1821:
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1849:. The size of the Ewald's sphere and hence the number of diffraction spots on the screen is controlled by the incident electron energy. From the knowledge of the reciprocal lattice models for the real space lattice can be constructed and the surface can be characterized at least qualitatively in terms of the surface periodicity and the point group. Figure 7 shows a model of an unreconstructed (100) face of a simple cubic crystal and the expected LEED pattern. Since these patterns can be inferred from the crystal structure of the bulk crystal, known from other more quantitative diffraction techniques, LEED is more interesting in the cases where the surface layers of a material reconstruct, or where surface adsorbates form their own superstructures.
1894:
1211:, because only elastic scattering is considered. Since the mean free path of low-energy electrons in a crystal is only a few angstroms, only the first few atomic layers contribute to the diffraction. This means that there are no diffraction conditions in the direction perpendicular to the sample surface. As a consequence, the reciprocal lattice of a surface is a 2D lattice with rods extending perpendicular from each lattice point. The rods can be pictured as regions where the reciprocal lattice points are infinitely dense. Therefore, in the case of diffraction from a surface the Laue condition reduces to the 2D form:
829:
3199:
effective wave field incident on the individual scatters present in the surface, where the effective field is the sum of the primary field and the field emitted from all the other atoms. This must be done in a self-consistent way, since the emitted field of an atom depends on the incident effective field upon it. Once the effective field incident on each atom is determined, the total field emitted from all atoms can be found and its asymptotic value far from the crystal then gives the desired intensities.
457:. While the inelastic scattering processes and consequently the electronic mean free path depend on the energy, it is relatively independent of the material. The mean free path turns out to be minimal (5–10 Å) in the energy range of low-energy electrons (20–200 eV). This effective attenuation means that only a few atomic layers are sampled by the electron beam, and, as a consequence, the contribution of deeper atoms to the diffraction progressively decreases.
599:
20:
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parameters. The parameters are changed until an optimal agreement between theory and experiment is achieved. However, for each trial structure a full LEED calculation with multiple scattering corrections must be conducted. For systems with a large parameter space the need for computational time might become significant. This is the case for complex surfaces structures or when considering large molecules as adsorbates.
1743:
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energies to produce clear and visible diffraction patterns on the screen. Ironically the post-acceleration method had already been proposed by
Ehrenberg in 1934. In 1962 Lander and colleagues introduced the modern hemispherical screen with associated hemispherical grids. In the mid-1960s, modern LEED systems became commercially available as part of the ultra-high-vacuum instrumentation suite by
824:{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} ^{*}=2\pi {\frac {\mathbf {b} \times \mathbf {c} }{\mathbf {a} \cdot (\mathbf {b} \times \mathbf {c} )}},\quad \mathbf {b} ^{*}=2\pi {\frac {\mathbf {c} \times \mathbf {a} }{\mathbf {b} \cdot (\mathbf {c} \times \mathbf {a} )}},\quad \mathbf {c} ^{*}=2\pi {\frac {\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} }{\mathbf {c} \cdot (\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} )}}.}
293:, which is then amplified and digitized. To reduce the noise, multiple passes are summed up. The first derivative is very large due to the residual capacitive coupling between gate and the anode and may degrade the performance of the circuit. By applying a negative ramp to the screen this can be compensated. It is also possible to add a small sine to the gate. A high-Q
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with a movable
Faraday cup. The experimental curves are then compared to computer calculations based on the assumption of a particular model system. The model is changed in an iterative process until a satisfactory agreement between experimental and theoretical curves is achieved. A quantitative measure for this agreement is the so-called
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2623:
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sample and the surrounding area is not spherical, the space between the sample and the analyzer has to be field-free. The first grid, therefore, separates the space above the sample from the retarding field. The next grid is at a negative potential to block low energy electrons, and is called the suppressor or the
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In LEED the exact atomic configuration of a surface is determined by a trial and error process where measured I–V curves are compared to computer-calculated spectra under the assumption of a model structure. From an initial reference structure a set of trial structures is created by varying the model
2672:
A more quantitative analysis of LEED experimental data can be achieved by analysis of so-called I–V curves, which are measurements of the intensity versus incident electron energy. The I–V curves can be recorded by using a camera connected to computer controlled data handling or by direct measurement
309:
camera pointed to the screen for diffraction pattern visualization and a computer for data recording and further analysis. More expensive instruments have in-vacuum position sensitive electron detectors that measure the current directly, which helps in the quantitative I–V analysis of the diffraction
219:
filament that is at a negative potential, typically 10–600 V, with respect to the sample. The electrons are accelerated and focused into a beam, typically about 0.1 to 0.5 mm wide, by a series of electrodes serving as electron lenses. Some of the electrons incident on the sample surface are
3224:
Tensor LEED is an attempt to reduce the computational effort needed by avoiding full LEED calculations for each trial structure. The scheme is as follows: One first defines a reference surface structure for which the I–V spectrum is calculated. Next a trial structure is created by displacing some of
2648:
However, since the average domain size is generally larger than the coherence length of the probing electrons, interference between electrons scattered from different domains can be neglected. Therefore, the total LEED pattern emerges as the incoherent sum of the diffraction patterns associated with
239:
A hemispherical positively-biased fluorescent screen on which the diffraction pattern can be directly observed, or a position-sensitive electron detector. Most new LEED systems use a reverse view scheme, which has a minimized electron gun, and the pattern is viewed from behind through a transmission
3237:
SPA-LEED is a technique where the profile and shape of the intensity of diffraction beam spots is measured. The spots are sensitive to the irregularities in the surface structure and their examination therefore permits more-detailed conclusions about some surface characteristics. Using SPA-LEED may
2668:
The inspection of the LEED pattern gives a qualitative picture of the surface periodicity i.e. the size of the surface unit cell and to a certain degree of surface symmetries. However it will give no information about the atomic arrangement within a surface unit cell or the sites of adsorbed atoms.
