List of English words of Arabic origin (A–B)

1211: 982: 436: 1131: 750: 736: 688: 600: 508: 318: 1443: 1400: 1338: 1280: 1062: 844: 799: 556: 284: 226: 126: 880: 1491: 1171: 636: 371: 1352:, a rock with a vivid blue colour, and this rock was crushed to a powder for use as a blue colourant in inks, paints, eye-makeup, etc. The word is ultimately from the place-name of a large deposit of azure-blue rock in northeastern Afghanistan ("Lajward"), which was the chief and probably the only source-place for the most-desired type of azure-blue rock in the medieval era – the type called Lazurite today. Medievally the word was also used for other types of azure-blue rock that were less costly, especially the type called Azurite today. Latin had 1465:, containing calcium compounds, sometimes formed in the stomachs of goats (and other ruminants). Today in English a bezoar is a medical and veterinary term for a ball of indigestible material that collects in the stomach and fails to pass through the intestines. Goat bezoars were recommended by medieval Arabic medical writers for use as antidotes to poisons, particularly arsenic poisons. That is how the word first entered medieval Latin medical vocabulary. 3122:, who wrote in the 3rd century AD in Greek. Diophantus's algebra book was in circulation in Arabic from the 10th century onward, and was known to Al-Karaji aka Al-Karkhi, but was not known to Al-Khwarizmi (refs below). At the time when the Latins started to learn mathematics from Al-Khwarizmi and from other Arabic sources in the 12th century, the Latins had no knowledge of the mathematics of Diophantus nor of similar other 4525:. The majority view is that the meaning of "an expense" was an expansion from "damage and damage expense", and the chronological order of the meanings in the records supports this view, and the broad meaning "an expense" was never the most commonly used meaning. On the basis of the above points, the inferential step is made that the Latinate word came or probably came from the Arabic word. 1906:= "commander" was not in use meaning a sea commander in Arabic at the time when the Latins started using the word in the sense of sea commander in the 15th through 18th centuries. This is consistent with Ménager's documentation that the word evolved as a title of governance within Norman Sicily from an original meaning of a commander on land in Norman Sicily. More on the 12th-century 2348:, which are large diving seabirds without a bucket-like beak. (These records are acknowledged by Devic (1876) and his followers). Moreover the word's early records have no highlighting of a bucket-like beak. The very earliest known record, which is in Spanish in year 1386, says "birds that maintain themselves on fish such as sea-eagles and 2477:. A century later, Vincent de Beauvais (died 1264) compiled a general-purpose encyclopedia about all subjects. He could not read Arabic and did not have any particular interest in alchemy, but for his encyclopedia he was able to copy alchemy material from several Arabic books that were available to him in Latin translation – ref: 381:), alchemy and medieval chemistry, and especially "studies about substances through which the generation of gold and silver may be artificially accomplished". In Arabic the word had its origin in a Greek alchemy word that had been in use in the early centuries AD in Alexandria in Egypt in Greek. The Arabic word entered Latin as 1113:. The generalization of the sect's nickname to the meaning of any sort of assassin happened in Italian at the start of the 14th century. The word with the generalized meaning was often used in Italian in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the mid 16th century the Italian word entered French, followed a little later by English. 4143:

city in the Hindi/Urdu-speaking area of northeast India from 1827 to 1838. She wrote about India: "The Muhammadans, both male and female, are extremely fond of perfumes of every sort and description ; and the quantity of atr of roses, atr of jasmine, atr of khas-khās, &c., that the ladies in

813:

with the same meaning as the Arabic. In the late medieval centuries the Western word took on the additional meaning of amber, from causes not understood. The two meanings – ambergris and amber – then co-existed for more than four centuries. "Ambergris" was coined to eliminate the ambiguity (the color

2647:

powders, which are powders obtained from various mineral rocks by Paracelsus, are prepared by first mechanically breaking up the mineral and then heating the mineral until it sublimates to a vapor, with "the sublimation performed by a carefully tempered fire, so that the powder of the mineral may be

3280:

plants, i.e. succulent flowering plants that grow where water is salty. The plants contain high levels of sodium. When the plants are burned, much of the sodium ends up as sodium carbonate. Another major component in the ashes is potassium carbonate, plus the ashes contained some calcium compounds,

2427:

During the early centuries AD, the Greeks in Egypt developed new alchemical and distillation methods. These were not acquired by the Late Classical Latins and they were unknown to the early medieval Latins. The later-medieval Latins acquired the methods in the 12th century from the Arabs. The Arabs

3285:

in Arabic. Making glass was the main thing the ashes were used for (also used for making soap). Non-salty-plant ashes were usable in making glass but the results were inferior. Analysis of the chemical composition of ancient glass from the Mediterranean region indicates that the ashes of glasswort

1673:

is of obscure origin. Possibly it is a Latinized form of some Arabic name but no clear precedent in Arabic has been found. In the Western European languages other than Latin, in the late medieval period, antimony is a "bookish" word arriving from the Latin. It is found in medical books and alchemy

236:), the brick. The word is in a number of medieval Arabic dictionaries meaning "brick". The Arabic dictionary of Al-Jawhari dated about year 1000 made the comment that the Arabic word had come from the Coptic language of Egypt. In European languages the early records are in medieval Spanish spelled 2090:

which is dated 1290 but most of its contents were taken from a variety of earlier sources, including 9th- and 10th-century sources. Often Ibn Manzur names his source then quotes from it. Therefore, if the reader recognizes the name of Ibn Manzur's source, a date considerably earlier than 1290 can

1257:

still have the primary meaning of "damage". The huge transformation of the meaning in English began with the practice in later medieval and early modern Western merchant-marine law contracts under which if the ship met a bad storm and some of the goods had to be thrown overboard to make the ship

5181:

discovered in madder root two distinct molecules with dye properties. The one producing a rich red he called "alizarin" and it soon entered all major European languages as a scientific word. Robiquet says in his 1826 research report: "regarding this new entity coming from the neutral-coloured

1262:. From there the word was adopted by British insurers, creditors, and merchants for talking about their losses as being spread across their whole portfolio of assets and having a mean proportion. Today's meaning developed out of that, and started in the mid-18th century, and started in English. 344:

with the same meaning. The albatrosses are large diving seabirds that are only found in the Southern Hemisphere and the Pacific Ocean regions. Beginning in the 17th century, every European language adopted "albatros" with a 'b' for these birds, the 'b' having been mobilized from Latinate

1410:) benzoin resin, literally "frankincense of Java". Benzoin is a natural resin from an Indonesian tree. Arab sea-merchants shipped it to the Middle East for sale as perfumery and incense in the later medieval centuries. It first came to Europe in the early 15th century. The European name 1505:

in soldering gold, silver and metal ornaments. The ancient Greeks and Romans used fluxing agents in metalworking, but borax was unknown to them. In medieval Europe there was no borax except as an import from Arabian lands. The Arabs imported at least part of it from India. From Arabic

4806:(as in "soup du zhour") and that is similar to the Arabic letter J (ج). But in Latin and Italian, the letter J is pronounced as a Y (as in "Yuventus"). Therefore writing Z instead of J would be somewhat more phonetic in Latin and Italian. The word is seen in Italian in 1461 spelled 1826:. In medieval Latin the word carrying the meaning of a specifically Muslim commander starts earlier than the meaning of a naval commander. The same is true in Old French. The earliest in Old French is in a well-known long ballad about war-battles between Christians and Muslims, the 1087:

era. This sect carried out assassinations against chiefs of other sects, including Crusading Christians, and the story circulated throughout Western Europe at the time (13th century and late 12th). Medievally in Latin & Italian & French, the sect was called the

