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consultations not only by bedside, but also by post, using letters to request and conduct them for various patients. These letters served as social connections for the medical practices he performed, allowing his ideas to reach the public even in the face of criticism. These connections that
Malpighi created in his practice became even more widespread due to the fact that he practised in various countries. However, long distances complicated consults for some of his patients. The manner in which Malpighi practised medicine also reveals that it was customary in his time for Italian patients to have multiple attending physicians as well as consulting physicians. One of Malpighi's principles of medical practice was that he did not rely on anecdotes or experiences concerning remedies for various illnesses. Rather, he used his knowledge of human anatomy and disease pathology to practice what he denoted as "rational" medicine ("rational" medicine was in contrast to "empirics"). Malpighi did not abandon traditional substances or treatments, but he did not employ their use simply based on past experiences that did not draw from the nature of the underlying anatomy and disease process. Specifically in his treatments, Malpighi's goal was to reset fluid imbalances by coaxing the body to correct them on its own. For example, fluid imbalances should be fixed over time by urination and not by artificial methods such as purgatives and vesicants. In addition to Malpighi's "rational" approaches, he also believed in so-called "miraculous," or "supernatural" healing. For this to occur, though, he argued that the body could not have attempted to expel any malignant matter, such as vomit. Cases in which this did occur, when healing could not be considered miraculous, were known as "crises."
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separate works published in the same year titled, De Lingua about taste and the tongue, De
Cerebro about the brain and De Externo Tactus Organo about feeling/touch sensation. In regards to his work on the tongue he discovered small muscle bumps, taste buds, which he called "papillae" and when examining them he described a linked connection to nerve endings that gave the taste sensation when eating. Furthermore, in 1686 through studying a bovine tongue Malpighi dividing the tongue papillae into separate "patches" on the tongues length. When studying the brain, he was one of the first to try to map the grey and white tissue and hypothesized a connection between the brain and spinal cord through nerve endings.
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artery to the veins in the animal's lungs however, the chosen sheep/mammal's large size was limiting for his observation of capillaries as they were too small for magnification. Malpighi's frog dissection in 1661, proved to be a suitable size that could be magnified to display the capillary network not seen in the larger animals. In discovering and observing the capillaries in the frog's lungs, Malpighi studied the movement of the blood in a contained system. This contrasted the previous view of an open circulatory system in which blood would come from the liver/spleen and pool into open spaces in the body. This discovery of capillaries also contributed to
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describe the air pathway as continuous inhalation and exhalation with the alveoli at the ends of the pathway acting as a "imperfect sponge" for the air to enter the body. Extrapolating to humans, he offered an explanation for how air and blood mix in the lungs. Malpighi also used the microscope for his studies of the skin, kidneys, and liver. For example, after he dissected a black male, Malpighi made some groundbreaking headway into the discovery of the origin of black skin. He found that the black pigment was associated with a layer of mucus just beneath the skin.
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371:, one of the first scientific societies. Malpighi questioned the prevailing medical teachings at Pisa, tried experiments on colour changes in blood, and attempted to recast anatomical, physiological, and medical problems of the day. Family responsibilities and poor health prompted Malpighi's return in 1659 to the University of Bologna, where he continued to teach and do research with his microscopes. In 1661 he identified and described the pulmonary and
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doctorates in both medicine and philosophy. He later graduated as a medical doctor at the age of 25. Subsequently, he was appointed as a teacher, whereupon he immediately dedicated himself to further study in anatomy and medicine. For most of his career, Malpighi combined an intense interest in scientific research with a fond love of teaching. He was invited to correspond with the Royal
Society in 1667 by
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limbs and organs. Additionally, seed development in plants (such as the lemon tree), and the transformation of caterpillars into insects. Malpighi also postulated about the embryotic growth of humans, written in a letter to
Girolamo Correr, a patron of scientists, Malphighi suggested that all the components of the circulatory system would have been developed at the same time in
416:), which were destroyed when his house burned down. Weary of philosophical disputation, in 1660, Malpighi returned to Bologna and dedicated himself to the study of anatomy. He subsequently discovered a new structure of the lungs which led him to several disputes with the learned medical men of the times. In 1662, he was made a professor of physics at the Academy of Messina.
608:(the scientific study of the visible conditions caused by the interruption or alteration of normal development) he expressed grave misgivings about the view of his contemporaries that the galls of trees and herbs gave birth to insects. He conjectured (correctly) that the creatures in question arose from eggs previously laid in the plant tissue.