2644:
An essential problem when considering LEED patterns is the existence of symmetrically equivalent domains. Domains may lead to diffraction patterns that have higher symmetry than the actual surface at hand. The reason is that usually the cross sectional area of the primary electron beam (~1 mm)
1146:
is a vector of the reciprocal lattice. Note that these vectors specify the
Fourier components of charge density in the reciprocal (momentum) space, and that the incoming electrons scatter at these density modulations within the crystal lattice. The magnitudes of the wave vectors are unchanged, i.e.
272:
Often the annealing process will let bulk impurities diffuse to the surface and therefore give rise to a re-contamination after each cleaning cycle. The problem is that impurities that adsorb without changing the basic symmetry of the surface, cannot easily be identified in the diffraction pattern.
220:
backscattered elastically, and diffraction can be detected if sufficient order exists on the surface. This typically requires a region of single crystal surface as wide as the electron beam, although sometimes polycrystalline surfaces such as highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) are sufficient.
143:
Though discovered in 1927, low-energy electron diffraction did not become a popular tool for surface analysis until the early 1960s. The main reasons were that monitoring directions and intensities of diffracted beams was a difficult experimental process due to inadequate vacuum techniques and slow
134:
in 1927. One month after
Davisson and Germer's work appeared, Thompson and Reid published their electron-diffraction work with higher kinetic energy (thousand times higher than the energy used by Davisson and Germer) in the same journal. Those experiments revealed the wave property of electrons and
3233:
A real surface is not perfectly periodic but has many imperfections in the form of dislocations, atomic steps, terraces and the presence of unwanted adsorbed atoms. This departure from a perfect surface leads to a broadening of the diffraction spots and adds to the background intensity in the LEED
323:
The basic reason for the high surface sensitivity of LEED is that for low-energy electrons the interaction between the solid and electrons is especially strong. Upon penetrating the crystal, primary electrons will lose kinetic energy due to inelastic scattering processes such as plasmon and phonon
223:
A high-pass filter for scattered electrons in the form of a retarding field analyzer, which blocks all but elastically scattered electrons. It usually contains three or four hemispherical concentric grids. Because only radial fields around the sampled point would be allowed and the geometry of the
175:
experiments, was inadequate for the quantitative interpretation of experimental data obtained from LEED. At this stage a detailed determination of surface structures, including adsorption sites, bond angles and bond lengths was not possible. A dynamical electron-diffraction theory, which took into
2652:
Figure 8 shows the superposition of the diffraction patterns for the two orthogonal domains (2×1) and (1×2) on a square lattice, i.e. for the case where one structure is just rotated by 90° with respect to the other. The (1×2) structure and the respective LEED pattern are shown in Figure 7. It is
30:
has a 2×1 periodicity. As discussed in the text, the pattern shows that reconstruction exists in symmetrically equivalent domains oriented along different crystallographic axes. The diffraction spots are generated by acceleration of elastically scattered electrons onto a hemispherical fluorescent
3202:
A common approach in LEED calculations is to describe the scattering potential of the crystal by a "muffin tin" model, where the crystal potential can be imagined being divided up by non-overlapping spheres centered at each atom such that the potential has a spherically symmetric form inside the
3194:
stems from the studies of X-ray diffraction and describes the situation where the response of the crystal to an incident wave is included self-consistently and multiple scattering can occur. The aim of any dynamical LEED theory is to calculate the intensities of diffraction of an electron beam
1840:
Figure 4 shows the Ewald's sphere for the case of normal incidence of the primary electron beam, as would be the case in an actual LEED setup. It is apparent that the pattern observed on the fluorescent screen is a direct picture of the reciprocal lattice of the surface. The spots are indexed
159:
In the early 1960s LEED experienced a renaissance, as ultra-high vacuum became widely available, and the post acceleration detection method was introduced by Germer and his coworkers at Bell Labs using a flat phosphor screen. Using this technique, diffracted electrons were accelerated to high
3198:
A common method to achieve this is the self-consistent multiple scattering approach. One essential point in this approach is the assumption that the scattering properties of the surface, i.e. of the individual atoms, are known in detail. The main task then reduces to the determination of the
2234:
1738:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {a} ^{*}&=2\pi {\frac {\mathbf {b} \times {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}}{|\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} |}},\\\mathbf {b} ^{*}&=2\pi {\frac {{\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\times \mathbf {a} }{|\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} |}}.\end{aligned}}}
1323:
64:
Quantitatively, where the intensities of diffracted beams are recorded as a function of incident electron beam energy to generate the so-called I–V curves. By comparison with theoretical curves, these may provide accurate information on atomic positions on the surface at
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572:
74:
An electron-diffraction experiment similar to modern LEED was the first to observe the wavelike properties of electrons, but LEED was established as an ubiquitous tool in surface science only with the advances in vacuum generation and electron detection techniques.
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and origin at the center of the incident wave vector. By construction, every wave vector centered at the origin and terminating at an intersection between a rod and the sphere will then satisfy the 2D Laue condition and thus represent an allowed diffracted beam.