1703:, an 11th-century Latin medical writer and translator whose native language was Arabic and who drew from Arabic medical sources. Many of today's etymology dictionaries suppose the name to be from Arabic and report the proposition that Constantinus took it from أبو عرق 776:

was mainly composed of sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate. The Arabs used it as an ingredient in making ink, glass and making soap. The word's early records in the West are in Latin alchemy texts in and around the early 13th century, with the same meaning as the

2687:

regarding fine powders made medievally by sublimations and calcinations. In today's English dictionaries there are a number of other words or word-meanings that originate in the writings of Paracelsus, though none are nearly so well known as alcohol: they include

1586:

and it meant a set of tables detailing movements of astronomical bodies. Namely the movements of the five then-known planets and the moon and the sun. A lot of medieval Arabic writings on astronomy exist, and they don't use a word that can be matched to the Latin

3485:

meaning amber could be brought to Latin Europe by traders from the Baltic region. But the historical records are without any evidence for that. The records just show that the Latin word began with one meaning (ambergris) and later had two meanings (ambergris and

5161:= "the juice" is very rarely or not at all used in Arabic in any sense of a dye; and (3) the way you get the dyestuff from the madder root is by drying the root, followed by milling the dried root into a powder – not by juicing or squeezing. So the Arabic verb 1181:), aubergine. The plant is native to India. It was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was introduced to the Mediterranean region by the medieval Arabs. The Arabic name entered Iberian Romance languages late medievally, producing late medieval Spanish 1638:

meaning "amalgam" is uncommon, but does exist and was used by a number of different Arabic writers. Today some English dictionaries say the Latin was from this Arabic, or probably was. But other dictionaries are unconvinced, and say the origin of the Latin is

2105:

contains much of the main contents of the medieval Arabic dictionaries in English translation. At AlWaraq.net, in addition to searchable copies of medieval Arabic dictionaries, there are searchable copies of a large number of medieval Arabic texts on various

5229:, both of which are foreign-looking in Latin. They definitely look Arabic in Latin. But no antecedent word is on record in Arabic. Thus the origin of the Latin is a puzzle. Some worthwhile information and some speculations about it are given at "Almanac" in 4924:

encompassed various salts used for various purposes, and the name often came with a qualifier attached to give more specificity. The salts included naturally occurring sodium carbonate (natron) and sodium borate (borax). On the other hand, medieval Arabic

1607:". The 19th-century Arabic-word-origin experts Engelmann & Dozy said about almanac: "To have the right to argue that it is of Arabic origin, one must first find a candidate word in Arabic" and they found none. There is a medieval Arabic المناخ 2450:, by Fuat Sezgin, year 1971 (including pages 74-76). Distillation was the most important of the chemical techniques that were known to the Greeks of Late Antiquity, and known to the medieval Arabs, and unknown to the early medieval Latins. 902:, each meaning apricot. Early spellings in English included abrecok (year 1551), abrecox (1578), apricock (1593), each meaning apricot. The letter 't' in today's English apricot has come from French. In French it starts around the 1520s as 5165:= "to squeeze" is semantically off-target, as well as being unattested in the relevant sense. Also the earliest known records are in French and it is not natural for an Arabic 'ṣ' to be converted to a French 'z' instead of a French 's' – 3481:) with the same meaning. The word did not mean amber at any time in medieval Arabic. Meanwhile in the medieval era, amber mostly came from the Baltic Sea region of northern Europe. One can imagine in the abstract that a word of the form 5259:. However, the medieval documentary evidence for this claim is extremely weak and is nothing more than a statement by a native Spanish speaker written after the word had come into use in Latin. There is no medieval attestation of 809:), meaning ambergris, i.e. a waxy material produced in the stomach of sperm whales and used historically for perfumery. From Arabic sellers of ambergris, the word passed into the Western languages in the mid-medieval centuries as 2273: 5323:, by Manfred Ullmann, Volume 2, on pages 901 and 902, year 1991, which collects examples from around a dozen different medieval Arabic texts. As an item supplementing Manfred Ullmann's collection, the Arabic dictionary of 5137:. (Today alizarin is made in pure synthetic form). Dye-making from the madder root was common in medieval and early modern Europe. The word alizari is only on record from the early 19th century. In France in year 1831 the 2092: 1104:

is surely the wordform that the Latin Crusaders borrowed in the Levant. By well-known aspects of Latin & Italian & French phonetics, it is well understood why the wordform got phonetically changed from the Arabic

466:. In Latin in the 14th and 15th centuries the sole meaning was a very fine-grained powder, made of any material. In various cases the powder was obtained by crushing, but in various other cases the powder was obtained by 4946: 389:

was strongly associated with the quest to make gold out of other metals but the scope of the word also covered the full range of what was then known about chemistry and metallurgy. Late medieval Latin had the word-forms

2252:= "seafish-catching large bird", such as pelican or cormorant or gannet bird, is presumed by everybody to be from an Arabic word. But it is not very clear what the Arabic word was. On looking at candidate words, Arabic 858:= "indigo". The indigo dye originally came from tropical India. From medieval Arabic, anil became the usual word for indigo in Portuguese and Spanish. Indigo dye was uncommon throughout Europe until the 16th century; 5335: 3982:. It is thought, but more evidence is desirable, that an improved artichoke cultivar arrived late in the medieval era and was the impetus for the spread of the new name in Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. 1258:

lighter and safer, then all merchants whose goods were on the ship were to suffer proportionately (and not whoever's goods were thrown overboard); and more generally there was to be proportionate distribution of any

3157:, with notes on its dissemination history by Thomas Heath, year 1910. In the late medieval Western languages the word "algebra" also had a medical sense, "restoration of broken body parts especially broken bones" – 1581:

This word's earliest securely dated record in the West is in Latin in 1267. A very small number of possibly a little earlier records exist but come with insecure dates. In its early records in Latin it was spelled

3735:

was a manufacturing operation of the State, and could mean working the gold and silver of the sovereign, making weapons for the sovereign's military, or constructing and equipping warships – "Dār al-Ṣināʿa" in

4496:

to be found in Latin, and (#4) a substantial number of Arabic words entered Italian, Catalan and Provençal in the 12th and 13th centuries starting as terms of Mediterranean sea-commerce, and (#5) the Arabic

3281:

plus various minor components. Medievally these plants were collected at seashores and other saline places, including desert places, and the plants were burned for their ashes, and these ashes were called

1368:

for the rocks. From the powdered rocks, azure was a color-name in all the later-medieval Western languages. Today's Russian, Ukrainian and Polish have the colour-name spelled with the letter 'L' (лазурь,

4588:. The medieval Latins adopted the word in the plural through their adoption of Arabic astrolabes, which were set up to deal with a large number of defined azimuths. For background historical context see 1886:, by Léon Robert Ménager, year 1960, 255 pages, including chapter headed "La naissance du terme "amiral" ". A 1963 book review of Ménager's book has some info about the subject of the book in English in 2123:, dated 1385-1390, which is a Latin-to-Spanish translation of the agriculture book of Palladius (lived 4th century AD). The Latin original has sun-dried bricks in Book VI section xii. Text available in 3465:. In the medieval era, ambergris mostly came from the shores of the Indian ocean (especially the western shores of India) and it was brought to the Mediterranean region by Arab traders, who called it 1212: 983: 437: 1132: 751: 737: 689: 601: 509: 319: 610:, alfalfa. The Arabic entered medieval Spanish. In medieval Spain alfalfa had a reputation as the best fodder for horses. The ancient Romans grew alfalfa but called it an entirely different name; 4684:

was also used as a polished stone uncrushed, but the powdered form had greater use. Ibn Sina (died 1037) and Abu Jaʿfar al-Ghāfiqi (died c. 1165) said the blue colourant stone known in Arabic as