486:, where nowadays can be seen a marble monument to the scientist with an inscription in Latin remembering – among other things – his "SUMMUM INGENIUM / INTEGERRIMAM VITAM / FORTEM STRENUAMQUE MENTEM / AUDACEM SALUTARIS ARTIS AMOREM" (great genius, honest life, strong and tough mind, daring love for the medical art).
467:. He also shared more information regarding his research on plants. At that time, he related his disputes with some younger physicians who were strenuous supporters of the Galenic principles and opposed all new discoveries. Following many other discoveries and publications, in 1691, Malpighi was invited to
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His study of plants led him to conclude that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silkworm (using his microscope, he probably saw the stomata, through which plants exchange carbon dioxide with oxygen). Malpighi observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a
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Malpighi's investigations of the lifecycle of plants and animals led him to the topic of reproduction. He created detailed drawings of his studies of chick embryo development, starting from 2–3 days after fertilization with these drawings of embryos having a focus on the developmental timing of the
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Furthering his analysis of the lungs, Malpighi identified the airways branched into thin membraned spherical cavities which he likened to honeycomb holes surrounded by capillary vessels, in his 1661 work "De pulmonibus observationes anatomicae". These lung structures now known as alveoli he used to
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Around the age of 38, and with a remarkable academic career behind him, Malpighi decided to dedicate his free time to anatomical studies. Although he conducted some of his studies using vivisection and others through the dissection of corpses, his most illustrative efforts appear to have been based
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In 1661, Malpighi observed capillary structures in frog lungs. Malpighi's first attempt at examining circulation in the lungs was in
September 1660, with the dissection of sheep and other mammals where he would inject black ink into the pulmonary artery. Tracing the inks distribution through the
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in 1697, Malpighi says he completed his grammatical studies in 1645, at which point he began to apply himself to the study of peripatetic philosophy. He completed these studies in about 1649, where at the persuasion of his mother
Frances Natalis, he began to study physics. When his parents and
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and was one of nine students who met at the home of the master to conduct dissections. He married
Francesca the daughter of Massari but it was short-lived as she died shortly after. Despite opposition from the university authorities because he was non-Bolognese by birth, in 1653 he was granted
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In the years 1663–1667, at the
University of Messina where his research focus was on studying the human nervous system where he identified and described nerve endings in the body, structure of the brain, and optic nerve. All of his work in 1665 surrounding the nervous system he published in 3
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As a physician, Malpighi's medical consultations with his patients, which were mostly those belonging to social elite classes, proved useful in better understanding the links between the human anatomy, disease pathology, and treatments for said diseases. Furthermore, Malpighi conducted his
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of plant organs, and the serial development of the shoot owing to his instinct shaped in the sphere of animal embryology. He specialized in seedling development, and in 1679, he published a volume containing a series of exquisitely drawn and engraved images of the stages of development of
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Retiring from university life to his villa in the country near
Bologna in 1663, he worked as a physician while continuing to conduct experiments on the plants and insects he found on his estate. There he made discoveries of the structure of plants which he published in his
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to study anatomy. In 1656, he was made a reader at
Bologna, and then a professor of physics at Pisa, where he began to abandon the disputative method of learning and apply himself to a more experimental method of research. Based on this research, he wrote some
556:. He examined the structure in different plants and noted the arrangement of xylem was in either a ring shape or in scattered groupings in the stem. This distinction was later used by biologists to separate the two major families of plants.
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on the use of the microscope. Because of this work, many microscopic anatomical structures are named after Malpighi, including a skin layer (Malpighi layer) and two different Malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen, as well as the
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Malpighi's work on plant anatomy was inspired in Messina when visiting his patron Visconte Ruffo's garden where a chestnut tree's split branch had a structure that intrigued him, this structure in modern literature being
567:(his Melanthi, literally honey-flower) with details of the nectariferous organs. He adds that it is strange that nature has produced on the leaves of the flower shell-like organs in which honey is produced.
216:, who is referred to as the "Founder of microscopical anatomy, histology & Father of physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name is borne by several physiological features related to the biological
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on 30 November 1694, at the age of 66. In accordance with his wishes, an autopsy was performed. The Royal Society published his studies in 1696. Asteroid 11121 Malpighi is named in his honour.
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published two volumes of his botanical and zoological works in 1675 and 1679. Another edition followed in 1687, and a supplementary volume in 1697. In his autobiography, Malpighi speaks of his
268:(1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the
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network connecting small arteries with small veins. Malpighi's views evoked increasing controversy and dissent, mainly from envy and lack of understanding on the part of his colleagues.
