1373:(6≤x≤8) is highly soluble in the common electrolytes used for Li–S batteries. They are formed and leaked from the cathode and they diffuse to the anode, where they are reduced to short-chain polysulfides and diffuse back to the cathode where long-chain polysulfides are formed again. This process results in the continuous leakage of active material from the cathode, lithium corrosion, low coulombic efficiency and low battery life. Moreover, the "shuttle" effect is responsible for the characteristic self-discharge of Li–S batteries, because of slow dissolution of polysulfide, which occurs also in rest state. The "shuttle" effect in a Li–S battery can be quantified by a factor f
2284:(HAPS) aircraft powered by solar energy during the day and by lithium sulfur batteries at night in real life conditions during an 11-day flight. The batteries used in the test flight utilized Sion Power's Li–S cells that provide 350 W⋅h/kg. Sion originally claimed to be in the process of volume manufacturing with availability by end of 2017; however more recently it can be seen that they have dropped work on their lithium sulfur battery in favor of a lithium-metal battery.
1293:°C. A carbon coating provides the missing electroconductivity. Carbon nanofibers provide an effective electron conduction path and structural integrity, at the disadvantage of higher cost. In 2024, researchers announced the discovery of a sulfur–iodine material that can dramatically increase the electrical conductivity of a lithium–sulfur battery’s cathode by 11 orders of magnitude, making it 100 billion times more conductive than crystals made of sulfur alone.
2365:
27:
2764:
2745:
2783:
2324:
Monash
University's Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering in Melbourne, Australia developed an ultra-high capacity Li–S battery that has been manufactured by partners at the Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology in Germany. It is claimed the battery can provide power to
1558:
Conventionally, Li–S batteries employ a liquid organic electrolyte, contained in the pores of PP separator. The electrolyte plays a key role in Li–S batteries, acting both on "shuttle" effect by the polysulfide dissolution and the SEI stabilization at anode surface. It has been demonstrated that the
1273:
The main challenges of Li–S batteries is the low conductivity of sulfur and its considerable volume change upon discharging and finding a suitable cathode is the first step for commercialization of Li–S batteries. Therefore, most researchers use a carbon/sulfur cathode and a lithium anode. Sulfur is
254:
announced the discovery of a novel sulfur–iodine crystalline material that can drastically increase the electrical conductivity of a lithium–sulfur battery’s cathode by 11 orders of magnitude, making it 100 billion times more conductive than crystals made of sulfur alone. Moreover, the new material
163:
Issues that have slowed acceptance include the polysulfide "shuttle" effect that is responsible for the progressive leakage of active material from the cathode, resulting in too few recharge cycles. Also, sulfur cathodes have low conductivity, requiring extra mass for a conducting agent in order to
184:
in 2024. Their polysulfide shuttle free feature facilitates proper operation under lean electrolyte conditions (< 3 g·(A·h)), which was proved to be extremely crucial to attain the full potential of Li-S batteries. The researchers proposed and analyzed unconventional perspectives on how to
246:
produced a prototype lithium-sulfur battery that did not degrade over 4000 charge cycles. Analysis has shown that the battery contained monoclinic gamma-phase sulfur, which has been thought to be unstable below 95 degrees
Celsius, and only a few studies have shown this type of sulfur to be stable
225:
identified the critical parameters needed for achieving commercial acceptance. Specifically, Li–S batteries need to achieve a sulfur loading of >5 mg·cm, a carbon content of <5%, electrolyte-to-sulfur ratio of <5 μL·mg, electrolyte-to-capacity ratio of <5 μL·(mA·h), and
168:
S conversion and the large amount of electrolyte needed are also issues. In the early 2000s, however, scientists began to make progress creating high-stability sulfurized-carbon cathodes and by 2020, scientists at Rice
University had demonstrated batteries based on sulfurized carbon cathodes that
3863:
Tao, Xinyong; Liu, Yayuan; Liu, Wei; Zhou, Guangmin; Zhao, Jie; Lin, Dingchang; Zu, Chenxi; Sheng, Ouwei; Zhang, Wenkui; Lee, Hyun-Wook; Cui, Yi (10 May 2017). "Solid-State
Lithium–Sulfur Batteries Operated at 37 °C with Composites of Nanostructured Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 /Carbon Foam and Polymer".
1348:
into electrolytes causes irreversible loss of active sulfur. Use of highly reactive lithium as a negative electrode causes dissociation of most of the commonly used other type electrolytes. Use of a protective layer in the anode surface has been studied to improve cell safety, i.e., using
1304:
S is nearly 80% of the volume of the original sulfur. This causes large mechanical stresses on the cathode, which is a major cause of rapid degradation. This process reduces the contact between the carbon and the sulfur, and prevents the flow of lithium ions to the carbon surface.
3915:
Yim, Taeeun; Park, Min-Sik; Yu, Ji-Sang; Kim, Ki Jae; Im, Keun Yung; Kim, Jae-Hun; Jeong, Goojin; Jo, Yong Nam; Woo, Sang-Gil (September 2013). "Effect of chemical reactivity of polysulfide toward carbonate-based electrolyte on the electrochemical performance of Li–S batteries".
1988:
Voltage between about 1.7 and 2.5 volts, depending on charge state. Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide) dissolved in a mixture of nmethyl-(n-butyl) pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)-imide (PYR14TFSI), 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), dimethoxyethane (DME) with 1 M
4727:
2120:
A free-standing CNT–S paper electrode with a high areal sulfur-loading was fabricated, in which short MWCNTs served as the short-range electrical conductive network and super-long CNTs acted as both the long-range conductive network and intercrossed binders.
141:. Secondly, the use of metallic lithium instead of intercalating lithium ions allows for much higher energy density, as less substances are needed to hold "lithium" and lithium is directly oxidized. Li–S batteries offer specific energies on the order of 550
1308:
Mechanical properties of the lithiated sulfur compounds are strongly contingent on the lithium content, and with increasing lithium content, the strength of lithiated sulfur compounds improves, although this increment is not linear with lithiation.
229:
In 2021, researchers announced the use of a sugar-based anode additive that prevented the release of polysulfide chains from the cathodes that pollute the anode. A prototype cell demonstrated 1,000 charge cycles with a capacity of 700 mAh/g.
1019:
in the anode and cathodes. Each sulfur atom can host two lithium ions. Typically, lithium-ion batteries accommodate only 0.5–0.7 lithium ions per host atom. Consequently, Li–S allows for a much higher lithium storage density. Polysulfides are
233:
In 2022, an interlayer was introduced that claimed to reduce polysulfide movement (protecting the anode) and facilitate lithium ion transfer to reduce charge/discharge times. Also that year, researchers employed aramid nanofibers (nanoscale
4682:
Nguyen, D.-T.; Hoefling, A.; Yee, M.; Nguyen, T. H. G.; Theato, P.; Lee, Y. J.; Song, S.-W. (2019). "Enabling high-rate and safe lithium ion-sulfur battery by effective combination of sulfur-copolymer cathode and hard-carbon anode".
159:
Li–S batteries with up to 1,500 charge and discharge cycles were demonstrated in 2017, but cycle life tests at commercial scale and with lean electrolyte have not been completed. As of early 2021, none were commercially available.
4300:
Chung, W. J.; Griebel, J. J.; Kim, E. T.; Yoon, H.; Simmonds, A. G.; Ji, H. J.; Dirlam, P. T.; Glass, R. S.; Wie, J. J.; Nguyen, N. A.; Guralnick, B. W.; Park, J.; Somogyi, Á. D.; Theato, P.; MacKay, M. E.; Sung, Y. E.; Char, K.;
4766:
1567:
and mixtures of them) are not compatible with the chemistry of Li–S batteries. Long-chain polysulfides undergo nucleophilic attack on electrophilic sites of carbonates, resulting in the irreversible formation of by-products as
238:
fibers), fashioned into cell membrane-like networks. This prevented dendrite formation. It addressed polysulfide shuttle by using ion selectivity, by integrating tiny channels into the network and adding an electrical charge.
2556:
In 2017: "can be cycled approximately 1500 times ... In the next 2 years, we expect this to reach 2500 cycles". In 2021: "Within the next two years we aim to double the current cycle life to achieve upwards of 500
3538:
Jeong, S. S.; Lim, Y.; Choi, Y. T.; Kim, K. W.; Ahn, H. J.; Cho, K. K. (2006). "Electrochemical properties of lithium sulfur cells using PEO polymer electrolytes prepared under three different mixing conditions".