1444: 1401: 1339: 1281: 1063: 845: 800: 557: 285: 227: 127: 881: 32:

The following English words have been acquired either directly from Arabic or else indirectly by passing from Arabic into other languages and then into English. Most entered one or more of the

1492: 1172: 637: 372: 2627:

One of Paracelsus's followers and advocates was Martin Ruland (died 1602). Ruland wrote a dictionary of Latin alchemy terms in which he explained Paracelsus's mindset about the semantics of

148:

at the capital city Palermo. In that year, after about 300 years of Arabic rule in Sicily, a new military governing official at Palermo was assigned as "Knight, to be for the Sicilians the

1514:

in the 12th century meaning borax for fluxing metals, and sometimes later more loosely meaning any kind of salts for fluxing metals. In medieval Arabic the usual name for borax was تنكار

5598: 5264: 4452:. See also the definition of English "average" in English dictionaries published in the early 18th century, i.e., in the time period just before the big transformation of the meaning: 5387: 5099: 4035: 2502:

Vol. 3, No. 1 (year 1998), pages 32-65, which is an historical review of the meanings of the words "alchemy" and "chemistry" in Europe up to the 18th century. Partially reiterated in

100: 4378: 482:

powders produced by sublimation & deposition were viewed as kinds of distillates, and with that mindset he extended the word's meaning to distillate of wine. "Alcohol of wine" (

3241:. In 18th-century English, Bailey's English Dictionary defined "alidada" as "the ruler or label that moves on the center of an astrolabe, quadrant, etc., and carries the sight." – 702:, pivoting arm), the rotary dial for angular positioning on the Astrolabe surveying instrument used in astronomy. The word with that meaning was used by, e.g., the astronomers 1302:

is in a set of astronomy books that took heavily from Arabic sources and again Astrolabes is the context of use. The earliest in English is in the 1390s in Geoffrey Chaucer's

862:. In English anil is a natural indigo dye or the tropical American plant it is obtained from. Aniline is a technical word in dye chemistry dating from mid-19th-century Europe. 3933:

are in authors who were located in the Far Western part of the Arabic-speaking world. The rest of the Arabic-speaking world used other words, but one of the other words was

932:

dockyard, a place for building ships and military armaments for ships, and repairing armed ships. In the later-medieval centuries the biggest such arsenal in Europe was the

924:, literally "house of manufacturing" but in practice in medieval Arabic it meant government-run manufacturing, usually for the military, most notably for the navy. In the 17: 654:", by the 9th-century mathematician Mohammed Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. This algebra book was translated to Latin twice in the 12th century. In medieval Arabic mathematics, 5435:

Constantinus Africanus writing in Latin in Italy in the late 11th century mentions two Arabic names for borage (including the usual name for borage in medieval Arabic,

1626:

This word is first seen in European languages in 13th and 14th century Latin alchemy texts, where it meant an amalgam of mercury with another metal, and it was spelled

2296:(a diving waterbird of a different class) and also means a human skin-diver. This candidate word has the problem that the phonetic alterations involved in moving from 1233:, a state of partial damage". Within the Western languages the word's history begins in medieval sea-commerce on the Mediterranean. 12th and 13th century Genoa Latin 4509:

is a suffix in Italian, and the Western word's earliest records are in Italian-speaking locales (writing in Latin). And most commentators agree that (#6) the Arabic

1418:

and the linguistic factors that caused the mutation are well understood. Among European chemists, benzoin resin was the original source for benzoic acid, which when

4243:. Despite plentiful instances in the 15th, the word is a rarity before the 15th in Spanish or Catalan. The phonetic change from /d/ to /r/ in going from the Arabic 2066:

A number of large dictionaries were written in Arabic during medieval times. Searchable copies of nearly all of the main medieval Arabic dictionaries are online at

1848:. In French, the word meaning admiral of the sea has its first known record circa 1208 in the Crusader chronicler Geoffrey of Villehardouin (died circa 1212) - 2803: 2428:

had acquired them during the early centuries after the onset of Islam (up to the 10th century) from ultimately Greek sources. The parent of the Arabic word

996:, artichoke. The word with that meaning has records in medieval Andalusi and Maghrebi Arabic, including at around year 1100. With the same meaning, Spanish 188:

at Palermo was put in charge of the navy of the Kingdom of Sicily. After that start, the use of the word to mean an Admiral of the Sea was taken up in the

4677: 4613:, a set of Spanish astronomy books commissioned by king Alfonso X of Castille, completed about 1277, consisting largely of Arabic-to-Spanish translations. 3414:. In Spanish, the first records are in Latin-to-Spanish translations about year 1500, translating Latin medical books written in Italy and France, as per 1141:), perfume, aroma. The English word came from the Hindi/Urdu-speaking area of northeast India in the late 18th century and its source was the Hindi/Urdu 2260:, to dive in water), implying a diving pelecaniform bird, is the one favored today by the dictionaries Concise OED, American Heritage, Merriam-Webster, 47: 1786: 3789: 42:

A handful of dictionaries have been used as the source for the list. Words associated with the Islamic religion are omitted; for Islamic words, see

5631: 5465:

is the preferred proposition in a majority of today's dictionaries. A large minority of dictionaries prefer the non-Arabic proposition of deriving

1953: 1917: 1657:). His spelling was "antimonium". The medieval meaning was antimony sulfide. Antimony sulfide was well known to the medieval Arabs under the names 145: 4081:

The word attar is not used in European languages other than English. An early record in English, 1792: "Roses are a great article for the famous

140:

is common in medieval Arabic as a commander on land (not sea). In medieval Latin it has lots records as a specifically Muslim military leader or

3370:), which is an Arabic-to-Latin translation with a date of late 12th or early 13th century in Latin and it is online in both Arabic and Latin at 2807: 4517:= "damage or damage expenses". A minority of commentators have been dubious about this on the grounds that the early records of Italian-Latin 3406:

in France in 1363, but that was in Latin, and the subsequent medieval translation of Chauliac's book into French did not use the Latin word –

2708:. Paracelsus was also instrumental in increasing the circulation of some words that are rarely found before he used them – an example is zinc. 5445: 894:, literally "precocious" and specifically precociously ripening peaches, i.e. apricots. The Arabic was passed onto the late medieval Spanish 2456:, by Robert James Forbes, year 1948, "Chapter II: The Alexandrian chemists" and "Chapter III: The Arabs" and "Chapter IV: The Middle Ages". 158:

is a Latin grammar suffix. This title continued in mainly non-marine use over the next century among the Latins at Palermo, usually spelled

5301:

include Partridge (1966), Raja Tazi (1998), Random House Dictionary (2001), and Etymonline.com (2010). Loss of the first 'L' in going from

5138: 2576:

meant a substance in the form of a very fine powder. A medieval use for such powder was in eye cleaning treatments for eye complaints (see

93: 86: 79: 72: 65: 2228:

Several bird-names in Spanish are established as having entered Spanish from Arabic during the medieval era. They include today's Spanish

4410:. The seaport of Genoa is the location of the earliest-known record in European languages, year 1157. A set of medieval Latin records of 2859: 4260:

The phonetic shift from -al- to -au- is common in French. French words showing this shift that have been borrowed into English include

4195:, reported by Clément-Mullet 1866, but this is probably a scribal error. The most common spelling among medieval writers was الباذنجان 2705: 2697: 2689: 2444:. Zosimos and other Alexandrian Greek alchemy writers were translated to Arabic during the early centuries of Arabic literature – ref: 1774: 3613:(died 1248) lived in both the Maghreb and Syria. He wrote that the word meant apricot in the Maghreb and a species of plum in Syria – 2701: 4721: 3044:"Robert of Chester's Latin Translation of the Algebra of Al-Khowarizmi: with an introduction, critical notes and an English version" 2693: 1719:

is weak, and Constantinus makes no mention of sweat in connection with borage, and a non-Arabic good alternative proposition exists.