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trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he correctly interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being blocked above the ring.
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had applied the principle of the compound lens to the making of his microscope patented in 1609, its possibilities as a microscope had remained unexploited for half a century, until
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do not use lungs to breathe, but small holes in their skin called tracheae. Malpighi also studied the anatomy of the brain and concluded this organ is a gland. In terms of modern
424:. At the end of 1666, Malpighi was invited to return to the public academy at Messina, which he did in 1667. Although he accepted temporary chairs at the universities of
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as papal physician. He taught medicine in the Papal Medical School and wrote a long treatise about his studies which he donated to the Royal Society of London.
432:, throughout his life he continuously returned to Bologna to practice medicine, a city that repaid him by erecting a monument in his memory after his death.
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540:'s theory of blood circulation, with capillaries acting as the connection from veins to arteries and confirming a closed system of circulation in animals.
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In 1668, Malpighi received a letter from Mr. Oldenburg of the Royal Society in London, inviting him to correspond. Malpighi wrote his history of the
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was published in London by the Royal Society, and he simultaneously wrote to Mr. Oldenburg, telling him of his recent discoveries regarding the
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in 1668, and sent the manuscript to Mr. Oldenburg. As a result, Malpighi was made a member of the Royal Society in 1669. In 1671, Malpighi's
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A talented sketch artist, Malpighi seems to have been the first author to have made detailed drawings of individual organs of flowers. In his
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History of Nephrology 2: Reports from the First Congress on the International Association for the History of Nephrology, Kos, October 1996
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improved the instrument. Following this, Marcello Malpighi, Hooke, and two other early investigators associated with the Royal Society,
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Although a Dutch spectacle maker created the compound lens and inserted it in a microscope around the turn of the 17th century, and
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Because Malpighi had a wide knowledge of both plants and animals, he made contributions to the scientific study of both. The
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Anatome plantarum: Cui subjungitur appendix, iteratas & auctas ejusdem authoris de ovo incubato observationes continens
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to become a papal physician and professor of medicine at the Papal Medical School. He remained in Rome until his death.
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583:(squash, melons). Later, he published material depicting the development of the date palm. The great Swedish botanist
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Lorch, Jacob (1978). "The discovery of nectar and nectaries and its relation to views on flowers and insects".
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1091:"A Physician and a Man of Science: Patients, Physicians, and Diseases in Marcello Malpighi's Medical Practice"
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Arber, Agnes (1942). "Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694): an essay in comparison".
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In 1653, his father, mother, and grandmother being dead, Malpighi left his family villa and returned to the
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grandmother became ill, he returned to his family home near Bologna to care for them. Malpighi studied
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678:, two volumes published in 1675 and 1679, an exhaustive study of botany published by the Royal Society
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Bowler, Peter (1971). "Preformation and pre-existence in the seventeenth century: a brief analysis".
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were fortunate to have a virtually untried tool in their hands as they began their investigations.
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1154:"Malpighi and the holy body: medical experts and miraculous evidence in seventeenth-century Italy"
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Malpighi, Marcello (2008). Redfern, Margaret; Cameron, Alexander J.; Down, Kevin (eds.).
616:. His discoveries helped to illuminate philosophical arguments surrounding the topics of
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and were spearheaded at the University Bologna by fellow physician but inveterate foe
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Murray Scott, Flora (1927). "The Botany of Marcello Malpighi, Doctor of Medicine".
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Bolam, Jeanne (1973). "The Botanical Works of Nehemiah Grew, F.R.S. (1641–1712)".
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in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded
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Mechanism, Experiment, Disease: Marcello Malpighi and Seventeenth-Century Anatomy
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1354:"Marcello Malpighi and the discovery of the pulmonary capillaries and alveoli"
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Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation: Doty/Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation
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963:. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 497.
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10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199802)253:1<10::AID-AR7>3.0.CO;2-I
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Human Anatomy: A Visual History from the Renaissance to the Digital Age
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Fughelli Patrizia; Stella Andrea; Sterpetti Antonio V. (10 May 2019).
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American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology
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at the age of 17. In a posthumous work delivered and dedicated to the
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367:, mathematician and naturalist, who was a prominent supporter of the
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The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas
738:] (in Latin). Bologna, (Italy): Giacomo Monti. pp. 151–172.