193:
Li–S batteries were invented in the 1960s, when
Herbert and Ulam patented a primary battery employing lithium or lithium alloys as anodic material, sulfur as cathodic material and an electrolyte composed of
1466:
765:
2315:
kg and was said to be fully scalable. They claimed their
Lithium-Sulfur batteries would cost about $ 200/kWh in mass production. However, the firm entered bankruptcy (insolvency) status in May 2021.
988:
2762:, Nole, Dominick A. & Moss, Vladimir, "Battery employing lithium – sulphur electrodes with non-aqueous electrolyte", issued 1970-10-06, assigned to Aerojet Rocketdyne Inc
388:
In analogy with lithium batteries, the dissolution / electrodeposition reaction causes over time problems of unstable growth of the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI), generating active sites for the
2321:, which also commercialized the first lithium-ion battery, planned to introduce lithium–sulfur batteries to the market in 2020, but has provided no updates since the initial announcement in 2015.
888:
533:
173:
a Texas-based startup announced that multiple national laboratories had independently verified that its lithium-sulfur batteries based on sulfurized-carbon cathodes were polysulfide shuttle free.
1656:, which leads to the shuttle effect and results in capacity loss over time. The operating temperature and cycling rate also play significant roles in determining the lifespan of Li-S batteries.
633:
2676:
383:
176:
The competitive advantages of sulfurized-carbon cathodes (e.g., sulfurized polyacrylonitrile, also known as SPAN) were highlighted by a quantitative analysis performed by researchers at
3396:
Choi, Y. J.; Chung, Y. D.; Baek, C. Y.; Kim, K. W.; Ahn, J. H. (March 4, 2008). "Effects of carbon coating on the electrochemical properties of sulfur cathode for lithium/sulfur cell".
1931:
Solid lithium polysulfidophosphate electrolyte. Half the voltage of typical LIBs. Remaining issues include low electrolyte ionic conductivity and brittleness in the ceramic structure.
1543:. Therefore, carbonate electrolytes, which commonly react with those polysulfides, can be used instead of the rather dangerous ether based electrolytes (low flash and boiling points).
5068:
4889:
Jo, Seong-Chan; Hong, Jeong-Won; Choi, Ik-Hyeon; Kim, Min-Ju; Kim, Byung Gon; Lee, You-Jin; Choi, Hye Young; Kim, Doohun; Kim, TaeYoung; Baeg, Kang-Jun; Park, Jun-Woo (May 2022).
4944:
Wang, Peiyu; Kateris, Nikolaos; Li, Baiheng; Zhang, Yiwen; Luo, Jianmin; Wang, Chuanlong; Zhang, Yue; Jayaraman, Amitesh S.; Hu, Xiaofei; Wang, Hai; Li, Weiyang (2023-08-17).
4022:
Yu, Linghui; Ong, Samuel (2021). "The importance of the dissolution of polysulfides in lithium-sulfur batteries and a perspective on high-energy electrolyte/cathode design".
1550:/graphite batteries have a cell capacity of 100 Ah/kg). It decayed only very slowly, on average 0.04% each cycle, and retained 658 Ah/kg after 4000 cycles (82%).
794:
5304:
2567:
Diao, Yan; Xie, Kai; Xiong, Shizhao; Hong, Xiaobin (August 2013). "Shuttle phenomenon – The irreversible oxidation mechanism of sulfur active material in Li–S battery".
293:
surface, dissolution of the metallic lithium occurs, with the production of electrons and lithium ions during the discharge and electrodeposition during the charge. The
1718:
Minimal degradation during charge cycling. To retain polysulfides in the cathode, the surface was functionalized to repel (hydrophobic) polysulfides. In a test using a
4634:
2200:
An efficient and straightforward approach to prepare a covalently sulfurized graphene cathode for Li–S batteries with high sulfur content and high cycling stability.
3431:
Islam, Md
Mahbubul; Ostadhossein, Alireza; Borodin, Oleg; Yeates, A. Todd; Tipton, William W.; Hennig, Richard G.; Kumar, Nitin; Duin, Adri C. T. van (2015-01-21).
4991:
392:
and dendritic growth of lithium. Dendritic growth is responsible for the internal short circuit in lithium batteries and leads to the death of the battery itself.
5408:
2299:
models for its cells. With
Lithium Balance of Denmark they built a prototype scooter battery system primarily for the Chinese market, which had a capacity of 1.2
185:
further improve both energy density and cycle life, highlighting the importance of a proper electrolyte (i.e., stable, lightweight, and highly Li-conductive).
3576:"ReaxFF Reactive Force Field Simulations on the Influence of Teflon on Electrolyte Decomposition during Li/SWCNT Anode Discharge in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries"
2743:, Danuta, Herbert & Juliusz, Ulam, "Electric dry cells and storage batteries", issued 1962-07-10, assigned to Electric Tech Corp
5170:
4514:
4453:
3575:
4784:
5146:"Lithium Sulfur batteries will be first commercialized by 2018 in electric bikes where energy density will be improved for eventual use in electric cars"
5328:
5028:
5006:
4840:
Tantis, Iosif; Bakandritsos, Aristides; Zaoralová, Dagmar; Medveď, Miroslav; Jakubec, Petr; Havláková, Jana; Zbořil, Radek; Otyepka, Michal (2021).
3701:
Song, Min-Kyu; Cairns, Elton J.; Zhang, Yuegang (2013). "Lithium/sulfur batteries with high specific energy: old challenges and new opportunities".
4661:"Li–S battery company OXIS Energy reports 300 W⋅h/kg and 25 A⋅h cell, predicting 33 A⋅h by mid-2015, 500 W⋅h/kg by end of 2018"
1393:
4385:
5351:
5202:
3981:
2276:
As of 2021 few companies had been able to commercialize the technology on an industrial scale. Companies such as Sion Power have partnered with
1494:
are respectively the kinetic constant, specific capacity contributing to the anodic plateau, the total sulfur concentration and charge current.
4302:
3075:
2781:, Mlarur, Rao & Bhaskara, Lakshmanar, "Organic electrolyte cells", issued 1968-11-26, assigned to Duracell Inc USA
4364:
2336:
2174:
ALISE H2020 project developing a Li–S battery for cars with new components and optimized regarding anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator
170:
2621:
Wang, J; Yang, J; Xie, J; Xu, N (2002). "A novel conductive polymer–sulfur composite cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries".
5072:
3151:
Ould Ely, Teyeb; Kamzabek, Dana; Chakraborty, Dhritiman (2018-05-29). "Lithium–Sulfur
Batteries: State of the Art and Future Directions".
118:
means that Li–S batteries are relatively light (about the density of water). They were used on the longest and highest-altitude unmanned
3101:
5352:"Lyten launches San Jose pilot production for cutting-edge batteries – Company hopes lithium-sulfur batteries can revolutionize sector"
2213:
1990:
1601:
539:
Actually the sulfur reduction reaction to lithium sulphide is much more complex and involves the formation of lithium polysulphides (Li
4891:"Multimodal Capturing of Polysulfides by Phosphorus-Doped Carbon Composites for Flexible High-Energy-Density Lithium–Sulfur Batteries"
2634:
2346:
program to advance its lithium-sulfur batteries based on a sulfurized-carbon cathode and a vertically-aligned carbon nanontube anode.
2328:
In 2022, the German company Theion claimed to introduce lithium–sulfur batteries for mobile devices in 2023 and for vehicles by 2024.
3628:
Manthiram, Arumugam; Fu, Yongzhu; Chung, Sheng-Heng; Zu, Chenxi; Su, Yu-Sheng (2014-12-10). "Rechargeable
Lithium–Sulfur Batteries".
2307:
Ah Long Life cells, and weighed 60% less than lead acid batteries with a significant increase in range. They also built a 3U, 3,000
214:
yielding a 2.35–2.5 V battery. By the end of the 1980s a rechargeable Li–S battery was demonstrated employing ethers, in particular
5046:
3102:"Lithium-Sulfur Rechargeable Batteries: Characteristics, State of Development, and Applicability to Powering Portable Electronics"
639:
255:
has self-healing properties which make it possible to repair the damage caused from recharge cycling by heating the new material.
4349:
2903:
Manthiram, Arumugam; Fu, Yongzhu; Chung, Sheng-Heng; Zu, Chenxi; Su, Yu-Sheng (2014). "Rechargeable Lithium–Sulfur Batteries".
4842:"Covalently Interlinked Graphene Sheets with Sulfur-Chains Enable Superior Lithium–Sulfur Battery Cathodes at Full-Mass Level"
4613:
2477:
1879:
shell protects the sulfur-lithium intermediate from electrolyte solvent. Each cathode particle is 800 nanometers in diameter.