2639:

is distilled wine; (3) it is an error to think of the fine powder as having been obtained by mechanical grinding; (4) Paracelsus's

1798:. Footnotes for individual words have supplementary other references. The most frequently cited of the supplementary references is 5153:. It seems that an expansion of exports of madder from the Levant to western Europe may have occurred in the early 19th century – 3407: 3090:

where Latin 'j' is pronounced 'y'. Leonardo of Pisa had been influenced by an algebra book of essentially same title in Arabic by

1971: 1861: 5318: 646:), completing, or restoring broken parts. The word's mathematical use has its earliest record in Arabic in the title of the book 328:) which literally meant "the diver", and meant birds who caught fish by diving, and sometimes meant the diving waterbirds of the 4436:. At the port of Marseille in the 1st half of the 13th century notarized commercial contracts have dozens of instances of Latin 3161:. This medical sense was entirely independent of the mathematical sense. It came from the same Arabic word by a different route. 1691:

The borage plant is native to the Mediterranean area. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans under other names. The name

3737: 2091:

often be assigned to what is said. A list giving the year of death of a number of individuals who Ibn Manzur quotes from is in

4965:" (meaning a type of salt in customary use by goldsmiths for soldering) – H. Grieb, year 2004. More examples of usage of both 4937:

in soldering metals. It seems the Arabs and Persians were introduced to it from sources in India. The Persian and Arabic name

1551:

Alizarin is a red dye with considerable commercial usage. The word's first records are in the early 19th century in France as

1245:

had the same meaning, and it begot English "averay" (1491) and English "average" (1502) with the same meaning. Today, Italian

3533:

include Al-Muqaddasi (died c. 995), Ibn al-Awwam (died c. 1200), and Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (died 1231) – citations are in

2843:, by Robert James Forbes, year 1948, including pages 36-37 for the word alembic. An example of a medieval Arabic author with 46:. Archaic and rare words are also omitted. A bigger listing including many words very rarely seen in English is available at 4890:

by R. Van Tassel, year 1973, 19 pages, has a survey of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the historical bezoars.

4453: 2352:

and other birds of the sea", and a relatively early record in Spanish at around 1440 speaks of "...pigeons and vultures and

4782:. The explanation for how the Arabic "lubān jāwī" got corrupted to the English "benzoin" is as follows, copied partly from 3200:, by R. Dozy and W.H. Engelmann, year 1869, on page 219, quotes in Arabic from Ibn Abi Al-Salt (also known as Abu Al-Salt). 3091: 2478: 2071: 1290:), the directions, the azimuths. The word was in use in medieval Arabic astronomy including with the Arabic version of the 5367: 5221:(died 1294), who lived in northern Europe (Paris) and had no knowledge of Arabic. Roger Bacon writing in Latin spelled it 4978: 4705: 4653: 3522: 703: 3978:. The NED also has the early records in English. The ancient Greeks and Romans commonly ate artichokes, as documented in 2186: 3851: 1237:

meant "damage, loss and non-normal expenses arising in connection with a merchant sea voyage"; and the same meaning for

3305: 2511: 3221:= "alidade" is in Spanish in the 1270s in a set of astronomy books that were largely derived from Arabic sources, the 956:, all meaning a shipyard and in only some cases having naval building activity. In 16th-century French and English an 570:= "cup". The earliest chemical distillations were by Greeks in Alexandria in Egypt in about the 3rd century AD. Their 5505:. This derivation is in observance of borage's hairy stems and rough-textured leaves, together with the Latin suffix 4564:. Normally, the medieval Arabic texts on astronomy use the word in the singular. For instance, the astronomy book of 3058:

and the year was 1145. Centuries later in some Latin manuscripts this particular translation carried the Latin title

2595:

on about 30 different pages, always meaning "a powder for an eyewash", involving powders of a variety of materials –

2436:= "art of alloying metals, alchemy", which was used in Greek in Alexandria in Egypt in the writings of the alchemist 1756: 1555:. The origin and early history of the French word is obscure. Questionably, it may have come from the Arabic العصارة 208:. The insertion of the letter 'd' was undoubtedly influenced by allusion to the word admire, a classical Latin word. 4727: 4492:

started in the 12th century and it started as a term of Mediterranean sea-commerce, and (#3) there is no root for

2328:

well-documented with the same meaning, which in turn, it is speculatively proposed, became Portuguese and Spanish

1040:(1542), but the etymology dictionaries unanimously say these have to be mutations of the Spanish and Italian word. 418:

were synonymous until the end of the 17th century; the meaning of each of them covered both alchemy and chemistry.

336:

meaning pelecaniform-type large diving seabird. From the Spanish, it entered English in the later 16th century as

5008: 4103:

city in the Hindi/Urdu-speaking area of northeast India and the attar is extracted by distillation. In Urdu, عطر

3814:

meaning dockyard is in Latin in the port of Genoa in 1147, Pisa 1162, Sicily 1209. Two centuries later, from the

3759:. The historian Ibn Khaldoun (died 1406) quotes an order of the Caliph Abdalmelic (died 705) to build at Tunis a 3458: 3391: 3158: 2848: 2566: 1967: 1865: 1707:= "sweat inducer", because borage leaves supposedly had a sweat-inducing effect and the word would be pronounced 5003:, and other similar, and for some late medieval Latin writers this word had the same broad meaning as in Arabic 4127:, an essential oil obtained in India from the petals of the flower, a manufacture of which the chief seat is at 3751:. Ibn Batuta (died 1369) wrote that soon after Gibraltar had been retaken by Muslims from Christians in 1333 a " 1711:

in Arabic. However, in medieval Arabic no such name is on record for borage, and phonetically the match between

5458: 3214: 2357: 4950: 3807: 3238: 2968: 2905: 2618:, written in 1543, a book which professes to explain the meanings of ambiguous and difficult medicinal terms. 471: 2988: 2596: 1844:. Two late 12th-century examples with the same meaning are cited in the dictionary of Anglo-Norman French – 40:

To qualify for this list, a word must be reported in etymology dictionaries as having descended from Arabic.