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1645:"Marcello Malpighi and the foundations of functional microanatomy"
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651:(an old-fashioned term for a stroke or stroke-like symptoms) in
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invited him to the professorship of theoretical medicine at the
924:. Baltimore, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 456.
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while he was very young. He joined the school of anatomy under
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620:, pre-existence, preformation, epigenesis, and metamorphosis.
720:(Treatise on cardiac polyp) was included as a chapter of his
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The use of the microscope enabled Malpighi to discover that
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853:. Basel, Sewitzerland: S. Karger Publishing. p. 198.
803:. Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 440.
724:(Essay on the anatomical structure of the viscera, 1666).
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are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or
601:, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants.
1414:"Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), Founder of Microanatomy"
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is also named after him. He was the first person to see
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Saraf, Pradeep G.; Cockett, Abraham T.K. (June 1984).
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Some places and memories related to Marcello Malpighi
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363:. There Malpighi began his lifelong friendship with
352:, and became a fellow of the society the next year.
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824:Benjamin A. Rifkin and Michael J. Ackerman (2011).
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1740:Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology
849:Garabed Eknoyan, Natale Gaspare De Santo (1997).
698:Dissertatio epistolica de formatione pulli in ovo
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1511:. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1212:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
736:Essay on the anatomical structure of the viscera
1742:5 vol., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y.
1054:The ovary of eve: egg and sperm in preformation
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459:, and several other discoveries involving the
2792:History of the creation-evolution controversy
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1756:De Externo Tactus Organo Anatomica Observatio
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478:Marcello Malpighi is buried in the church of
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2931:Academic staff of the University of Messina
2408:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1542:"Malpighi and the Discovery of Capillaries"
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731:De Viscerum Structura Exercitatio Anatomica
722:De viscerum structura exercitatio anatomica
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593:in honour of Malpighi's work with plants;
205:(10 March 1628 – 30 November 1694) was an
48:Marcello Malpighi, a lifetime portrait by
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2822:Relationship between religion and science
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1003:"The Origin of the University of Bologna"
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563:is a longitudinal section of a flower of
2926:Academic staff of the University of Pisa
2059:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
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1264:. Princeton University Press. p.
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828:. NY, USA: Abrams Books. p. 343.
314:Malpighi was born on 10 March 1628 at
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1505:Doty, Richard L., ed. (12 May 2015).
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1850:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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604:Because Malpighi was concerned with
570:Malpighi had success in tracing the
513:in the excretory system of insects.
408:(those who followed the precepts of
2286:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
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1789:(in Latin). London: Johannis Martyn
1770:(in Latin). London: Johannis Martyn
1095:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
801:Histories of Scientific Observation
744:Forrester, John M. (October 1995).
298:, decorated with the engravings of
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2699:Central dogma of molecular biology
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659:Some of Malpighi's important works
25:
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1838:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913).
1826:
1352:West, John B. (1 February 2013).
682:De viscerum structura exercitatio
496:Timeline of microscope technology
387:Portrait of Marcello Malpighi in
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2834:
2476:
1170:10.1111/j.1477-4658.2007.00463.x
1056:. University Of Chicago Press.
920:Domenico Bertoloni Meli (2011).
623:
2901:17th-century Italian physicians
2886:17th-century Italian scientists
2518:List of natural history dealers
2186:The Natural History of Selborne
1731:
1685:
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1447:"Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694)"
1438:
1431:10.4067/S0717-95022011000200015
1412:Reveron, Rafael Romero (2011).
1246:
1145:
27:Italian biologist and physician
2881:17th-century Italian botanists
2724:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
2420:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1786:Anatome plantarum: Pars altera
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842:
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1:
1463:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.314936
1296:"Marcello malpighi—A tribute"
704:
504:Portrait of Marcello Malpighi
2916:Fellows of the Royal Society
1312:10.1016/0090-4295(84)90087-6
1052:Pinto-Correia, Clara (1997)
1001:Franchini, Guiseppe (1932).
718:De polypo cordis dissertatio
668:Opera Omnia (Complete Works)
7:
2176:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
1783:Malpighi, Marcello (1679).
1764:Malpighi, Marcello (1675).
1753:Malpighi, Marcello (1685).
1254:Gillispie, Charles Coulston
750:: an annotated translation"
728:Malpighi, Marcello (1666).
489:
414:Giovanni Girolamo Sbaraglia
10:
2947:
2198:A History of British Birds
1759:. Naples: Aegidium Longum.