903:
3946:
Scheers, Johan; Fantini, Sébastien; Johansson, Patrik (June 2014). "A review of electrolytes for lithium–sulphur batteries".
3682:
3380:
2660:
2027:
1957:
1296:
One problem with the lithium–sulfur design is that when the sulfur in the cathode absorbs lithium, volume expansion of the Li
181:
2797:
Peled, E.; Gorenshtein, A.; Segal, M.; Sternberg, Y. (May 1989). "Rechargeable lithium–sulfur battery (extended abstract)".
3277:
177:
809:
426:
1597:
251:
4728:"Hierarchical Free-Standing Carbon-Nanotube Paper Electrodes with Ultrahigh Sulfur-Loading for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries"
2989:
1506:
2340:
5412:
5251:
561:
2431:
Zhang, Sheng S (2013). "Liquid electrolyte lithium/sulfur battery: Fundamental chemistry, problems, and solutions".
5145:
4726:
Yuan, Zhe; Peng, Hong-Jie; Huang, Jia-Qi; Liu, Xin-Yan; Wang, Dai-Wei; Cheng, Xin-Bing; Zhang, Qiang (2014-10-01).
4183:
5329:"Zeta Energy: Enabling Fast Charging Batteries with 3D Lithium Metal Architectures and Sulfurized Carbon Cathodes"
4515:"Lithium Polysulfidophosphates: A Family of Lithium-Conducting Sulfur-Rich Compounds for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries"
4454:"Lithium Polysulfidophosphates: A Family of Lithium-Conducting Sulfur-Rich Compounds for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries"
4209:
Rosenberg, Sarah; Hintennach (1 April 2014). "Laser-printed lithium-sulphur micro-electrodes for Li/S batteries".
3997:
303:
5447:
5442:
5225:
5177:
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Historically, the "shuttle" effect is the main cause of degradation in a Li–S battery. The lithium polysulfide Li
4553:
4492:
4134:"Hollow Carbon Nanofiber-Encapsulated Sulfur Cathodes for High Specific Capacity Rechargeable Lithium Batteries"
3798:"Stabilization of gamma sulfur at room temperature to enable the use of carbonate electrolyte in Li-S batteries"
3606:
3015:"Stabilization of gamma sulfur at room temperature to enable the use of carbonate electrolyte in Li-S batteries"
2551:
2280:
to test their lithium sulfur battery technology. Airbus Defense and Space successfully launched their prototype
5452:
5374:
5230:
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to over 1,000 cycles. One of the primary factors limiting the lifespan of Li-S batteries is the dissolution of
408:). During discharge, the lithium ions in the electrolyte migrate to the cathode where the sulfur is reduced to
3336:
Choi, Y.J.; Kim, K.W. (2008). "Improvement of cycle property of sulfur electrode for lithium/sulfur battery".
1616:
Because of the high potential energy density and the nonlinear discharge and charging response of the cell, a
164:
exploit the contribution of active mass to the capacity. Volume expansion of the sulfur cathode during S to Li
1896:
4401:"Sulphur–TiO2 yolk–shell nanoarchitecture with internal void space for long-cycle lithium–sulphur batteries"
133:
cells because of their higher energy density and reduced cost. This is due to two factors. First the use of
4279:
2939:
2080:
137:
instead of a less energy dense and more expensive substances such as cobalt and/or iron compounds found in
4244:
Vandenberg, Aurelius; Hintennach (1 April 2014). "A novel design approach for lithium-sulphur batteries".
1312:
One of the primary shortfalls of most Li–S cells is unwanted reactions with the electrolytes. While S and
2404:
2296:
2778:
2759:
2740:
5029:"Sion Power Announces Launch of its Groundbreaking Licerion Rechargeable Lithium Battery, Sion Power"
2088:
The SEI of hard-carbon prevents polysulphides deposition at anode and enables high-rate performance.
1502:
1267:
1016:
4591:
3478:
5096:"Multi-temperature state-dependent equivalent circuit discharge model for lithium-sulfur batteries"
4399:
Wei Seh, Z.; Li, W.; Cha, J. J.; Zheng, G.; Yang, Y.; McDowell, M. T.; Hsu, P. C.; Cui, Y. (2013).
2964:
2677:"Zeta Energy Receives Third-Party Verification that its Lithium-Sulfur Battery is Polysulfide Free"
2277:
4133:
2261:
to a Li–S catholyte leads to the formation of complexes that accommodate the discharge product (Li
1325:
are relatively insoluble in most electrolytes, many intermediate polysulfides are not. Dissolving
3309:
Eftekhari, A. (2017). "Cathode Materials for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: A Practical Perspective".
2288:
2258:
1948:
771:
5007:"Sion Power Delivers Next Generation Battery Performance Through Patented Licerion® Technology"
2229:
separator layer to minimize the polysulfide shuttle effect, while creating a foldable battery.
1702:
3689:
3372:
5356:
5069:"OXIS battery powers driverless vehicle for the UK Government's Smart City Gateway programme"
4890:
4660:
2378:
1824:
5107:
4412:
4314:
4305:(2013). "The use of elemental sulfur as an alternative feedstock for polymeric materials".
4148:
3955:
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3710:
3548:
3504:
3444:
3405:
3236:
2841:
2806:
2350:
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1802:
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202:. A few years later the technology was improved by the introduction of organic solvents as
99:
4815:
3225:"Lithium/sulfur batteries with high specific energy: old challenges and new opportunities"
8:
5277:
2248:
1740:
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electrolytes based on organic carbonates commonly employed in Li-ion batteries (i.e. PC,
203:
195:
138:
5111:
4416:
4318:
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4087:
4060:
3959:
3877:
3769:
3714:
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3508:
3448:
3409:
3240:
2845:
2832:
Peled, E. (1989). "Lithium-Sulfur Battery: Evaluation of Dioxolane-Based Electrolytes".
2810:
2458:
4926:
4871:
4758:
4708:
4545:
4484:
4261:
4226:
4114:"A highly ordered nanostructured carbon-sulphur cathode for lithium-sulphur batteries."
3845:
3832:
3797:
3598:
3365:
3054:
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3014:
2148:
Glass coating prevents lithium polysulfides from permanently migrating to an electrode
1880:
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207:
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British firm OXIS Energy developed prototype lithium sulfur batteries. Together with
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2500:
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1944:
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3929:
3602:
5305:"Sulfur Battery Technology Could Make Electric Cars Go Three Times Further By 2024"
5125:
5120:
5115:
5095:
4992:"Sion Power's Lithium-Sulfur Batteries Power High Altitude Pseudo-Satellite Flight"
4957:
4902:
4853:
4742:
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4529:
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2651:
Salvatierra, Rodrigo V; James, Dustin K; Tour, James M (2022). Gupta, Ram K (ed.).
2630:
2603:
2580:
2576:
2508:
2492:
2444:
2440:
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company Lyten started up a pilot production line making about 100 batteries a day.
2226:
1637:
409:
274:
3349:
1840:" on mostly sulfur with a small amount of 1,3-diisopropenylbenzene (DIB) additive
1015:
S. This contrasts with conventional lithium-ion cells, where the lithium ions are
4061:"Challenges and Solutions for Low-Temperature Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: A Review"
3885:
3672:
3076:"Healable Cathode Could Unlock Potential of Solid-state Lithium-sulfur Batteries"
1625:
1617:
1577:
103:
37:
4945:
4184:"Sulfur in hollow nanofibers overcomes challenges of lithium-ion battery design"
3796:
Pai, Rahul; Singh, Arvinder; Tang, Maureen H.; Kalra, Vibha (10 February 2022).
3287:
2888:
2871:
2718:
1636:
Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have a shorter lifespan compared to traditional
4571:"All-solid lithium-sulfur battery stores four times the energy of lithium-ions"
3814:
3031:
2332:
2129:
1940:
1589:
1286:
278:
47:
4362:
4257:
4222:
2702:
2405:"OXIS ENERGY SET TO MAKE SOLID-STATE LITHIUM-SULFUR CELL TECHNOLOGY A REALITY"
1381:< 1), evaluated by the extension of the charge voltage plateau. The factor
5436:
4969:
4914:
4867:
4754:
3893:
3823:
3730:
3649:
3493:"ReaxFF molecular dynamics simulations on lithiated sulfur cathode materials"
3433:"ReaxFF molecular dynamics simulations on lithiated sulfur cathode materials"
2726:
2525:
2370:
1837:
1719:
1581:
294:
123:
119:
107:
3998:"Lithium-Sulfur Batteries vs. Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Comparative Analysis"
5130:
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3674:
Chemically Derived Graphene: Functionalization, Properties and Applications
3657:
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2924:
2635:
10.1002/1521-4095(20020705)14:13/14<963::AID-ADMA963>3.0.CO;2-P
2504:
1723:
1649:
268:
4961:
2990:"Kevlar fibers fortify lithium-sulfur battery with 5x capacity of Li-ion"
1653:
1641:
271:
263:
Chemical processes in the Li–S cell include lithium dissolution from the
130:
4365:"World-Record Battery Performance Achieved With Egg-Like Nanostructures"
4044:
3594:
3574:
Islam, Md Mahbubul; Bryantsev, Vyacheslav S.; van Duin, Adri CT (2014).
