician
199:biologist
128:histology
2829:Category
2771:Eugenics
2676:concepts
2620:Medicine
2605:Genetics
2553:timeline
2329:Asa Gray
2141:John Ray
1711:37862050
1703:11609422
1573:39575356
1565:17851250
1470:31071004
1375:23377345
1245:(1960).
1175:24416940
1128:11462101
1120:21804183
1112:44451983
1026:33944166
638:apoplexy
625:In 1691
574:Linnaeus
561:ontogeny
479:Research
430:silkworm
221:and the
140:medicine
2742:Related
2610:Geology
2595:Ecology
2575:Anatomy
2561:Fields,
1668:9556019
1383:7611397
1317:6375074
1289:Urology
1017:7945245
973:Bibcode
773:8558994
764:1037031
554:Nigella
507:Galileo
473:Bologna
419:Messina
328:at the
309:Bologna
266:insects
227:insects
219:kidneys
217:of the
196:Italian
124:Anatomy
97:Italian
2590:Botany
2475:Topics
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368:Career
281:London
229:. The
120:Fields
1707:S2CID
1612:S2CID
1604:JSTOR
1569:S2CID
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1379:S2CID
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1124:S2CID
1108:JSTOR
892:S2CID
884:JSTOR
723:[
543:xylem
471:, in
450:brain
438:lungs
399:Galen
313:Italy
307:near
259:heart
2496:List
2486:List
1801:ISBN
1784:2015
1765:2015
1733:OCLC
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