1908:
For a commensurate superstructure the symmetry and the rotational alignment with respect to adsorbent surface can be determined from the LEED pattern. This is easiest shown by using a matrix notation, where the primitive translation vectors of the superlattice
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481:
Kinematic diffraction is defined as the situation where electrons impinging on a well-ordered crystal surface are elastically scattered only once by that surface. In the theory the electron beam is represented by a plane wave with a wavelength given by the
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the atoms. If the displacements are small the trial structure can be considered as a small perturbation of the reference structure and first-order perturbation theory can be used to determine the I–V curves of a large set of trial structures.
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For instance, when the whole superstructure in Figure 7 is shifted such that the atoms adsorb in bridge sites instead of on-top sites the LEED pattern stays the same, although the individual spot intensities may somewhat differ.
155:
pioneered the use of LEED as a method for characterizing the absorption of gases onto clean metal surfaces and the associated regular adsorption phases, starting shortly after the
Davisson and Germer discovery into the 1970s.
1874:. This can be seen in 69 eV LEED images as six new spots due to the intrinsic periodicity of the carbon honeycomb lattice, and many replicas due to the long-wavelength (small wave vector) supermodulation of the moiré.
2433:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\textbf {a}}_{s}^{*}&=G_{11}^{*}{\textbf {a}}^{*}+G_{12}^{*}{\textbf {b}}^{*},\\{\textbf {b}}_{s}^{*}&=G_{21}^{*}{\textbf {a}}^{*}+G_{22}^{*}{\textbf {b}}^{*}.\end{aligned}}}
1032:
2741:
476:
construction for the case of diffraction from a 2D lattice. The intersections between Ewald's sphere and reciprocal lattice rods define the allowed diffracted beams. For clarity, only half of the sphere is
2645:
is large compared to the average domain size on the surface and hence the LEED pattern might be a superposition of diffraction beams from domains oriented along different axes of the substrate lattice.
228:. To make the retarding field homogeneous and mechanically more stable another grid at the same potential is added behind the second grid. The fourth grid is only necessary when the LEED is used like a
1217:
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spheres and is constant everywhere else. The choice of this potential reduces the problem to scattering from spherical potentials, which can be dealt with effectively. The task is then to solve the
2094:
492:
1209:
269:
at high temperatures. Once a clean and well-defined surface is prepared, monolayers can be adsorbed on the surface by exposing it to a gas consisting of the desired adsorbate atoms or molecules.
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1870:: Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) map of iridium (111) surface partially covered with single-layer graphene (lower-left part). Because of a 10% lattice mismatch, graphene develops a 2.5 nm
253:
The sample of the desired surface crystallographic orientation is initially cut and prepared outside the vacuum chamber. The correct alignment of the crystal can be achieved with the help of
3040:
411:
2942:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R&=\sum _{g}\int (Y_{\textrm {gth}}(E)-Y_{\textrm {gexpt}}(E))^{2}dE/\sum _{g}\int (Y_{\textrm {gth}}^{2}(E)+Y_{\textrm {gexpt}}^{2}(E))dE,\end{aligned}}}
1456:
1420:
119:
target and observed that the angular dependence of the intensity of backscattered electrons showed diffraction patterns. These observations were consistent with the diffraction theory for
2618:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}G^{*}&=(G^{-1})^{\text{T}}\\&={\frac {1}{\det(G)}}\left({\begin{array}{cc}G_{22}&-G_{21}\\-G_{12}&G_{11}\end{array}}\right).\end{aligned}}}
148:. Also, since LEED is a surface-sensitive method, it required well-ordered surface structures. Techniques for the preparation of clean metal surfaces first became available much later.
87:
introduced wave mechanics and proposed the wavelike nature of all particles. In his Nobel-laureated work de
Broglie postulated that the wavelength of a particle with linear momentum
1549:
176:
account the possibility of multiple scattering, was established in the late 1960s. With this theory, it later became possible to reproduce experimental data with high precision.
3181:: Examples of the comparison between experimental data and a theoretical calculation (an AlNiCo quasicrystal surface). Thanks to R. Diehl and N. Ferralis for providing the data.
1814:
1518:
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327:
In cases where the detailed nature of the inelastic processes is unimportant, they are commonly treated by assuming an exponential decay of the primary electron-beam intensity
1775:
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1355:
577:
The interaction between the scatterers present in the surface and the incident electrons is most conveniently described in reciprocal space. In three dimensions the primitive
3169:
3136:
2078:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\textbf {a}}_{s}&=G_{11}{\textbf {a}}+G_{12}{\textbf {b}},\\{\textbf {b}}_{s}&=G_{21}{\textbf {a}}+G_{22}{\textbf {b}}.\end{aligned}}}
57:
Qualitatively, where the diffraction pattern is recorded and analysis of the spot positions gives information on the symmetry of the surface structure. In the presence of an
3409:
Fifty years of electron diffraction : in recognition of fifty years of achievement by the crystallographers and gas diffractionists in the field of electron diffraction
1900:: Real and reciprocal space lattices for a (100) face of a simple cubic lattice, and its two commensurate (1×2) superstructures. The green spots in the LEED pattern are the
1831:
topographic map of palladium (111) surface, its
Fourier transform in reciprocal space showing main periodicity components, and a 240 eV LEED image from the same surface
3103:
1748:
The Laue-condition equation can readily be visualized using the Ewald's sphere construction. Figures 3 and 4 show a simple illustration of this principle: The wave vector
261:. After being mounted in the UHV chamber the sample is cleaned and flattened. Unwanted surface contaminants are removed by ion sputtering or by chemical processes such as
447:
3977:
3412:. Goodman, P. (Peter), 1928–, International Union of Crystallography. Dordrecht, Holland: Published for the International Union of Crystallography by D. Reidel. 1981.