2940:"Sugar-doped lithium sulfur battery promises up to 5 times the capacity"
420:
during the recharge phase. The semi-reaction is therefore expressed as:
5094:
Propp, K.; Marinescu, M.; Auger, D. J.; et al. (August 12, 2016).
4425:
4400:
4326:
4077:
3722:
3516:
3456:
3322:
3248:
3224:
3195:
3179:
3131:
3115:
2650:
2607:
1645:
389:
4946:"High-Performance Lithium–Sulfur Batteries via Molecular Complexation"
4160:
3778:
3641:
3203:
2916:
2853:
2496:
3395:
2547:
1815:
1722:
solvent, a traditional sulfur cathode lost 96% of its sulfur over 30
1585:
215:
145:
5378:
2162:
1788:
Microwave processing of materials and laser-printing of electrodes.
5047:"Anesco and OXIS to Release Lithium Sulfur Battery Storage by 2016"
4129:
2526:
Automotive Li-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Perspectives
1573:
1127:
149:
4614:"Hybrid anode quadruples the lifespan of lithium-sulfur batteries"
4592:"New lithium/sulfur battery doubles energy density of lithium-ion"
3479:"New lithium/sulfur battery doubles energy density of lithium-ion"
2965:"Porous battery layer pulls once-a-week EV charging a step closer"
1768:
Sulfur-coated, disordered carbon nanotubes made from carbohydrates
1584:. In Li–S batteries are conventionally employed cyclic ethers (as
1353:
coating showed improvement in the electrolyte stability, LIPON, Li
1024:
on the cathode surface in sequence while the cell is discharging:
226:
negative-to-positive capacity ratio of <5 in pouch-type cells.
26:
5278:"'World's most efficient lithium-sulphur battery' set for launch"
4839:
3677:(illustrated ed.). Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 224.
2594:
Eftekhari, Ali (2017). "The rise of lithium–selenium batteries".
2364:
1593:
1569:
1131:
401:
111:
2653:
Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Materials, Challenges and Applications
2005:). High porosity polypropylene separator. Specific energy is 500
1501:. Elemental sulfur was deposited onto the carbon substrate (cf.
31:
Working principle of lithium-sulfur battery and "shuttle" effect
5071:(press release). OXIS Energy. February 22, 2015. Archived from
2777:
2758:
2343:
2265:
S) and allow high cyclability and low temperature performance.
1350:
235:
199:
169:
retained >70% of their capacity after 1000 cycles. By 2023,
134:
115:
5093:
3430:
2796:
4363:
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (6 Posts) (2013-01-08).
1497:
In 2022, researchers reported the use of a cathode made from
1461:{\displaystyle fc={\frac {k_{\text{s}}q_{\text{up}}}{I_{c}}}}
1021:
760:{\displaystyle {\ce {Li2S8\ +\ 2Li\ ->\ Li2S6\ +\ Li2S2}}}
290:
264:
5203:"OXIS Energy Lithium-Sulfur Battery Technology Presentation"
2739:
4280:"Researchers increase lifespan of lithium-sulfur batteries"
3150:
2528:(Report). U.S. Department Of Energy. 2019-01-01. p. 26
2318:
1505:), which formed the rare and usually metastable monoclinic
1300:
S compositions occurs, and predicted volume expansion of Li
77:
2872:"Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Attaining the Critical Metrics"
2189:
4112:
Xiulei Ji, Kyu Tae Lee, and Linda F. Nazar. (17 May 2009)
2701:
Phan, An L.; Le, Phung M.L.; Wang, Chunsheng (May 2024).
2035:
Coating prevents polysulfides from destroying the anode.
1734:
Sulfur-coated, disordered carbon hollow carbon nanofibers
983:{\displaystyle {\ce {Li2S2 \ + \ 2 Li \ -> \ 2 Li2S}}}
973:
931:
918:
876:
863:
824:
753:
740:
718:
705:
667:
654:
621:
608:
576:
518:
152:, while lithium-ion batteries are in the range of 150–260
5426:
5393:
3223:
Song, Min-Kyu; Cairns, Elton J.; Zhang, Yuegang (2013).
1620:
and other safety circuitry is sometimes used along with
1546:
Its initial capacity was 800 Ah/kg (classical LiCoO
4681:
3945:
2703:"Realizing high-energy and long-life Li/SPAN batteries"
2476:
Manthiram, Arumugam; Fu, Yongzhu; Su, Yu-Sheng (2013).
5331:. United States Department of Energy. January 13, 2023
3754:"Polysulfide Shuttle Study in the Li/S Battery System"
3573:
3180:"Lithium–sulfur batteries: from liquid to solid cells"
3100:
Tudron, F.B., Akridge, J.R., and Puglisi, V.J. (2004)
2620:
2478:"Challenges and Prospects of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries"
489:
332:
1396:
906:
883:{\displaystyle {\ce {S8 \ + \ 8 Li \ -> 4 Li2S2}}}
812:
774:
642:
564:
528:{\displaystyle {\ce {S + 2Li+ + 2e- <=> Li2S}}}
429:
306:
4243:
2360:
1592:) as well as the family of glycol ethers, including
4299:
4208:
1522:without the formation of intermediate polysulfides
4943:
3627:
3371:(third ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
3364:
2902:
1460:
1360:
982:
882:
788:
759:
627:
527:
400:In Li–S batteries, energy is stored in the sulfur
377:
84:V during discharge; batteries often packaged for 3
4398:
3795:
3114:Kumar, Rudra; Liu, Jie; Hwang, Jang-Yeon (2018).
2548:"OXIS Energy's Lithium-Sulfur Battery Technology"
628:{\displaystyle {\ce {S8 \ + \ 2 Li -> Li2S8}}}
497:
496:
479:
478:
340:
339:
322:
321:
5434:
4785:"Glass coating for improved battery performance"
4725:
3751:
2566:
1726:, while the experimental cathode lost only 25%.
1644:formulations have shown potential to extend its
5343:
4350:"Radical approach to turn sulfur into polymers"
3752:Mikhaylik, Yuriy V.; Akridge, James R. (2004).
3700:
3537:
3222:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2393:
1509:allotrope. This allotrope reversibly reacts to
4508:
4447:
4347:
4132:; Seung Sae Hong; Yi Cui (14 September 2011).
3070:
3068:
1266:These reactions are analogous to those in the
553:≤ 8) at decreasing chain length according to:
5252:"Sony battery to offer 40% longer phone life"
4888:
3862:
3335:
3113:
2869:
2475:
2311:W⋅h Rack-Mounted Battery that weighed only 25
1608:as additive for lithium surface passivation.
995:The final product is actually a mixture of Li
378:{\displaystyle {\ce {Li <=> Li+ + e-}}}
4816:"Glass coating improves battery performance"
3982:"Lithium Sulfur Rechargeable Battery Safety"
3914:
2390:
1126:Across a porous diffusion separator, sulfur
5049:(press release). OXIS Energy. July 14, 2015
4384:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3065:
1011:S, due to the slow reduction kinetics at Li
3116:"Recent research trends in Li–S batteries"
2700:
2518:
2214:Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute
1991:lithium bis-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide
1711:mA⋅h/g after 20 cycles at a current of 168
25:
5129:
5119:
4857:
4424:
4086:
4076:
4043:
3831:
3813:
3777:
3362:
3308:
3040:
3030:
2887:
2865:
2863:
2655:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 241–270.
2593:
2043:Sulfur/Lithium-sulfide passivation layer
962:
946:
852:
839:
682:
591:
457:
440:
5411:. En.winston-battery.com. Archived from
4950:Journal of the American Chemical Society
3177:
2646:
2644:
2128:Glass-coated sulfur with mildly reduced
1357:N also exhibited promising performance.