1370:10.1152/ajplung.00016.2013
954:"Malpighi, Marcello"
647:Marcello Malpighi died of
632:Malpighi's tomb in Bologna
597:is the type genus for the
493:
2830:
2752:
2684:
2571:
2513:Natural History Societies
2485:
2474:
2390:
2381:The Royal Natural History
2233:Ornithological Dictionary
2220:
2142:Johan Christian Fabricius
2068:
1974:
1901:
1892:
1841:"Marcello Malpighi"
1643:Motta, Pietro M. (1998).
1540:Pearce, J. M. S. (2007).
1089:BRESADOLA, MARCO (2011).
1007:Annals of Medical History
766:10.1017/s0025727300060385
378:
196:
186:
174:
156:
130:
123:
113:
103:
81:
56:
41:
34:
2359:The Naturalist's Library
2262:On the Origin of Species
1738:Adelmann, Howard (1966)
799:Lorraine Daston (2011).
242:splenic lymphoid nodules
234:Malpighian tubule system
181:Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
2911:Italian Roman Catholics
2891:17th-century zoologists
2493:Natural history museums
2095:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1152:Pomata, Gianna (2007).
960:Encyclopædia Britannica
530:Antoine van Leeuwenhoek
357:Ferdinand II of Tuscany
337:Aristotelian philosophy
332:Royal Society in London
248:. The botanical family
2871:People from Crevalcore
2744:Spontaneous generation
2694:Germ theory of disease
2671:Zoology (through 1859)
2345:William Jackson Hooker
2293:Alexander von Humboldt
2210:Philosophie zoologique
1993:Pinax theatri botanici
1694:The History of Biology
1224:10.1098/rsnr.1973.0017
976:The Scientific Monthly
742:English translation:
671:
633:
505:
402:Dialogues against the
392:
191:Antonio Maria Valsalva
2765:Philosophy of biology
2431:The Study of Instinct
2370:Kunstformen der Natur
2274:The Malay Archipelago
2269:Alfred Russel Wallace
2205:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1847:Catholic Encyclopedia
1649:The Anatomical Record
1517:10.1002/9781118971758
1107:10.1353/bhm.2011.0048
687:De pulmonis epistolae
666:
631:
503:
480:Santi Gregorio e Siro
397:University of Bologna
386:
369:Accademia del Cimento
341:University of Bologna
328:University of Bologna
246:Malpighian corpuscles
222:Malpighian corpuscles
169:University of Messina
161:University of Bologna
118:University of Bologna
2797:Human Genome Project
2709:Great chain of being
2676:Zoology (since 1859)
2611:Evolutionary thought
2581:Agricultural science
2350:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2303:The Birds of America
1804:De Gallis – On Galls
1451:Circulation Research
2802:Humboldtian science
2739:Sequence hypothesis
2646:Molecular evolution
2398:Martinus Beijerinck
1941:De Natura Animalium
1158:Renaissance Studies
988:1927SciMo..25..546S
226:Malpighian pyramids
2906:History of anatomy
2896:Italian zoologists
2876:Italian anatomists
2812:Natural philosophy
2760:History of science
2560:History of biology
2503:Parson-naturalists
2335:Philip Henry Gosse
2298:John James Audubon
2281:Henry Walter Bates
2169:Histoire Naturelle
2157:Historia Plantarum
2045:Avium Praecipuarum
2029:Historia animalium
1930:Historia Plantarum
1918:History of Animals
1706:10.1007/BF00138311
1546:European Neurology
672:
634:
511:Malpighian tubules
506:
393:
361:University of Pisa
345:Bartolomeo Massari
165:University of Pisa
2848:
2847:
2714:Hierarchy of life
2661:Plant systematics
2641:Molecular biology
2526:
2525:
2472:
2471:
2090:Marcello Malpighi
1984:Ulisse Aldrovandi
1964:De Materia Medica
1810:. Vol. 170.
1559:10.1159/000107974
1526:978-1-118-97175-8
1457:(10): 1430–1432.
676:Anatome Plantarum
638:Pope Innocent XII
561:Anatome plantarum
473:Pope Innocent XII
445:Anatomy of Plants
296:Anatome Plantarum
203:Marcello Malpighi
200:
199:
187:Doctoral students
125:Scientific career
36:Marcello Malpighi
16:(Redirected from
2938:
2921:Papal physicians
2838:
2837:
2817:Natural theology
2553:
2546:
2539:
2530:
2529:
2480:
2453:The Dancing Bees
2377:Richard Lydekker
2325:Jean-Henri Fabre
2310:William Buckland
2115:Regnier de Graaf
2009:Andrea Cesalpino
1899:
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1493:
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1474:
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1398:
1397:
1364:(6): L383–L390.