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61:
the qualitative analysis may reveal information about the size and rotational alignment of the adsorbate unit cell with respect to the substrate unit cell.
2677:- or R-factor. A commonly used reliability factor is the one proposed by Pendry. It is expressed in terms of the logarithmic derivative of the intensity:
841:: Ewald's sphere construction for the case of normal incidence of the primary electron beam. The diffracted beams are indexed according to the values of
123:
developed by Bragg and Laue earlier. Before the acceptance of the de
Broglie hypothesis, diffraction was believed to be an exclusive property of waves.
3264:
2656:
Figure 1 shows a real diffraction pattern of the same situation for the case of a Si(100) surface. However, here the (2×1) structure is formed due to
2640:: Superposition of the LEED patterns associated with the two orthogonal domains (1×2) and (2×1). The LEED pattern has a fourfold rotational symmetry.
3601:
3490:
1820:
1863:
1777:
of the incident electron beam is drawn such that it terminates at a reciprocal lattice point. The Ewald's sphere is then the sphere with radius
3826:
P.J. Rous J.B. Pendry (1989). "Tensor LEED I: A Technique for high speed surface structure determination by low energy electron diffraction".
3238:
for instance permit a quantitative determination of the surface roughness, terrace sizes, dislocation arrays, surface steps and adsorbates.
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969:
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is considered a bad agreement. Figure 9 shows examples of the comparison between experimental I–V spectra and theoretical calculations.
465:
834:
1878:
Overlaying superstructures on a substrate surface may introduce additional spots in the known (1×1) arrangement. These are known as
2683:
1318:{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{f}^{\parallel }-\mathbf {k} _{i}^{\parallel }=\mathbf {G} _{hk}=h\mathbf {a} ^{*}+k\mathbf {b} ^{*},}
2182:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}G=\left({\begin{array}{cc}G_{11}&G_{12}\\G_{21}&G_{22}\end{array}}\right).\end{aligned}}}
567:{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{\sqrt {2m_{\text{e}}E}}},\quad \lambda {\text{ }}\approx {\sqrt {\frac {1.5}{E{\text{ }}}}}.}
3391:
3791:
E.G. McRae (1967). "Self-Consistent
Multiple-Scattering Approach to the Interpretation of Low-Energy Electron Diffraction".
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apparent that the local symmetry of the surface structure is twofold while the LEED pattern exhibits a fourfold symmetry.
1890:. Figure 7 shows a schematic of real and reciprocal space lattices for a simple (1×2) superstructure on a square lattice.
273:
Therefore, in many LEED experiments Auger electron spectroscopy is used to accurately determine the purity of the sample.
3931:
3741:
909:
856:
1886:. Figure 6 shows many such spots appearing after a simple hexagonal surface of a metal has been covered with a layer of
184:
240:
screen and a viewport. Recently, a new digitized position sensitive detector called a delay-line detector with better
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of low-energy electrons (30–200 eV) and observation of diffracted electrons as spots on a fluorescent screen.
483:
195:
In order to keep the studied sample clean and free from unwanted adsorbates, LEED experiments are performed in an
3566:
J. J. Lander, J. Morrison, and F. Unterwald (1962). "Improved Design and Method of
Operation of LEED Equipment".
31:
screen. Also seen is the electron gun that generates the primary electron beam; it covers up parts of the screen.
959:, the condition for constructive interference and hence diffraction of scattered electron waves is given by the
171:
It soon became clear that the kinematic (single-scattering) theory, which had been successfully used to explain
3997:
3650:
Human, D.; Hu, X. F.; Hirschmugl, C. J.; Ociepa, J.; Hall, G.; Jagutzki, O.; Ullmann-Pfleger, K. (2006-02-01).
3242:
108:
3455:
E. J. Scheibner, L. H. Germer, and C. D. Hartman (1960). "Apparatus for Direct Observation of LEED Patterns".
1828:
1893:
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denote the component of respectively the reflected and incident wave vector parallel to the sample surface.
1523:
282:
26:: LEED pattern of a Si(100) reconstructed surface. The underlying lattice is a square lattice, while the
1780:
3992:
3615:
Ertl, G. (1967). "Untersuchung von oberflächenreaktionen mittels beugung langsamer elektronen (LEED)".
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and triggered an enormous boost of activities in surface science. Notably, future Nobel prize winner
3539:
W. Ehrenberg (1934). "A new method of investigating the diffraction of slow electrons by crystals".
1871:
453:, defined as the distance an electron can travel before its intensity has decreased by the factor 1/
3245:
setups, dedicated SPA-LEED setups, which scan the profile of the diffraction spot over a dedicated
3075:
450:
3932:"Growth of semiconductor layers studied by spot profile analysing low energy electron diffraction"
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83:
The theoretical possibility of the occurrence of electron diffraction first emerged in 1924, when
423:
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266:
27:
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and the current at the screen is measured, when it serves as screen between the gate and the
115:
in 1927, when Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer fired low-energy electrons at a crystalline
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3904:
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3835:
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8:
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1136:{\displaystyle {\textbf {G}}_{hkl}=h\mathbf {a} ^{*}+k\mathbf {b} ^{*}+l\mathbf {c} ^{*}}
3908:
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3667:
3579:
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Although some degree of spot profile analysis can be performed in regular LEED and even
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578:
126:
Davisson and Germer published notes of their electron-diffraction experiment result in
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are the primitive translation vectors of the 2D reciprocal lattice of the surface and
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1923:} are linked to the primitive translation vectors of the underlying (1×1) lattice {
285:. To improve the measured signal, the gate voltage is scanned in a linear ramp. An
152:
127:
84:
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started his studies of surface chemistry and catalysis on such a Varian system.