277:) during discharge, and reverse lithium
4663:. Green Car Congress. November 12, 2014
4522:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
4461:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
4058:
3985:Battery Power Products & Technology
3791:
3789:
2066:Passivation layer prevents sulfur loss
1640:. Recent advancements in materials and
472:
315:
80:varies nonlinearly in the range 2.5–1.7
5435:
5349:
4813:
4782:
4611:
4182:Keller, Sarah Jane (October 4, 2011).
4181:
4175:
3995:
3941:
3939:
3758:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
3583:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
3275:
2987:
2962:
2937:
2860:
2834:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1604:in DOL:DME 1:1 vol. with 1%w/w di LiNO
129:Lithium–sulfur batteries may displace
5429:. EEMB Battery. Retrieved 2018-04-13.
5223:
4108:
4106:
4021:
3670:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3490:
3278:"Revisiting Lithium-Sulfur Batteries"
2831:
2696:
2694:
2641:
2430:
2028:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
1958:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
182:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
3786:
2870:Bhargav, Amruth; Jiarui, He (2020).
2471:
2469:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2271:
2138:University of California, Riverside
1805:for Material and Beam Technology IWS
1756:An electrolyte additive boosted the
178:University of Maryland, College Park
4246:Russian Journal of Electrochemistry
4211:Russian Journal of Electrochemistry
3936:
3012:
2109:mA·h⋅cm at a sulfur loading of 17.3
1274:very cheap, but has practically no
13:
5302:
5226:"Oxis Energy files for bankruptcy"
4612:Lavars, Nick (February 20, 2014).
4103:
3616:
3216:
3178:Lin, Zhan; Liang, Chengdu (2015).
3144:
2691:
2554:from the original on 28 June 2017.
2341:United States Department of Energy
1859:-encapsulated sulfur nanoparticles
122:aeroplane flight (at the time) by
14:
5464:
5367:
2466:
2459:"Solar plane makes record flight"
2419:
2074:Sulfur-copolymer (poly(S-co-DVB))
4995:Sion Power Company Press Release
3311:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
3184:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
3120:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
2363:
2237:Lithium thiophosphate catholyte
1696:coated, pitted mesoporous carbon
1682:Specific capacity after cycling
267:surface (and incorporation into
5321:
5296:
5270:
5244:
5231:Chemical & Engineering News
5217:
5195:
5163:
5138:
5087:
5061:
5039:
5021:
4999:
4984:
4937:
4882:
4833:
4807:
4776:
4719:
4675:
4653:
4627:
4605:
4594:. NewAtlas.com. 2 December 2013
4584:
4563:
4502:
4441:
4392:
4356:
4341:
4293:
4272:
4237:
4202:
4121:
4052:
4036:10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139013
4015:
3989:
3974:
3930:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.06.039
3908:
3856:
3745:
3694:
3664:
3567:
3531:
3484:
3471:
3424:
3389:
3356:
3338:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
3329:
3302:
3269:
3171:
3107:
3094:
3006:
2981:
2956:
2931:
2896:
2825:
2790:
2771:
2752:
2733:
2669:
2339:was awarded $ 4 million by the
2207:Sulfur-loaded carbon nanotubes
2013:W⋅h/kg at 1,500 cycles (C=1.0)
1993:(LiTFSI), and lithium nitrate (
1749:mA⋅h/g after 150 cycles (at 0.5
1600:. One common electrolyte is 1M
535:(E ° ≈ 2.15 V vs Li / Li )
416:. The sulfur is reoxidized to S
5377:. Polyplus.com. Archived from
5121:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.090
4814:Nealon, Sean (March 2, 2015).
3968:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.023
3561:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.06.108
3418:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.02.053
3276:Bullis, Kevin (May 22, 2009).
2614:
2596:Sustainable Energy & Fuels
2587:
2581:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.01.132
2560:
2540:
2451:
2445:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.102
2282:High Altitude Pseudo-Satellite
2085:400 mAh/g for 500 cycles at 3C
1553:
1442:
1429:
953:
846:
689:
595:
499:
474:
342:
317:
247:longer than 20 to 30 minutes.
218:, as the electrolyte solvent.
114:and moderate atomic weight of
1:
5350:Avalos, George (2023-06-14).
5176:. OXIS Energy. Archived from
4846:Advanced Functional Materials
4735:Advanced Functional Materials
4348:Caryl Richards (2013-04-16).
4128:Guangyuan, Zheng; Yuan Yang;
3996:Trento, Chin (Dec 27, 2023).
3980:Akridge, J.R. (October 2001)
3367:Lange's Handbook of Chemistry
3350:10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.02.098
2384:
1897:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1781:mA⋅h/g after 400 cycles (at 1
1624:to manage cell operation and
281:to the anode while charging.
242:Also in 2022, Researchers at
102:. It is notable for its high
3886:10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00221
3153:ACS Applied Energy Materials
2819:10.1016/0378-7753(89)80133-8
2325:a smartphone for five days.
2081:Chungnam National University
1966:mA·h/g at 1,500 cycles (0.05
1588:) or short-chain ethers (as
1388:is given by the expression:
258:
98:(Li–S battery) is a type of
16:Type of rechargeable battery
7:
5171:"OXIS Rack-Mounted Battery"
4990:Kopera, J (September 2014)
4783:Nealon, Sean (2015-03-03).
4573:. NewAtlas.com. 7 June 2013
4002:Stanford Advanced Materials
3491:Islam; et al. (2015).
3481:, NewAtlas, 1 December 2013
2988:Lavars, Nick (2022-01-17).
2963:Lavars, Nick (2022-02-28).
2938:Lavars, Nick (2021-09-13).
2889:10.1016/j.joule.2020.01.001
2719:10.1016/j.joule.2024.04.003
2356:
2188:CATRIN, Palacký University
1976:mA·h/g at 1,500 cycles (0.5
1872:mA⋅h/g at 1,000 cycles (0.5
1659:
1631:
789:{\displaystyle {\ce {...}}}
57:Charge/discharge efficiency
10:
5469:
5224:Scott, Alex (2021-06-26).
4509:Lin, Z.; Liu, Z.; Fu, W.;
4282:. Gizmag.com. 4 April 2013
3815:10.1038/s42004-022-00626-2
3032:10.1038/s42004-022-00626-2
2679:. PR Newswire. May 1, 2023
2457:Amos, J. (24 August 2008)
2297:equivalent-circuit-network
1919:mA·h/g at 300 cycles at 60
1905:mA·h/g at 300 cycles at 60
395:
188:
5409:"Winston Battery Limited"
5375:"PolyPlus Lithium Sulfur"
5205:. OXIS Energy. 2016-11-03
4258:10.1134/S102319351306013X
4223:10.1134/S1023193514040065
3013:Pai, Rahul (2022-02-10).
2254:1271 mA⋅h⋅g (200 cycles)
2093:Lithium sulfur batteries
1611:
1503:physical vapor deposition
72:
64:
56:
46:
36:
24:
4059:Liu, Y; Wang, T (2023).
3948:Journal of Power Sources
3802:Communications Chemistry
3104:(Tucson, AZ: Sion Power)
3019:Communications Chemistry
2799:Journal of Power Sources
2569:Journal of Power Sources
2433:Journal of Power Sources
2278:Airbus Defence and Space
2225:Uses a phosphorus-doped
2009:W⋅h/kg (initial) and 250
284:
250:In 2024, researchers at
4448:Lin, Z; Liu, Z; Fu, W;
3363:J.A. Dean, ed. (1985).
2289:Imperial College London
2259:phosphorus pentasulfide
2132:for structural support
2096:Carbon nanotube/Sulfur
1949:carboxymethyl cellulose
1765:Silicon nanowire/carbon
1626:prevent rapid discharge
5448:Metal-sulfur batteries
5443:Rechargeable batteries
4907:10.1002/smll.202200326
4859:10.1002/adfm.202101326
4747:10.1002/adfm.201401501
4697:10.1002/cssc.201802430
4635:"A whiff of brimstone"
4534:10.1002/anie.201300680
4473:10.1002/anie.201300680
3671:Zhang, Kintao (2018).
3497:Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys
3437:Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys
3165:10.1021/acsaem.7b00153
2071:Lithiated hard-carbon
1760:from 85% to over 99%.
1703:University of Waterloo
1462:
984:
884:
790:
761:
629:
529:
379:
96:lithium–sulfur battery
20:Lithium–sulfur battery
5453:Lithium-ion batteries
5357:San Jose Mercury News
4405:Nature Communications
4190:. Stanford University
2779:US patent 3413154
2760:US patent 3532543
2741:US patent 3043896
2379:List of battery types
2056:mA·h/g (1000 cycles)
1825:University of Arizona
1808:? after 1,400 cycles
1463:
1361:Polysulfide "shuttle"
1268:sodium–sulfur battery
1134:as the cell charges:
1007:S rather than pure Li
985:
885:
791:
762:
630:
530:
380:
139:lithium-ion batteries
4962:10.1021/jacs.3c05209
4513:; Liang, C. (2013).