5187: 3803: 3763:

for the construction of everything necessary for the equipment and armament of seagoing vessels – noted by

3362:, by A. Vinciguerra, year 2009. Another Latin text that contains an early record of the word alkali is the 2951: 2075: 1762: 1193:, which starts in the mid-18th century and which embodies a change from al- to au- that happened in French. 5383: 5032: 5024: 5012: 4996: 4989: 4779: 4477: 4465: 4461: 4403:. Summary information about the word's early records in Italian-Latin, Italian, Catalan, and French is at 4398: 4132: 3785: 3764: 3743:, edited by P. Bearman et al., published by Brill. Al-Masudi (died 956) wrote that "Rhodes is currently a 3562: 3540: 3318:

Levey, Martin (1962). "Mediaeval Arabic Bookmaking and Its Relation to Early Chemistry and Pharmacology".

3242: 3195: 3144: 3103: 2984: 2718: 2680: 2612: 2128: 1942: 760:) , an alkaline material derived from the ashes of plants, specifically plants that grew on salty soils – 5150: 5039:. In the 16th and 17th centuries in European metallurgy literature, non-borax substances could be called 4887: 4871: 4811: 4473: 4457: 4145: 3913: 3614: 2684: 1744: 5173:

the experts Dozy & Engelmann say it looks Arabic but they can find no progenitor for it in Arabic –

5028: 4879: 4823: 3748: 3150: 1630:. It lacks a plausible origin in terms of Latin precedents. In medieval Arabic records the word الملغم 486:) has its first known record in Paracelsus. The biggest-selling English dictionary of the 18th century ( 196:, and spread throughout the Latin Mediterranean in the 13th century. Medieval Latin word-forms included 4090: 4086: 3815: 3352:(died in the 1230s), who had somewhere learned Arabic. This text is online in Latin as Appendix III of 1768: 925: 522:. That sense for the word is in medieval Arabic dictionaries. The same sense is documented for Spanish 462:(PbS) or any similar fine powder. The word with that meaning entered Latin in the 13th century spelled 189: 4665: 3894: 3756: 3301: 2852: 1536:= "powder" plus the conventional suffix -ite. "Boron" and "borate" descend from "borax". Bouquet: باقة 4397:

was first reported by Reinhart Dozy in the 19th century. Dozy's original summary is in his 1869 book

4334: 4276:, as well as aubergine. The aubergine name has been found in provincial French some centuries ago as 4207: 3641: 3286:

plants (rich in sodium carbonate) were used as an ingredient in making glass thousands of years ago;

3209:

In Latin in the mid 12th century at least one Arabic-influenced book about Astrolabe instruments has

3194:, by L. Marcel Devic, year 1876, on page 23 in footnotes, quotes in Arabic from Abu al-Wafa Buzjani. 2926: 2136: 1304: 818:

is French for grey). It wasn't until about 1700 that the ambergris meaning died out in English amber.

710:(died 1134). The word with the same meaning entered Latin in the later Middle Ages in the context of 662:

were the names of the two main preparatory steps used to solve an algebraic equation and the phrase "

5004: 4284: 3834:. This form from 14th-century Pisa looks independently influenced by direct contact with the Arabic 3545:, by W. Heyd, year 1886, Volume 2 on pages 626-629. Late medieval Spanish had the word in the forms 1501:), various salts, including borax. Borax (i.e., sodium borate) was in use medievally primarily as a 890:), apricot. Arabic is in turn traceable back to Early Byzantine Greek and thence to classical Latin 4875: 4280: 3942: 3189: 3119: 2672: 2447:

Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Band IV: Alchimie-Chemie, Botanik-Agrikultur. Bis ca. 430 H.

1882:

An in-depth treatment of the origin and early history of the Western word "admiral" is in the book

670:" came to mean "method of equation-solving". The medieval Latins borrowed the method and the names. 4225:

2545:

of antimony sulfide (stibnite) is in Spanish with date 1278 and in Latin with date 13th century –

2317: 1221:), a defect, or anything defective or damaged, including partially spoiled merchandise; and عواري 4580:(died 1040) is not an astronomy book but it is notable for containing about 90 instances of سموت 4184: 4179:

in 12th century Andalusia described how to grow the aubergine. Ibn al-Awwam spelled it البادنجان

3344:

One of the early records of "alkali" in the West is in the early 13th-century Latin alchemy text

3047: 2675:

regarding fine powders made medievally by sublimations and distillations. The same is covered in

1750: 859: 475: 3230: 2285: 1916:, by Hiroshi Takayama, year 1993. And more notes on the word's early history in the West are in 1911: 1653:(died circa 1087), who was a widely circulated medical author in later-medieval Latin (crossref 4669: 4480:. Today there is consensus that: (#1) today's English "average" descends from medieval Italian 4330:

meant "any defect, or anything defective or damaged". Some medieval Arabic dictionaries are at

3082:

where the Latin 'i' is representing Arabic letter 'j'. In year 1202 in Latin the mathematician

3066:

in the body of the text. Instead it used the Latin word "restoration" as a loan-translation of

2441: 2124: 2101: 1700: 1650: 490:) defined alcohol as "a very fine and impalpable powder, or a very pure well rectified spirit." 487: 385:

in the 12th century and was widely circulating in Latin in the 13th century. In medieval Latin

4469: 4188: 3964: 3925: 3626: 3133: 2909: 2757: 2550: 2503: 2132: 1923: 1241:

is in Marseille in 1210, Barcelona in 1258 and Florence in the late 13th. 15th-century French

300:

tales. The word is also used in the Quran in chapter 27 verse 39. It refers to a type of jinn.

5474: 5048: 4593: 4291: 3901: 3534: 2971:. In mutation from the Andalusian Arabic word, some late medieval Spanish records have it as 2967:

is. In the Arabic of Andalusia a pronunciation as AL-FASFASA has some indirect documentation

2657: 2585: 2474: 495: 5358:= "gold amalgams... silver amalgams"; and elsewhere in the same book Al-Biruni has كالملغمة 5016: 2668: 2445: 1779: 332:

class, including cormorants. From this or some other Arabic word, late medieval Spanish has

5601:, from which a conclusion is made that the medieval Latinate word did not come from Arabic. 5327:(died 1066) states: "any melting substance such as gold, etc. mixed with mercury is called 5178: 4228: 3674: 3062:. But the translation of 1145 did not carry that title originally, nor did it use the term 2437: 2269: 2039: 5354:(died 1048), in its chapter on mercury, has grammatical plural ملاغم الذهب... ملاغم الفضة 4585: 2856: 8: 5589: 5343: 5230: 4569: 4449: 4023: 3975: 3777: 3701: 3662: 3575: 3462: 3353: 3039: 2440:(4th century AD) and the Zosimos commentator Olympiodoros (5th or 6th century AD) – ref: 2391: 2281: 2157: 1620: 1611:, which would be a good fit phonetically, but it has no semantic connection to the Latin 296: 5174: 2465:

In Latin, the earliest records for the word alchemy are dated about 1140 to 1145 – ref:

2316:

is uncommon. The candidate favored by older dictionaries (including the dictionaries by

1012:(circa 1525) are phonetically close to the Arabic precedent, and so are today's Spanish 5585: 5577: 5573: 5522: 5036: 5007:

but more usually in late medieval Latin it meant a substance used as a fluxing agent –

4415: 4031: 3237:, an Arabic word, is a dial which turns and moves on the surface of an instrument." – 2992: 4341:, and some translation to English of what's in the medieval Arabic dictionaries is in 4240: 3685: 1841: 5593: 5482: 5454: 5157:. But (1) the Arabic word for madder was a completely different word; (2) the Arabic 4974: 4934: 4814:. Similarly in Italian in 1510 a traveller in the Arabian peninsula wrote "Zida" for 3411: 3071: 3055: 3051: 2304:

are irregular and unusual: In Iberian Romance loanwords from Arabic, a conversion of