960:
43:
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3327:
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3636:
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2220:} are linked to the primitive translation vectors of the reciprocal lattice {
3729:
Zangwill, A., "Physics at Surfaces", Cambridge University Press (1988), p.33
3565:
3427:
2192:
Similarly, the primitive translation vectors of the lattice describing the
306:
212:
165:
3328:
K. Oura; V. G. Lifshifts; A. A. Saranin; A. V. Zotov; M. Katayama (2003).
78:
3652:"Low energy electron diffraction using an electronic delay-line detector"
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294:
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286:
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1027:{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{f}-\mathbf {k} _{i}=\mathbf {G} _{hkl},}
276:
112:
58:
19:
3504:
L. H. Germer, and C. D. Hartman (1960). "Improved LEED Apparatus".
1887:
138:
42:) is a technique for the determination of the surface structure of
3756:
J.B. Pendry (1980). "Reliability Factors for LEED Calculations".
3174:
297:
is tuned to the second harmonic to detect the second derivative.
229:
216:
3229:
Spot profile analysis low-energy electron diffraction (SPA-LEED)
3503:
3072:
is the imaginary part of the electron self-energy. In general,
116:
3207:
for an incident electron wave in that "muffin tin" potential.
2736:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}L(E)&=I'/I.\end{aligned}}}
262:
233:
120:
3249:
allow for much higher dynamic range and profile resolution.
3861:
P.J. Rous J.B. Pendry (1989). "The theory of Tensor LEED".
225:
3374:. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York. pp.
3336:. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York. pp.
2663:
324:
excitations, as well as electron–electron interactions.
3899:
M. Henzler (1982). "Studies of Surface Imperfections".
3649:
79:
Davisson and Germer's discovery of electron diffraction
460:
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1204:{\displaystyle |\mathbf {k} _{f}|=|\mathbf {k} _{i}|}
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are related to the real space surface lattice, with
305:
A modern data acquisition system usually contains a
215:
from which monochromatic electrons are emitted by a
199:
environment (residual gas pressure <10 Pa).
3366:M. A. Van Hove; W. H. Weinberg; C. M. Chan (1986).
952:{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{f}=2\pi /\lambda _{f}}
899:{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{i}=2\pi /\lambda _{i}}
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3195:impinging on a surface as accurately as possible.
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277:Using the detector for Auger electron spectroscopy
3978:Laboratory techniques in condensed matter physics
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3276:Ultrafast low-energy electron diffraction (ULEED)
281:LEED optics is in some instruments also used for
3969:
3559:
2523:
139:Development of LEED as a tool in surface science
135:opened up an era of electron-diffraction study.
3929:
3532:
3035:{\displaystyle Y(E)=L^{-1}/(L^{-2}+V_{oi}^{2})}
581:vectors are related to the real space lattice {
406:{\displaystyle I(d)=I_{0}\,e^{-d/\Lambda (E)}.}
151:Nonetheless, H. E. Farnsworth and coworkers at
3889:
3258:Spin-polarized low energy electron diffraction
3185:
1451:{\displaystyle {\textbf {k}}_{i}^{\parallel }}
1415:{\displaystyle {\textbf {k}}_{f}^{\parallel }}
207:The main components of a LEED instrument are:
3854:
3749:
3705:. Academic Press Inc. (London) LTD. pp.
3497:
1551:as the surface normal, in the following way:
3819:
3600:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3538:
3489:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
16:Technique for determining surface structures
3755:
3271:Reflection high-energy electron diffraction
3898:
3790:
3690:
2088:The matrix for the superstructure then is
853:For an incident electron with wave vector
3738:
3448:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3261:Inelastic low energy electron diffraction
369:
191:Schematic of a rear-view LEED instrument.
69:
3173:
2632:
1904:associated with the adsorbate structure.
1892:
1862:
1819:
833:
464:
183:
18:
3970:
3732:
3696:
3354:
3323:
3321:
3319:
318:
3784:
3210:
2664:Dynamical theory: multiple scattering
1544:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}}
179:
53:LEED may be used in one of two ways:
3614:
3265:Very low-energy electron diffraction
265:cycles. The surface is flattened by
3742:Introduction to Solid State Physics
3316:
3105:is considered as a good agreement,
2412:
2380:
2339:
2318:
2286:
2245:
2063:
2043:
2013:
1998:
1978:
1948:
1499:
1468:
1432:
1396:
1062:
461:Kinematic theory: single scattering
300:
13:
1852:
1809:{\displaystyle |\mathbf {k} _{i}|}
427:
386:
244:and resolution has been developed.
14:
4009:
3930:Horn-von Hoegen, Michael (1999).