2407:(pdf). 20 April 2021
2351:San Jose, California
2293:Cranfield University
2222:mA⋅h⋅g (100 cycles)
2197:mA⋅h⋅g (250 cycles)
2182:Sulfurized graphene
2102:Tsinghua University
1833:mA⋅h/g at 100 cycles
1803:Fraunhofer Institute
1394:
904:
895:And the final step:
810:
772:
640:
562:
427:
410:lithium sulphide (Li
304:
100:rechargeable battery
73:Nominal cell voltage
5258:. December 17, 2015
5256:Nikkei Asian Review
5112:2016JPS...328..289P
4956:(34): 18865–18876.
4452:; Liang, C (2013).
4417:2013NatCo...4.1331W
4319:2013NatCh...5..518C
4153:2011NanoL..11.4462Z
4024:Electrochimica Acta
3960:2014JPS...255..204S
3918:Electrochimica Acta
3878:2017NanoL..17.2967T
3770:2004JElS..151A1969M
3715:2013Nanos...5.2186S
3690:Extract of page 224
3636:(23): 11751–11787.
3595:10.1149/2.005408jes
3553:2007JPS...174..745J
3509:2015PCCP...17.3383I
3449:2015PCCP...17.3383I
3410:2008JPS...184..548C
3317:(34): 17734–17776.
3241:2013Nanos...5.2186S
3126:(25): 11582–11605.
2911:(23): 11751–11787.
2846:1989JElS..136.1621P
2811:1989JPS....26..269P
2249:Stanford University
2145:mA⋅h⋅g (50 cycles)
2040:Lithiated graphene
2018:Lithiated graphite
1943:nanocomposite with
1865:Stanford University
1741:Stanford University
1694:Polyethylene glycol
1666:
1276:electroconductivity
975:
933:
920:
878:
865:
826:
755:
742:
720:
707:
669:
656:
623:
610:
578:
520:
485:
328:
21:
5183:on August 26, 2018
4426:10.1038/ncomms2327
4327:10.1038/nchem.1624
4078:10.3390/ma16124359
3723:10.1039/c2nr33044j
3589:(8): E3009–E3014.
3517:10.1039/C4CP04532G
3457:10.1039/c4cp04532g
3323:10.1039/C7TA00799J
3249:10.1039/c2nr33044j
3196:10.1039/C4TA04727C
3132:10.1039/C8TA01483C
3080:US San Diego Today
2629:(13–14): 963–965.
2623:Advanced Materials
2608:10.1039/C6SE00094K
1881:Faraday efficiency
1758:faraday efficiency
1664:
1622:voltage regulators
1458:
980:
963:
921:
908:
880:
866:
853:
814:
786:
757:
743:
730:
708:
695:
657:
644:
625:
611:
598:
566:
525:
508:
504:
375:
347:
19:
5284:. January 6, 2020
5150:nextbigfuture.com
4741:(39): 6105–6112.
4641:. January 3, 2015
4528:(29): 7460–7463.
4467:(29): 7460–7463.
4161:10.1021/nl2027684
4147:(10): 4462–4467.
3779:10.1149/1.1806394
3684:978-1-78801-080-1
3642:10.1021/cr500062v
3382:978-0-07-016192-4
3290:on April 15, 2012
3283:Technology Review
2917:10.1021/cr500062v
2854:10.1149/1.2096981
2662:978-0-323-91934-0
2497:10.1021/ar300179v
2331:In January 2023,
2295:, they published
2272:Commercialization
2269:
2268:
2244:Dartmouth College
1945:styrene-butadiene
1499:carbon nanofibers
1456:
1439:
1426:
1416:
978:
966:
958:
952:
949:
942:
936:
924:
911:
869:
856:
845:
842:
835:
829:
817:
746:
733:
729:
723:
711:
698:
694:
688:
685:
678:
672:
660:
647:
614:
601:
594:
587:
581:
569:
523:
511:
506:
461:
444:
433:
367:
354:
349:
310:
297:is expressed as:
244:Drexel University
92:
91:
5460:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5404:
5402:
5401:
5389:
5387:
5386:
5362:
5361:
5347:
5341:
5340:
5338:
5336:
5325:
5319:
5318:
5316:
5315:
5300:
5294:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5274:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5248:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5238:
5221:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5199:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5188:
5182:
5175:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5157:
5142:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5123:
5100:J. Power Sources
5091:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5080:
5065:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5054:
5043:
5037:
5036:
5025:
5019:
5018:
5016:
5014:
5003:
4997:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4886:
4880:
4879:
4861:
4837:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4826:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4791:. Archived from
4780:
4774:
4773:
4771:
4765:. Archived from
4732:
4723:
4717:
4716:
4679:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4668:
4657:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4609:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4599:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4578:
4567:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4552:. Archived from
4519:
4506:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4491:. Archived from
4458:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4428:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4383:
4375:
4373:
4372:
4360:
4354:
4353:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4307:Nature Chemistry
4297:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4276:
4270:
4269:
4241:
4235:
4234:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4195:
4179:
4173:
4172:
4138:
4125:
4119:
4117:Nature Materials
4110:
4101:
4100:
4090:
4080:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4008:
3993:
3987:
3978:
3972:
3971:
3943:
3934:
3933:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3872:(5): 2967–2972.
3860:
3854:
3853:
3835:
3817:
3793:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3698:
3692:
3688:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3630:Chemical Reviews
3625:
3614:
3613:
3611:
3605:. Archived from
3580:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3541:J. Power Sources
3535:
3529:
3528:
3503:(5): 3383–3393.
3488:
3482:
3475:
3469:
3468:
3443:(5): 3383–3393.
3428:
3422:
3421:
3398:J. Power Sources
3393:
3387:
3386:
3370:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3344:(1–2): 313–316.
3333:
3327:
3326:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3286:. Archived from
3273:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3159:(5): 1783–1814.
3148:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3138:
3111:
3105:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3072:
3063:
3062:
3044:
3034:
3010:
3004:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2905:Chemical Reviews
2900:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2840:(6): 1621–1625.
2829:
2823:
2822:
2805:(3–4): 269–271.
2794:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2782:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2713:(6): 1601–1618.
2698:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2648:
2639:
2638:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2564:
2558:
2555:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2507:. Archived from
2491:(5): 1125–1134.
2482:
2473:
2464:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2428:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2401:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2227:activated carbon
2221:
2196:
2170:
2144:
2112:
2108:
2061:
2055:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1951:copolymer binder
1926:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1875:
1871:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1832:
1784:
1780:
1752:
1748:
1714:
1710:
1667:
1663:
1638:Li-ion batteries
1542:
1541:
1540:
1532:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1414:
1407:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1335:
1334:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1292:
1285:
1281:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1221:
1220:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1199:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1179:
1178:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1158:
1157:
1147:
1146:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1111:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1091:
1090:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1070:
1069:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1049:
1048:
1038:
1037:
1036:
989:
987:
986:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
964:
956:
950:
947:
940:
934:
932:
929:
922:
919:
916:
909:
889:
887:
886:
881:
879:
877:
874:
867:
864:
861:
854:
843:
840:
833:
827:
825:
822:
815:
795:
793:
792:
787:
785:
766:
764:
763:
758:
756:
754:
751:
744:
741:
738:
731:
727:
721:
719:
716:
709:
706:
703:
696:
692:
686:
683:
676:
670:
668:
665:
658:
655:
652:
645:
634:
632:
631:
626:
624:
622:
619:
612:
609:
606:
599:
592:
585:
579:
577:
574:
567:
534:
532:
531:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
509:
507:
505:
503:
502:
495:
487:
486:
484:
477:
469:
467:
466:
459:
450:
449:
442:
431:
384:
382:
381:
376:
374:
373:
372:
365:
360:
359:
352:
350:
348:
346:
345:
338:
330:
329:
327:
320:
312:
308:
155:
144:
126:in August 2008.
87:
83:
65:Cycle durability
29:
22:
18:
5468:
5467:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5433:
5432:
5418:
5416:
5407:
5399:
5397:
5392:
5384:
5382:
5373:
5370:
5365:
5348:
5344:
5334:
5332:
5327:
5326:
5322:
5313:
5311:
5303:Morris, James.