1948:, translated to English by G. W. Kitchin, year 1873, on page cix. The Sicilian Latin 1899: 1828: 1502: 1462: 933: 248:, "sun-dried brick". Other cases of Arabic 't' becoming medieval Spanish 'd' include 43: 33: 4089:. The earliest known use of the wordform "attar" according to the NED is in 1798 in 3854:). The Catalan forms display contact with an Arabic form having a definite article, 2591:. A medical book translated from Arabic to Latin in the late 13th century has Latin 2332:= "a pelican with a bucket-like beak". One problem with this idea is that, although 5581: 4445: 4191:. Among copies of Ibn Al-Awwam's book there is the very unusual spelling البارنجان 3327: 3083: 2208: 1600: 1360:

for the rocks, with records starting in the 9th century. Late medieval English had

614:. The English name started in the far-west US in the mid-19th century from Spanish 101:

List of English words of Arabic origin: Addenda for certain specialist vocabularies

3371: 4338: 4211: 4112: 3645: 3399: 3287: 3127: 3111: 3102:(died 850), though Al-Khwarizmi gives signs that he did not originate it himself 2945:

appears to have been the most common name for alfalfa. For example the entry for

2930: 2863: 2838: 2562: 2451: 2277: 1419: 5253: 4568:(died 929) has the word 180 times in the singular and only once in the plural – 5541: 5043:

when they were used as fluxing agents, and borax at that time was often called

4689: 4577: 4424:

in Volume 1 pages 115-116. Many more records in medieval Latin at Genoa are at

4377:

or damage – this can be seen in the searchable collection of medieval texts at

3929:, by Felipe Maíllo Salgado year 1998. All the known medieval Arabic records of 3359: 3349: 3054:. The earliest Latin translation of the book of algebra of Al-Khwarizmi was by 1898:", by Omar Bencheikh, 5 pages, year 2003 (published by Bulletin de la SELEFA), 1795: 1540: 1518:. This name was adopted by the medieval Latins starting in the 12th century as 1313: 423: 4305: 4085:, all of which is commonly supposed to come from Bengal" in northeast India – 3992: 2410: 2194: 1781:

Arabismen im Deutschen: lexikalische Transferenzen vom Arabischen ins Deutsche

340:

with the same meaning, and it is also in Italian in the later 16th century as

5625: 5418: 5310: 5200: 4590:"Translations from Arabic Astronomy/Astrology: The Formation of Terminology" 4064: 4017: 3610: 2914: 1803: 1379: 5400: 5276: 5129:

Until the late 19th century the alizarin dye was made from the roots of the

4853: 4839: 4668:. An 11th-century book about how to make inks, written by a servant of emir 4623: 4552:

In medieval Arabic astronomy the usual word for an azimuth or direction was

4535: 4472:. Some complexities surrounding the English word's history are discussed in 3868: 3714: 3255: 3171: 3021: 2922:

is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried form –

2876: 2735: 2652:

of the powder is seen sticking to the walls of the enclosure" ; and (5) the

2524: 1528:, which is a mineral variant of borax, is descended from the medieval Latin 254: 179: 153: 5597:. Details surrounding the word's beginnings in medieval Latin are given at 5450: 5248:

is attested meaning almanac in medieval Arabic. Those dictionaries include

4900: 4176: 4136: 3755:" was established at Gibraltar as a part of military strengthening there – 3618: 3428: 3390:= "salt". Alkali is in the English language since the later 14th century – 3118:(died 1321). Al-Khwarizmi's algebraic method was the same as the method of 3115: 3099: 2897: 2820: 2656:, whether a powder or a liquid, is a purified body – ref: Martin Ruland's 2648:

liquefied as little as possible, but at the same time may ascend until the

1683: 1524: 1387: 1349: 329: 5249: 5112: 4742: 4158: 4027: 3496: 2466: 1884:

Amiratus-Aμηρας: L'Emirat et les Origines de l'Amirauté, XIe-XIIIe Siècles

5498: 5218: 5166: 5154: 5100:

English Words of Arabic Etymological Ancestry: Note #44: Borax and Tincal

4783: 4522: 4521:

have, in some cases, a meaning of "an expense" in a more general sense –

3900:

and the dictionary explains the abbreviations it uses for its sources at

3831: 3796: 3781: 3630: 3588: 3395: 3070:. Another 12th-century Latin translation of the same book, by translator 3008: 2341: 831: 707: 611: 467: 144:. A Latin record of a different kind comes from Sicily in 1072, the year 5478: 4802:. In French the letter J is pronounced not far from the neighborhood of 4404: 4119:= "perfume". In the English of India in the 19th century it was called " 3979: 2546: 2324:= "bucket of a water wheel (hopper)", which certainly became Portuguese 1845: 1298:

in the context of using Astrolabes. In the mid 13th century in Spanish,

5371: 5339: 5186:, from alizari, a term used in commerce for the entire madder root." – 4882:, by Mahmud bin Masud Imad al-Din, published in English translation in 4771: 4565: 4357:

can be naturally formed in Arabic grammar to refer to things that have

4203:

dated 1290 has the comment that the word came to Arabic from Persian –

4099:, by Thomas Pennant, which says the roses for the attar are grown near 3971: 3446: 3123: 2495: 2083: 1984: 566:), "the still" (for distilling). The Arabic root is traceable to Greek 414:

beginning in the mid 16th century. The word-forms with and without the

250: 5611: 4261: 3126:

sources. Refs: Karpinski pages 7, 19, 24, 33, 42, 65-66, 67, 159; and

2261: 2137:"Aportaciones filológicas a la documentación emilianense altomedieval" 1823: 960:

was either a naval dockyard or an arsenal, or both. In today's French

266:. The word entered English from Mexico in the 18th and 19th centuries. 200:, while in late medieval French and English the usual word-forms were 5569: 5565: 5493:= "raw hair, particularly raw hair used as wadding" (today's Italian 5351: 4606: 4273: 4269: 4232: 4140: 3980:"Plants and Progress", by Michael Decker, year 2009, on pages 201-203 3558: 3445:

Some very early records of word amber in medieval Latin are given at

3415: 3277: 3107: 3106:. Other algebra books with titles having this phrase were written by 2767: 2577: 2363: 2362:, by Maíllo Salgado, year 1998. More early records in Spanish are at 2337: 2172: 1922:, by Girolamo Caracausi, year 1150 on pages 102-105 (in Italian) and 1887: 1291: 1158: 969: 782: 761: 711: 358: 305: 258: 5083: 5023:, always meaning a fluxing agent, usually borax, not always borax – 4265: 4036:

Note #33: "Assassin" @ English Words Of Arabic Etymological Ancestry

3331: 1849: 5599:

Note #167: "Borage" @ English Words of Arabic Etymological Ancestry

5561: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5531: 5324: 5265:

English Words of Arabic Etymological Ancestry: Note #165: "Almanac"

4701: 4589: 4448:. Some information about the English word over the centuries is at 4128: 3450: 3007:

Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s;

2067: 1644: 1546: 1325: 1317: 1118: 1084: 1045: 948:. In 14th-century Italian and Italian-Latin the spellings included 765: 530:

semantically evolved in Spanish during the 14th to 16th centuries.