1349:
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787:
777:
748:De polypo cordis
739:
714:
692:De polypo cordis
587:named the genus
451:, fibres of the
365:Giovanni Borelli
266:De polypo cordis
218:excretory system
176:Doctoral advisor
88:
85:30 November 1694
66:
64:
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2807:Natural history
2748:
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2636:Model organisms
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2527:
2522:
2481:
2468:
2449:Karl von Frisch
2386:
2355:William Jardine
2245:Le Règne Animal
2216:
2164:Comte de Buffon
2125:Systema Naturae
2064:
2036:Frederik Ruysch
2014:Valerius Cordus
2004:Hieronymus Bock
1970:
1952:Natural History
1947:Pliny the Elder
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1418:Int. J. Morphol
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754:Medical History
715:
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640:invited him to
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350:Henry Oldenburg
312:
264:. His treatise
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2240:Georges Cuvier
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2228:George Montagu
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2100:William Derham
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993:
982:(6): 546–553.
966:
951:, ed. (1911).
949:Chisholm, Hugh
937:
931:978-0801899041
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891:10.1086/347742
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860:978-3805564991
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157:Institutions
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97:Papal States
87:(1694-11-30)
75:Papal States
29:
2866:1694 deaths
2861:1628 births
2777:Ethnobotany
2666:RNA biology
2574:disciplines
2463:Shearwaters
2320:Mary Anning
2105:Hans Sloane
2055:John Gerard
2049:New Herball
1976:Renaissance
1959:Dioscorides
1895:naturalists
1808:Ray Society
1793:13 December
1774:13 December
1064:. pp. 22–25
885:(1): 7–16.
716:Malpighi's
577:Leguminosae
310:Early years
254:capillaries
104:Nationality
2855:Categories
2719:Lamarckism
2626:Immunology
1893:Pioneering
1062:0226669548
705:References
618:emboîtment
606:teratology
494:See also:
316:Crevalcore
147:embryology
143:physiology
71:Crevalcore
63:1628-03-10
2787:Dysgenics
2770:Teleology
2734:RNA world
2729:Protocell
2704:Darwinism
2685:Theories,
2656:Phycology
1913:Aristotle
1905:antiquity
1903:Classical
1671:1097-0185
1627:144205554
1568:0014-3022
1489:149443383
1378:1040-0605
1320:0090-4295
1240:143696615
1194:161081155
1178:0269-1213
1115:0007-5140
1019:0743-3131
907:143008947
595:Malpighia
590:Malpighia
457:testicles
373:capillary
355:In 1656,
214:physician
210:biologist
139:histology
2840:Category
2782:Eugenics
2687:concepts
2631:Medicine
2616:Genetics
2564:timeline
2340:Asa Gray
2152:John Ray
1722:37862050
1714:11609422
1584:39575356
1576:17851250
1481:31071004
1386:23377345
1256:(1960).
1186:24416940
1139:11462101
1131:21804183
1123:44451983
1037:33944166
649:apoplexy
636:In 1691
585:Linnaeus
572:ontogeny
490:Research
441:silkworm
232:and the
151:medicine
18:Malpighi
2753:Related
2621:Geology
2606:Ecology
2586:Anatomy
2572:Fields,
1679:9556019
1394:7611397
1328:6375074
1300:Urology
1028:7945245
984:Bibcode
784:8558994
775:1037031
565:Nigella
518:Galileo
484:Bologna
430:Messina
339:at the
320:Bologna
277:insects
238:insects
230:kidneys
228:of the
207:Italian
135:Anatomy
108:Italian
2601:Botany
2486:Topics
1937:Aelian
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614:embryo
453:spleen
379:Career
292:London
240:. The
131:Fields
1718:S2CID
1623:S2CID
1615:JSTOR
1580:S2CID
1485:S2CID
1390:S2CID
1236:S2CID
1228:JSTOR
1190:S2CID
1182:JSTOR
1135:S2CID
1119:JSTOR
903:S2CID
895:JSTOR
734:[
554:xylem
482:, in
461:brain
449:lungs
410:Galen
324:Italy
318:near
270:heart
2507:List
2497:List
1812:ISBN
1795:2015
1776:2015
1744:OCLC
1710:PMID
1675:PMID
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653:Rome
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