3292:
1859:Superstructure (condensed matter)
1513:{\displaystyle {\textbf {b}}^{*}}
1482:{\displaystyle {\textbf {a}}^{*}}
334:in the direction of propagation:
3939:Zeitschrift für Kristallographie
3656:Review of Scientific Instruments
3287:List of surface analysis methods
1791:
1770:{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{i}}
1757:
1716:
1708:
1696:
1682:
1652:
1631:
1623:
1605:
1594:
1567:
1531:
1379:{\displaystyle \mathbf {b} ^{*}}
1366:
1350:{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} ^{*}}
1337:
1302:
1284:
1263:
1243:
1223:
1186:
1161:
1123:
1105:
1087:
1005:
990:
975:
915:
862:
808:
800:
789:
782:
774:
751:
735:
727:
716:
709:
701:
678:
662:
654:
643:
636:
628:
605:
107:. The de Broglie hypothesis was
46:materials by bombardment with a
3723:
3701:Low-Energy Electron Diffraction
3370:Low-Energy Electron Diffraction
3304:LEED pattern analyzer (LEEDpat)
3164:{\displaystyle R_{p}\simeq 0.5}
3131:{\displaystyle R_{p}\simeq 0.3}
2746:The R-factor is then given by:
1836:Interpretation of LEED patterns
748:
675:
530:
36:Low-energy electron diffraction
3643:
3608:
3400:
3215:
3029:
2992:
2968:
2962:
2923:
2920:
2914:
2891:
2885:
2865:
2832:
2828:
2822:
2804:
2798:
2783:
2700:
2694:
2532:
2526:
2498:
2481:
1802:
1785:
1721:
1703:
1686:
1636:
1618:
1609:
1535:
1197:
1180:
1172:
1155:
812:
796:
739:
723:
666:
650:
436:
430:
420:is the penetration depth, and
395:
389:
353:
347:
202:
1:
3378:–27, 46–89, 92–124, 145–172.
3309:
3098:{\displaystyle R_{p}\leq 0.2}
3951:10.1524/zkri.1999.214.11.684
3917:10.1016/0378-5963(82)90092-7
3883:10.1016/0039-6028(89)90513-X
3848:10.1016/0010-4655(89)90039-8
3813:10.1016/0039-6028(67)90071-4
3629:10.1016/0039-6028(67)90005-2
1049:) is a set of integers, and
289:serves to derive the second
144:detection methods such as a
7:
3280:
3186:Dynamical LEED calculations
3138:is considered mediocre and
1841:according to the values of
442:{\displaystyle \Lambda (E)}
283:Auger electron spectroscopy
10:
4014:
3778:10.1088/0022-3719/13/5/024
2628:
1856:
906:and scattered wave vector
3553:10.1080/14786443409462562
313:
248:
3384:10.1002/maco.19870380711
3252:
2649:the individual domains.
593:} in the following way:
451:inelastic mean free path
109:confirmed experimentally
3739:C. Kittel (1996). "2".
1931:} in the following way
263:oxidation and reduction
3662:(2): 023302–023302–8.
3440:: CS1 maint: others (
3182:
3165:
3132:
3099:
3066:
3065:{\displaystyle V_{oi}}
3036:
2943:
2737:
2658:surface reconstruction
2641:
2619:
2434:
2183:
2079:
1905:
1875:
1832:
1810:
1771:
1739:
1545:
1514:
1483:
1452:
1416:
1380:
1351:
1319:
1205:
1137:
1028:
953:
900:
850:
825:
568:
478:
443:
407:
192:
70:Historical perspective
32:
28:surface reconstruction
3998:Scientific techniques
3299:LEED program packages
3177:
3166:
3133:
3100:
3067:
3037:
2944:
2738:
2636:
2620:
2450:in the following way
2435:
2184:
2080:
1896:
1866:
1823:
1811:
1772:
1740:
1546:
1515:
1484:
1453:
1417:
1381:
1352:
1320:
1206:
1138:
1029:
954:
901:
837:
826:
569:
484:de Broglie hypothesis
468:
444:
408:
187:
22:
3828:Comput. Phys. Commun
3247:channeltron detector
3205:Schrödinger equation
3142:
3109:
3076:
3046:
2956:
2753:
2684:
2457:
2235:
2095:
1938:
1872:moiré superstructure
1781:
1752:
1558:
1524:
1493:
1462:
1426:
1390:
1361:
1332:
1218:
1151:
1056:
970:
910:
857:
600:
493:
424:
341:
3909:1982ApSS...11..450H
3875:1989SurSc.219..355R
3840:1989CoPhC..54..137R
3805:1967SurSc...8...14M
3770:1980JPhC...13..937P
3668:2006RScI...77b3302H
3580:1962RScI...33..782L
3518:1960RScI...31..784G
3469:1960RScI...31..112S
3028:
2913:
2884:
2408:
2376:
2354:
2314:
2282:
2260:
1447:
1411:
1257:
1237:
319:Surface sensitivity
3903:. 11/12: 450–469.
3211:Related techniques
3183:
3161:
3128:
3095:
3062:
3032:
3011:
2939:
2937:
2897:
2868:
2861:
2779:
2733:
2731:
2642:
2615:
2613:
2602:
2430:
2428:
2394:
2362:
2336:
2300:
2268:
2242:
2179:
2177:
2166:
2075:
2073:
1906:
1876:
1833:
1806:
1767:
1735:
1733:
1541:
1510:
1479:
1448:
1429:
1412:
1393:
1376:
1347:
1315:
1241:
1221:
1201:
1133:
1024:
949:
896:
851:
821:
579:reciprocal lattice
564:
479:
439:
403:
193:
180:Experimental setup
44:single-crystalline
33:
3993:Materials science
3745:. John Wiley, US.