5301:
5297:
5287:
5285:
5276:
5275:
5271:
5261:
5259:
5250:
5249:
5245:
5236:
5234:
5222:
5218:
5208:
5206:
5201:
5200:
5196:
5186:
5184:
5180:
5173:
5169:
5168:
5164:
5155:
5153:
5144:
5143:
5139:
5092:
5088:
5078:
5076:
5067:
5066:
5062:
5052:
5050:
5045:
5044:
5040:
5027:
5026:
5022:
5012:
5010:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4989:
4985:
4942:
4938:
4901:(21): 2200326.
4887:
4883:
4852:(30): 2101326.
4838:
4834:
4824:
4822:
4812:
4808:
4798:
4796:
4781:
4777:
4769:
4730:
4724:
4720:
4680:
4676:
4666:
4664:
4659:
4658:
4654:
4644:
4642:
4633:
4632:
4628:
4618:
4616:
4610:
4606:
4597:
4595:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4576:
4574:
4569:
4568:
4564:
4556:
4517:
4507:
4503:
4495:
4456:
4446:
4442:
4397:
4393:
4377:
4376:
4370:
4368:
4367:. CleanTechnica
4361:
4357:
4346:
4342:
4298:
4294:
4285:
4283:
4278:
4277:
4273:
4242:
4238:
4207:
4203:
4193:
4191:
4180:
4176:
4136:
4126:
4122:
4111:
4104:
4057:
4053:
4020:
4016:
4006:
4004:
3994:
3990:
3979:
3975:
3944:
3937:
3913:
3909:
3861:
3857:
3794:
3787:
3750:
3746:
3709:(6): 2186–204.
3699:
3695:
3685:
3669:
3665:
3626:
3617:
3609:
3578:
3572:
3568:
3536:
3532:
3489:
3485:
3476:
3472:
3429:
3425:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3361:
3357:
3334:
3330:
3307:
3303:
3293:
3291:
3274:
3270:
3261:
3259:
3235:(6): 2186–204.
3221:
3217:
3208:
3206:
3176:
3172:
3149:
3145:
3136:
3134:
3112:
3108:
3099:
3095:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3073:
3066:
3011:
3007:
2998:
2996:
2986:
2982:
2973:
2971:
2961:
2957:
2948:
2946:
2936:
2932:
2901:
2897:
2868:
2861:
2830:
2826:
2795:
2791:
2784:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2738:
2734:
2699:
2692:
2682:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2649:
2642:
2619:
2615:
2592:
2588:
2565:
2561:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2531:
2529:
2524:
2523:
2519:
2511:
2480:
2474:
2467:
2456:
2452:
2429:
2420:
2410:
2408:
2403:
2402:
2391:
2387:
2369:
2362:
2359:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2274:
2264:
2219:
2194:
2168:
2142:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2059:
2053:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1873:
1869:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1830:
1782:
1778:
1750:
1746:
1712:
1708:
1662:
1634:
1618:microcontroller
1614:
1607:
1578:ethylene glycol
1556:
1549:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1492:
1482:
1475:
1450:
1446:
1436:
1432:
1423:
1419:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1356:
1344:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1303:
1299:
1290:
1283:
1279:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1061:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
972:
967:
930:
925:
917:
912:
907:
905:
902:
901:
875:
870:
862:
857:
823:
818:
813:
811:
808:
807:
775:
773:
770:
769:
752:
747:
739:
734:
717:
712:
704:
699:
666:
661:
653:
648:
643:
641:
638:
637:
620:
615:
607:
602:
575:
570:
565:
563:
560:
559:
548:
542:
517:
512:
498:
491:
490:
488:
480:
473:
471:
470:
468:
462:
458:
445:
441:
430:
428:
425:
424:
419:
413:
407:
398:
368:
364:
355:
351:
341:
334:
333:
331:
323:
316:
314:
313:
311:
307:
305:
302:
301:
287:
261:
191:
167:
153:
142:
104:specific energy
85:
81:
38:Specific energy
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5466:
5456:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5431:
5430:
5427:"EEMB Battery"
5424:
5405:
5390:
5369:
5368:External links
5366:
5364:
5363:
5342:
5320:
5295:
5269:
5243:
5216:
5194:
5162:
5137:
5086:
5060:
5038:
5020:
4998:
4983:
4936:
4881:
4832:
4806:
4775:
4772:on 2020-01-03.
4718:
4691:(2): 480–486.
4674:
4652:
4626:
4604:
4583:
4562:
4559:on 2016-09-10.
4501:
4498:on 2016-09-10.
4440:
4391:
4355:
4340:
4313:(6): 518–524.
4292:
4271:
4252:(4): 317–326.
4236:
4217:(4): 327–335.
4201:
4174:
4120:
4102:
4051:
4014:
3988:
3973:
3935:
3907:
3855:
3785:
3744:
3693:
3683:
3663:
3615:
3612:on 2019-02-21.
3566:
3547:(2): 745–750.
3530:
3483:
3477:Brian Dodson,
3470:
3423:
3404:(2): 548–552.
3388:
3381:
3355:
3328:
3301:
3268:
3215:
3170:
3143:
3106:
3093:
3082:. 6 March 2024
3064:
3005:
2980:
2955:
2930:
2895:
2882:(2): 285–291.
2859:
2824:
2789:
2770:
2751:
2732:
2690:
2668:
2661:
2640:
2613:
2586:
2559:
2539:
2517:
2514:on 2020-01-03.
2485:Acc. Chem. Res
2465:
2450:
2418:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2358:
2355:
2349:In June 2023,
2333:Houston, Texas
2273:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2252:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2234:Lithium metal
2231:
2230:
2223:
2216:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2198:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2179:Lithium metal
2176:
2175:
2172:
2165:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:graphene oxide
2126:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2015:
2014:
1999:
1986:
1960:
1955:
1952:
1941:graphene oxide
1937:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1899:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1853:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1836:Uses "inverse
1834:
1827:
1822:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1793:Silicon carbon
1790:
1789:
1786:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1743:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1716:
1705:
1700:
1697:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1661:
1658:
1633:
1630:
1613:
1610:
1605:
1582:thiocarbonates
1555:
1552:
1547:
1537:
1528:
1515:
1490:
1480:
1473:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1435:
1431:
1422:
1412:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1384:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1340:
1331:
1318:
1301:
1297:
1264:
1263:
1257:
1247:
1238:
1226:
1217:
1205:
1196:
1184:
1175:
1163:
1154:
1143:
1124:
1123:
1117:
1108:
1096:
1087:
1075:
1066:
1054:
1045:
1033:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
993:
992:
991:
990:
970:
961:
955:
945:
939:
928:
915:
893:
892:
891:
890:
873:
860:
851:
848:
838:
832:
821:
799:
798:
797:
796:
784:
781:
778:
767:
750:
737:
726:
715:
702:
691:
681:
675:
664:
651:
635:
618:
605:
597:
590:
584:
573:
544:
540:
537:
536:
515:
501:
494:
483:
476:
465:
456:
453:
448:
439:
436:
417:
411:
405:
397:
394:
386:
385:
371:
363:
358:
344:
337:
326:
319:
286:
283:
260:
257:
190:
187:
165:
90:
89:
74:
70:
69:
66:
62:
61:
58:
54:
53:
50:
48:Energy density
44:
43:
42:450 Wh/kg
40:
34:
33:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5465:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5428:
5425:
5415:on 2014-03-25
5414:
5410:
5406:
5395:
5391:
5381:on 2013-04-20
5380:
5376:
5372:
5371:
5359:
5358:
5353:
5346:
5335:September 28,
5330:
5324:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5283:
5279:
5273:
5257:
5253:
5247:
5233:
5232:
5227:
5220:
5204:
5198:
5179:
5172:
5166:
5151:
5147:
5141:
5132:
5131:10044/1/39221
5127:
5122:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5075:on 2016-04-29
5074:
5070:
5064:
5048:
5042:
5034:
5033:sionpower.com
5030:
5024:
5008:
5002:
4996:
4993:
4987:
4979:
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4959:
4955:
4951:
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4920:
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4912:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
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4885:
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4873:
4869:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4836:
4821:
4817:
4810:
4795:on 2015-03-07
4794:
4790:
4786:
4779:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
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4744:
4740:
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4706:
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4640:
4636:
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4615:
4608:
4593:
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4572:
4566:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4516:
4512:
4511:Dudney, N. J.
4505:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4451:
4444:
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4308:
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4188:Stanford News
4185:
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3999:
3992:
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3816:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3792:
3790:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3764:(11): A1969.
3763:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3740:
3736:
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3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
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3258:
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3205:
3201:
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2400:
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2376:
2372:
2371:Energy portal
2366:
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2329:
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2320:
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2250:
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2228:
2224:
2217:
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2203:
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2192:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2177:
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2164:
2161:
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2151:
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2140:
2137:
2134:
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2125:
2124:
2119:
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2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2091:
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2082:
2079:
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2070:
2069:
2065:
2063:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:February 2014
2023:
2020:
2017:
2016:
1992:
1987:
1985:
1984:C discharge)
1970:C discharge)
1961:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1838:vulcanization
1835:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1816:Copolymerized
1814:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1731:Lithium metal
1730:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1690:Lithium metal
1689:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1657:
1655:
1651:
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768:
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421:
415:
403:
393:
391:
369:
361:
356:
335:
324:
300:
299:
298:
296:
295:half-reaction
292:
282:
280:
276:
273:
270:
266:
256:
253:
248:
245:
240:
237:
231:
227:
224:
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209:
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201:
197:
186:
183:
179:
174:
172:
161:
157:
151:
147:
140:
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
120:solar-powered
117:
113:
109:
108:atomic weight
105:
101:
97:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
52:550 Wh/L
51:
49:
45:
41:
39:
35:
28:
23:
5417:. Retrieved
5413:the original
5398:. Retrieved
5396:. Sion Power
5394:"Sion Power"
5383:. Retrieved
5379:the original
5355:
5345:
5333:. Retrieved
5323:
5312:. Retrieved
5308:
5298:
5286:. Retrieved
5282:The Engineer
5281:
5272:
5260:. Retrieved
5255:
5246:
5235:. Retrieved
5229:
5219:
5207:. Retrieved
5197:
5185:. Retrieved
5178:the original
5165:
5154:. Retrieved
5152:. 2016-06-10
5149:
5140:
5103:
5099:
5089:
5077:. Retrieved
5073:the original
5063:
5051:. Retrieved
5041:
5032:
5023:
5011:. Retrieved
5009:. 2016-10-03
5001:
4994:
4986:
4953:
4949:
4939:
4898:
4894:
4884:
4849:
4845:
4835:
4823:. Retrieved
4819:
4809:
4797:. Retrieved
4793:the original
4788:
4778:
4767:the original
4738:
4734:
4721:
4688:
4684:
4677:
4665:. Retrieved
4655:
4643:. Retrieved
4638:
4629:
4617:. Retrieved
4607:
4596:. Retrieved
4586:
4575:. Retrieved
4565:
4554:the original
4525:
4521:
4504:
4493:the original
4464:
4460:
4443:
4408:
4404:
4394:
4369:. Retrieved
4358:
4343:
4310:
4306:
4295:
4284:. Retrieved
4274:
4249:
4245:
4239:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4194:February 18,
4192:. Retrieved
4187:
4177:
4144:
4141:Nano Letters
4140:
4123:
4116:
4071:(12): 4359.
4068:
4064:
4054:
4045:10356/155660
4027:
4023:
4017:
4005:. Retrieved
4001:
3991:
3984:
3976:
3951:
3947:
3921:
3917:
3910:
3869:
3866:Nano Letters
3865:
3858:
3805:
3801:
3761:
3757:
3747:
3706:
3702:
3696:
3673:
3666:
3633:
3629:
3607:the original
3586:
3582:
3569:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3500:
3496:
3486:
3473:
3440:
3436:
3426:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3366:
3358:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3292:. Retrieved
3288:the original
3281:
3271:
3260:. Retrieved
3232:
3228:
3218:
3207:. Retrieved
3187:
3183:
3173:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3135:. Retrieved
3123:
3119:
3109:
3096:
3084:. Retrieved
3079:
3022:
3018:
3008:
2997:. Retrieved
2993:
2983:
2972:. Retrieved
2968:
2958:
2947:. Retrieved
2943:
2933:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2879:
2875:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2802:
2798:
2792:
2773:
2754:
2735:
2710:
2706:
2683:September 3,
2681:. Retrieved
2671:
2652:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2542:
2530:. Retrieved
2520:
2509:the original
2488:
2484:
2461:
2453:
2436:
2432:
2409:. Retrieved
2348:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2303:kWh using 10
2286:
2275:
2247:
2057:
2049:OXIS Energy
1980:C charge / 1
1971:
1914:
1650:polysulfides
1635:
1615:
1557:
1545:
1496:
1488:
1485:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1390:
1382:
1364:
1341:
1311:
1307:
1295:
1272:
1265:
1130:form at the
1125:
1017:intercalated
994:
894:
800:
550:
545:
538:
399:
387:
288:
269:alkali metal
262:
252:UC San Diego
249:
241:
232:
228:
220:
192:
175:
162:
158:
128:
95:
93:
5106:: 289–299.
4685:ChemSusChem
4130:Judy J. Cha
3954:: 204–218.
3924:: 454–460.
2575:: 181–186.
2439:: 153–162.
2337:Zeta Energy
1699:17 May 2009
1654:electrolyte
1642:electrolyte
1554:Electrolyte
272:polysulfide
171:Zeta Energy
131:lithium-ion
68:In question
60:C/5 nominal
5437:Categories
5419:2013-04-06
5400:2013-04-06
5385:2013-04-06
5314:2022-08-28
5288:January 9,
5262:August 22,
5237:2022-08-15
5156:2017-02-02
5079:August 22,
5053:August 22,
4825:August 22,
4799:August 22,
4667:August 22,
4645:August 22,
4619:August 22,
4598:2013-12-04
4577:2013-06-13
4450:Dudney, NJ
4371:2013-06-11
4286:2013-12-04
3294:August 12,
3262:2019-07-04
3209:2019-07-04
3137:2019-07-04
2999:2022-04-07
2974:2022-03-01
2949:2021-09-20
2385:References
2032:400 cycles
1883:of 98.4%.
1646:cycle life
801:Over all:
390:nucleation
198:saturated
106:. The low
5013:4 October
4970:0002-7863
4931:247437352
4915:1613-6810
4876:234870475
4868:1616-3028
4755:1616-3028
4639:Economist
4065:Materials
3894:1530-6984
3850:246704531
3824:2399-3669
3808:(1): 17.
3731:2040-3364
3703:Nanoscale
3650:0009-2665
3229:Nanoscale
3190:(3): 18.
3059:246704531
3025:(1): 17.
2994:New Atlas
2969:New Atlas
2944:New Atlas
2727:2542-4351
2602:: 14–29.
2062:A·h/cell
1893:June 2013
1665:Research
1377:(0 < f
1289:⋅cm at 25
954:⟶
847:⟶
783:⋅
780:⋅
777:⋅
690:⟶
596:⟶
500:⇀
493:−
482:−
475:↽
464:−
370:−
343:⇀
336:−
325:−
318:↽
259:Chemistry
223:Manthiram
196:aliphatic
4978:37589666
4923:35285157
4820:phys.org
4763:97124341
4713:53771189
4705:30479038
4550:37368147
4542:23737078
4489:37368147
4481:23737078
4435:23299881
4411:: 1331.
4380:cite web
4335:23695634
4303:Pyun, J.
4266:96826100
4231:97154966
4169:21916442
4097:37374546
4088:10302741
4007:July 11,
3902:28388080
3842:36697747
3739:23397572
3658:25026475
3603:52235837
3525:25529209
3465:25529209
3257:23397572
3086:20 April
3051:36697747
2925:25026475
2552:Archived
2532:15 March
2505:23095063
2462:BBC News
2357:See also
2335:company
2153:Lithium
1673:Cathode
1660:Research
1632:Lifespan
1574:methanol
1507:γ-Sulfur
1128:polymers
221:In 2020
124:Zephyr 6
5209:May 20,
5187:May 20,
5108:Bibcode
4789:R&D
4413:Bibcode
4315:Bibcode
4149:Bibcode
3956:Bibcode
3874:Bibcode
3833:9814344
3766:Bibcode
3711:Bibcode
3549:Bibcode
3505:Bibcode
3445:Bibcode
3406:Bibcode
3237:Bibcode
3204:1185628
3042:9814344
2842:Bibcode
2807:Bibcode
2557:cycles"
2257:Adding
2171:W⋅h/kg
2156:Sulfur
1939:Sulfur-
1936:Lithium
1909:°C (0.1
1847:Porous
1679:Source
1652:in the
1570:ethanol
1132:cathode
1022:reduced
402:cathode
396:Cathode
289:At the
279:plating
189:History
156:Wh/kg.
112:lithium
78:voltage
5309:Forbes
4976:
4968:
4929:
4921:
4913:
4874:
4866:
4761:
4753:
4711:
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