3676:10.1063/1.2170078
3588:10.1063/1.1717975
3568:Rev. Sci. Instrum
3526:10.1063/1.1717051
3506:Rev. Sci. Instrum
3477:10.1063/1.1716903
3457:Rev. Sci. Instrum
3393:978-3-540-16262-9
2905:
2876:
2852:
2818:
2794:
2770:
2536:
2504:
2414:
2382:
2341:
2320:
2288:
2247:
2065:
2045:
2015:
2000:
1980:
1950:
1726:
1689:
1641:
1612:
1538:
1501:
1470:
1434:
1398:
1064:
816:
743:
670:
559:
558:
555:
537:
525:
524:
518:
255:X-ray diffraction
197:ultra-high vacuum
173:X-ray diffraction
162:Varian Associates
4005:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3936:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3896:
3887:
3886:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3736:
3730:
3727:
3721:
3720:
3704:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3599:
3591:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3547:(122): 878–901.
3536:
3530:
3529:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3488:
3480:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3439:
3431:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3373:
3363:
3352:
3351:
3335:
3325:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3154:
3153:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3129:
3121:
3120:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3088:
3087:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3027:
3022:
3007:
3006:
2991:
2986:
2985:
2948:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2938:
2912:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2883:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2860:
2851:
2840:
2839:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2816:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2792:
2778:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2722:
2717:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2614:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2598:
2587:
2586:
2570:
2569:
2555:
2554:
2537:
2535:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2473:
2472:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2415:
2407:
2402:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2383:
2375:
2370:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2313:
2308:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2281:
2276:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2248:
2219:
2218:
2207:
2206:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2162:
2151:
2150:
2137:
2136:
2125:
2124:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2074:
2067:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2047:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2023:
2022:
2017:
2016:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1982:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1951:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1788:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1734:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1626:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1550:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1502:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1435:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1345:
1340:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1275:
1274:
1266:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1210:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1175:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1158:
1142:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1132:
1131:
1126:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1078:
1077:
1066:
1065:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1019:
1008:
999:
998:
993:
984:
983:
978:
958:
956:
955:
950:
948:
947:
938:
924:
923:
918:
905:
903:
902:
897:
895:
894:
885:
871:
870:
865:
830:
828:
827:
822:
817:
815:
811:
803:
792:
786:
785:
777:
771:
760:
759:
754:
744:
742:
738:
730:
719:
713:
712:
704:
698:
687:
686:
681:
671:
669:
665:
657:
646:
640:
639:
631:
625:
614:
613:
608:
573:
571:
570:
565:
560:
557:
556:
553:
544:
543:
538:
535:
526:
520:
519:
516:
507:
503:
448:
446:
445:
440:
412:
410:
409:
404:
399:
398:
385:
368:
367:
301:Data acquisition
259:Laue diffraction
257:methods such as
153:Brown University
85:Louis de Broglie
4013:
4012:
4008:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4003:
4002:
3968:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3955:
3953:
3934:
3928:
3924:
3901:Appl. Surf. Sci
3897:
3890:
3859:
3855:
3824:
3820:
3793:Surface Science
3789:
3785:
3754:
3750:
3737:
3733:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3697:Pendry (1974).
3695:
3691:
3648:
3644:
3617:Surface Science
3613:
3609:
3593:
3592:
3564:
3560:
3537:
3533:
3502:
3498:
3482:
3481:
3453:
3449:
3433:
3432:
3420:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3364:
3355:
3348:
3332:Surface Science
3326:
3317:
3312:
3295:
3283:
3255:
3231:
3218:
3213:
3188:
3149:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3116:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3083:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3053:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3023:
3015:
2999:
2995:
2987:
2978:
2974:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2936:
2935:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2856:
2847:
2835:
2831:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2774:
2763:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2730:
2729:
2718:
2710:
2703:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2666:
2631:
2612:
2611:
2601:
2600:
2594:
2590:
2588:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2522:
2517:
2508:
2507:
2501:
2497:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2427:
2426:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2403:
2398:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2377:
2371:
2366:
2355:
2349:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2309:
2304:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2277:
2272:
2261:
2255:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2176:
2175:
2165:
2164:
2158:
2154:
2152:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2132:
2128:
2126:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2072:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2055:
2051:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2006:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1977:
1976:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1922:
1915:
1861:
1855:
1853:Superstructures
1838:
1801:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1761:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1732:
1731:
1720:
1715:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1695:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1662:
1656:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1617:
1616:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1577:
1571:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1442:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1406:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1370:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1341:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1288:
1283:
1282:
1267:
1262:
1261:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1196:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1171:
1165:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1127:
1122:
1121:
1109:
1104:
1103:
1091:
1086:
1085:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1009:
1004:
1003:
994:
989:
988:
979:
974:
973:
971:
968:
967:
943:
939:
934:
919:
914:
913:
911:
908:
907:
890:
886:
881:
866:
861:
860:
858:
855:
854:
807:
799:
788:
787:
781:
773:
772:
770:
755:
750:
749:
734:
726:
715:
714:
708:
700:
699:
697:
682:
677:
676:
661:
653:
642:
641:
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132:Physical Review
105:Planck constant
81:
72:
48:collimated beam
17:
12:
11:
5:
4011:
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3888:
3869:(3): 355–372.
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3834:(1): 137–156.
3818:
3799:(1–2): 14–34.
3783:
3764:(5): 937–944.
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3623:(2): 208–232.
3607:
3574:(7): 782–783.
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3463:(2): 112–114.
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1827:: Real-space
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242:dynamic range
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29:
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21:
3954:. Retrieved
3942:
3938:
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3900:
3866:
3862:
3856:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3796:
3792:
3786:
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3751:
3740:
3734:
3725:
3700:
3692:
3659:
3655:
3645:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3596:cite journal
3571:
3567:
3561:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3509:
3505:
3499:
3485:cite journal
3460:
3456:
3450:
3408:
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3369:
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3236:
3232:
3223:
3219:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3189:
3178:
2951:
2745:
2674:
2671:
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2655:
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2209:
2197:
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2191:
2087:
1928:
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1883:
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1867:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1824:
1747:
1327:
1145:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1036:
852:
846:
842:
838:
590:
586:
582:
576:
480:
469:
454:
449:denotes the
417:
415:
328:
326:
322:
304:
280:
271:
252:
213:electron gun
206:
194:
188:
170:
166:Gerhard Ertl
158:
150:
142:
125:
100:
96:
92:
91:is given by
88:
82:
73:
52:
39:
35:
34:
23:
3988:Diffraction
3945:: 684–721.
3216:Tensor LEED
2675:reliability
2194:extra spots
1902:extra spots
1884:super spots
1880:extra spots
295:RLC circuit
203:LEED optics
146:Faraday cup
3972:Categories
3956:25 January
3758:J. Phys. C
3512:(7): 784.
3310:References
291:derivative
287:RC circuit
3863:Surf. Sci
3684:0034-6748
3637:0039-6028
3541:Phil. Mag
3436:cite book
3234:pattern.
3192:dynamical
3190:The term
3156:≃
3123:≃
3090:≤
3001:−
2980:−
2863:∫
2854:∑
2808:−
2781:∫
2772:∑
2576:−
2559:−
2490:−
2470:∗
2419:∗
2405:∗
2387:∗
2373:∗
2351:∗
2325:∗
2311:∗
2293:∗
2279:∗
2257:∗
1713:×
1693:×
1687:^
1673:π
1658:∗
1628:×
1610:^
1599:×
1588:π
1573:∗
1536:^
1506:∗
1475:∗
1444:∥
1408:∥
1372:∗
1343:∗
1308:∗
1290:∗
1254:∥
1239:−
1234:∥
1129:∗
1111:∗
1093:∗
986:−
941:λ
932:π
888:λ
879:π
805:×
794:⋅
779:×
768:π
757:∗
732:×
721:⋅
706:×
695:π
684:∗
659:×
648:⋅
633:×
622:π
611:∗
540:≈
532:λ
497:λ
428:Λ
387:Λ
376:−
267:annealing
113:Bell Labs
59:adsorbate
3281:See also
3179:Figure 9
2715:′
2638:Figure 8
1898:Figure 7
1888:graphene
1868:Figure 6
1825:Figure 5
839:Figure 4
470:Figure 3
307:CCD/CMOS
189:Figure 2
99:, where
24:Figure 1
3905:Bibcode
3871:Bibcode
3836:Bibcode
3801:Bibcode
3766:Bibcode
3664:Bibcode
3576:Bibcode
3514:Bibcode
3465:Bibcode
3428:7276396
3273:(RHEED)
3267:(VLEED)
2629:Domains
2224:,
2208:,
1927:,
1916:,
1037:where (
310:spots.
230:tetrode
217:cathode
130:and in
103:is the
3713:
3682:
3635:
3426:
3416:
3390:
3344:
2952:where
1328:where
554:
536:
477:shown.
314:Theory
249:Sample
128:Nature
121:X-rays
117:nickel
3935:(PDF)
3340:–45.
3253:Other
2904:gexpt
2817:gexpt
416:Here
234:anode
65:hand.
3958:2020
3711:ISBN
3707:1–75
3680:ISSN
3633:ISSN
3602:link
3491:link
3442:link
3424:OCLC
3414:ISBN
3388:ISBN
3342:ISBN
3243:LEEM
3042:and
1845:and
1489:and
1357:and
845:and
226:gate
40:LEED
3947:doi
3943:214
3913:doi
3879:doi
3867:219
3844:doi
3809:doi
3774:doi
3672:doi
3625:doi
3584:doi
3549:doi
3522:doi
3473:doi
3380:doi
3159:0.5
3126:0.3
3093:0.2
2875:gth
2793:gth
2524:det
1882:or
1829:STM
546:1.5
211:An
111:at
3974::
3941:.
3937:.
3911:.
3891:^
3877:.
3865:.
3842:.
3832:54
3830:.
3807:.
3795:.
3772:.
3762:13
3760:.
3709:.
3678:.
3670:.
3660:77
3658:.
3654:.
3631:.
3619:.
3598:}}
3594:{{
3582:.
3572:33
3570:.
3545:18
3543:.
3520:.
3510:31
3508:.
3487:}}
3483:{{
3471:.
3461:31
3459:.
3438:}}
3434:{{
3422:.
3386:.
3356:^
3318:^
2660:.
2596:11
2584:12
2567:21
2552:22
2400:22
2368:21
2306:12
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1582:=
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1080:=
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819:.
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