447: 262: 5217:

The first securely dated records of almanac in the West come from

4837:

is a Latinate and Italian suffix (descending from classical Latin

2797: 2082:

which is dated around and shortly after year 1000. The biggest is

1832:, dated circa 1100, which contains about three dozen instances of 1739:

Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales: Etymologies

1737: 1294:

instrument. It was borrowed into Latin in the mid 12th century as

5539:= "foot-sole") and it is in botanical names from Latin including 5388:

English Words of Arabic Etymological Ancestry: Note #24 "Amalgam"

4767: 4693: 4513:= "damage | relating to damage" is semantically a good match for 4100: 2900:

talks about how to cultivate alfalfa and his name for alfalfa is

1576: 1423: 1383: 1321: 1267: 1198: 1149:= "perfume", and the Persian had come medievally from the Arabic 1076: 950:

terzana, arzana, arsana, arcenatus, tersanaia, terzinaia, darsena

915: 867: 827: 675: 651: 623: 587: 543: 483: 354: 113: 4505:, as conversion of w to v was regular in Latin and Italian, and 4342: 3454: 2508:

The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 3, Early Modern Science

2374:(the waterwheel bucket) lends phonetic support to the view that 2135:. Earlier records for the word in medieval Spanish are cited in 1840:(plural) meaning exclusively a Muslim military leader on land – 1820:

amiræus, ammiratus, ammirandus, amirallus, admiratus, admiralius

1563:= "to squeeze"). A majority of today's dictionaries endorse the 964:

continues to have the same dual meanings as in the 16th century.

823: 5557: 5514: 5146: 4833:

begins in the 16th century. The appended letter 'n' in Italian

4815: 4425: 4131:", a city in the Hindi/Urdu-speaking area of northeast India – 4047: 3521:. Ibn al-Baitar (died 1248) freely intermixed both wordforms – 3191:

Dictionnaire Étymologique Des Mots Français D'Origine Orientale

2345: 2233: 1679: 1474: 1430: 1080: 1073: 723: 519: 459: 5502: 5486: 5086:. Greater details about the Portuguese origin of the wordform 4227:= "aubergine", all in 15th century Spanish texts available at 3348:, the authorship and/or translation of which is attributed to 2759:

Iberoromanische Arabismen im Bereich Urbanismus und Wohnkultur

2162:

by R. Dozy & W.H. Engelmann. 430 pages. Published in 1869.

5362:

meaning a paste consisting of cowdung and salt (where Arabic

5130: 4819: 4349:. The medieval dictionaries do not list the word-form عوارية 3539:, by Jenny Balfour-Paul, year 1997, on pages 20 and 184, and 3513:

Medieval Arabic had the word for indigo dye in the wordforms

3360:"The Ars alchemie: the first Latin text on practical alchemy" 3233:. In Latin in year 1523 an introduction to astrolabes says: " 2293: 1478: 1470: 929: 786: 772:

is obtained from glassworts". In today's terms, the medieval

271: 213: 4611:

Libros del saber de astronomía del rey Alfonso X de Castilla

4144:

a zenāna put upon their garments is quite over powering." –

3842:. In later-medieval Catalan with meaning dockyard there was 3296:= "alkali salt" was a refined product that was refined from 3223:

Libros del saber de astronomía del rey Alfonso X de Castilla

3197:

Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais dérivés de l'arabe

2159:

Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais dérivés de l'arabe

1800:

Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais dérivés de l'arabe

1790:(a.k.a. "NED") (published in pieces between 1888 and 1928), 1541:

Addendum for words that may or may not be of Arabic ancestry

4763: 4022:, by Mumtaz Ali Tajddin (1998). Additional information at: 3916:. The Andalusian Arab Ibn al-Khatīb (died 1374) spelled it 3042:. Historical information on the Latin term "algebra" is in 2603: 718:, which entered the European languages on the same pathway. 141: 5236:. In some other dictionaries it is claimed that the Latin 4331: 3638: 3134:"The Influence of Arabic Mathematics on the Medieval West" 2938: 2923: 2762:, by Y. Kiegel-Keicher, year 2005 pages 314-319. See also 2498:

by William R. Newman and Lawrence M. Principe, in journal

2268:

is a fish-catching diving bird in chapters about birds by

5338:. Ibn Sida's statement was copied into the dictionary of 4204: 2336:

has records meaning pelican, it also has records meaning

1592: 53: 4652:

is crushed to a powder to be used as a blue colourant –

4560:. The plural form was the source for the medieval Latin 4223:

15th century Spanish has instances of all the spellings

4199:(which is also today's spelling). The Arabic dictionary 3830:(later 14th century), meaning dockyard – ref: CNRTL and 3398:. The earliest French is 1509. CNRTL.fr cites a book by 2994:

Diccionari del castellà del segle XV a la Corona d'Aragó

1852:. Later in medieval French, it is commonly spelled both 1189:= "aubergine". The Catalan was the parent of the French 928:

in the 12th century the word was adopted to designate a

652:

The Compendium on Calculation by Restoring and Balancing

4373:

are frequently used when referring to things that have

3141:

Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Volume 2

2611:

is defined solely as an exceedingly fine powder in the

2512:

Etymology of chemistry : From alchemy to chemistry

1928:, by Raja Tazi, year 1998 on pages 184-186 (in German). 538:, earliest known record 1646, and French begot English. 198:

ammiratus, ammirandus, amirallus, admiratus, admiralius

5513:

in Latin means "a sort of" (examples: classical Latin

4981:. In late medieval Latin alchemy books it was spelled 3292:, by Julian Henderson, year 2013. The medieval Arabic 2896:

The 12th-century Andalusian Arabic agriculture writer

5374:(died late 10th century) says in Syriac that a ܡܠܓܡܐ 5313:

in linguistics. Documentation in medieval Arabic for

3806:. Some of those references are citing the researcher 2804:

Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales

2561:

of iron sulfide (marcasite) are in a medical book by

2491: 2489: 1902:, is primarily interested in showing that the Arabic 1736:

The dictionaries used to compile the list are these:

402:, those word-forms gave rise to the Latin word-forms 310:

The medieval Arabic source-word was probably الغطّاس

184:. In 1178 (and earlier) the person holding the title 5386:. Additional details about the medieval word are at 4139:

resided in India from 1822 to 1838 and was based at

3937:, which was obviously the parent of the Far Western 3747:

where the Byzantine Greeks build their war-ships" –

3473:) and that is the parent word of the medieval Latin 3038:

An Arabic copy of Al-Khwarizmi's algebra book is at

2139:, by Fernando García Andreva, year 2011, in journal 1096:, but by Arabic grammar this can be put in the form 768:. The dictionary of Al-Jawhari (died c. 1003) said " 4660:(so-called; pseudonymously authored) says powdered 4594:"The Treatise on the Astrolabe by Rudolf of Bruges" 4365:is a rarity or non-existent, while the forms عواري 3621:(died circa 1200) lived in the Maghreb and he said 3382:= "salt", which corresponds to the medieval Arabic 2370:(the waterwheel bucket) is certainly the parent of 5263:meaning almanac in actual Arabic. More details at 4050: : Search for words beginning with substring 3926:Los Arabismos del Castellano en la Baja Edad Media 3659:An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language 3320:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 2975:and some late medieval Catalan records have it as 2933:. In medieval Arabic another name for alfalfa was 2486: 2359:Los Arabismos del Castellano en la Baja Edad Media 2074:. One of the most esteemed of the dictionaries is 1913:The Administration of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily 170:is a Latin suffix that functions much the same as 4916: 4914: 4048:Tesoro della Lingua Italiana delle Origini (TLIO) 3970:. Instances in 16th century Italian are cited in 3838:, and not evolved out of the prior Italian-Latin 2580:). A Latin medical dictionary dated 1292 defined 2244:= "thrush and similar bird" from medieval Arabic 1972:Amiral | Admiral @ Dictionnaire du Moyen Français 1944:An etymological dictionary of the French language 1864:. The same is true in late medieval English; see 1862:Amiral | Admiral @ Dictionnaire du Moyen Français 1787:A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles 1020:. It is not clear how the word mutated to French 5623: 4113:عطر @ Platts' Urdu-English Dictionary, year 1884 2851:(flourished c. 980), whose book in Arabic is at 2153: 2151: 2149: 5232:New English Dictionary on Historical Principles 5054:(in Latin) has the definitions of that era for 4306:"Definition of aubergine | Dictionary.com" 3993:"Definition of artichoke | Dictionary.com" 3904:. The Andalusian Arab Ibn Baklarish (author of 3289:Ancient Glass: An Interdisciplinary Exploration 3129:Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists 2411:"Definition of albatross | Dictionary.com" 2397:New English Dictionary on Historical Principles 1958:, by Girolamo Caracausi, year 1983 on page 105. 1567:idea, while a minority say the connection with 936:. 12th-century Italian-Latin has the spellings 5419:"Definition of antimony | Dictionary.com" 5293:Dictionaries reporting the 13th-century Latin 5201:"Definition of alizarin | Dictionary.com" 4911: 4786:. The word is seen in Catalan in 1430 spelled 4065:"Definition of assassin | Dictionary.com" 3455:عنبر @ Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon page 2168 3394:. It is also in Italian in the 14th century – 3149:, with notes by Frederic Rosen year 1831; and 2983:meaning alfalfa (where ç = z), as reported by 2808:French National Centre for Scientific Research 2480:Les sources alchimiques de Vincent de Beauvais 2187:"Afreet | Definition of Afreet by Lexico" 854:), indigo dye. Arabic word came from Sanskrit 814:of ambergris is grey more often than not, and 648:"al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa al-muqābala" 5439:) and he does not indicate that his own name 5401:"Definition of amalgam | Dictionary.com" 5320:Wörterbuch der klassischen arabischen Sprache 5277:"Definition of almanac | Dictionary.com" 4854:"Definition of benzoin | Dictionary.com" 4624:"Definition of azimuth | Dictionary.com" 4536:"Definition of average | Dictionary.com" 4381:(book links are clickable on righthand side). 4251:is very poorly understood and not understood. 3955: 3953: 3951: 3893:) meaning artichoke are cited in Corriente's 3869:"Definition of arsenal | Dictionary.com" 3850:(references in Caracausi's book; and more in 3715:"Definition of apricot | Dictionary.com" 3256:"Definition of alidade | Dictionary.com" 3172:"Definition of algebra | Dictionary.com" 3022:"Definition of alfalfa | Dictionary.com" 2877:"Definition of alembic | Dictionary.com" 2736:"Definition of alcohol | Dictionary.com" 2525:"Definition of alchemy | Dictionary.com" 2248:= "starling bird". The late medieval Spanish 2146: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1894:. The article "Le point sur l'origine du mot 1860:, with both spellings having both meanings – 1145:= "perfume", which had come from the Persian 1092:. Medievally in Arabic texts the wordform is 5446:List of English words of Arabic origin (A–B) 5297:to be either surely or probably from Arabic 5047:, and "Arabian borax", as well as "borax" – 4901:"Definition of bezoar | Dictionary.com" 4810:(Italian i is pronounced like English ee) – 4774:(died 1368 or 1369), who said that the best 4239:. The earliest in Catalan is year 1328 says 4008: 4006: 3429:"Definition of alkali | Dictionary.com" 3094:(died 930). In Arabic mathematics the term " 2821:"Definition of alcove | Dictionary.com" 2062: 2060: 2058: 2056: 1968:Amiral | Admiral @ Middle English Dictionary 1866:Amiral | Admiral @ Middle English Dictionary 1792:An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English 1665:and well known to the Latins under the name 94:List of English words of Arabic origin (T-Z) 87:List of English words of Arabic origin (N-S) 80:List of English words of Arabic origin (K-M) 73:List of English words of Arabic origin (G-J) 66:List of English words of Arabic origin (C-F) 60:List of English words of Arabic origin (A-B) 18:List of English words of Arabic origin (A-B) 5384:ܐܦܪܘܣܠܝܢܘܢ @ Bar Bahlul column 267, line 25 5113:"Definition of borax | Dictionary.com" 4941:probably originated from a Sanskritic word 4743:"Definition of azure | Dictionary.com" 4361:, but in practice in medieval Arabic texts 4283:, in addition to the late medieval Catalan 4159:"Definition of attar | Dictionary.com" 3542:Histoire du commerce du Levant au moyen-âge 3497:"Definition of amber | Dictionary.com" 2635:is an exceedingly fine-grained powder; (2) 2483:by Sébastien Moureau, year 2012, 113 pages. 2224: 2222: 5461:). Nevertheless an Arabic source-word for 5139:official dictionary of the French language 3948: 3941:, as noted by Reinhart Dozy year 1869 and 3826:(1343) (where Italian j is pronounced y), 3798:Tesoro della Lingua Italiana delle Origini 3589:"Definition of anil | Dictionary.com" 2892: 2890: 2840:A Short History of the Art of Distillation 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2665:A Short History of the Art of Distillation 2453:A Short History of the Art of Distillation 1991: 1910:in Norman Sicily is contained in the book 1818:A set of usage examples of medieval Latin 1814: 1812: 1615:. The origin of the Latin remains obscure. 1308:, which used the word about a dozen times. 5378:of mercury with silver is called الملغمة 4389: 4387: 4003: 3372:Ref (with "alkali salt" in section G §78) 2053: 1878: 1876: 1874: 244:with the same meaning as today's Spanish 4945:meaning borax from Tibet and Cashmere – 4790:and in Catalan the definite article was 4414:at Genoa is in the downloadable lexicon 4235:. The usual in 15th century Catalan was 2219: 1532:= "borax", conjoined with ancient Greek 5632:Lists of English words of Arabic origin 5287: 5255:Französisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch 4798:and in French the definite article was 4794:. It is seen in French in 1479 spelled 4753: 4644:= "azure stone" is in the 11th-century 3074:, borrowed the Arabic term in the form 2887: 2773: 1809: 1775:Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary 1414:is a great mutation of the Arabic name 294:), an ancient demon popularized by the 146:the Latins defeated the Arabs in Sicily 14: 5624: 5356:malāghim al-dhahab... malāghim al-fida 4384: 3908:; died early 12th century) spelled it 3449:. For the word in medieval Arabic see 3098:" has its first surviving record with 2667:, by R.J. Forbes (1948), year 1970 on 2584:solely as "a powder for an eyewash" – 2320:, Skeat 1888, Weekley 1921) is Arabic 1871: 578:, which became the 12th-century Latin 54:Loanwords listed in alphabetical order 5370:. The Syriac-to-Arabic dictionary of 5244:and in particular it is claimed that 4766:in modern Arabic, but it referred to 4488:, and (#2) among the Latins the word 3810:. As reported by Pellegrini the form 3651: 3317: 2912:. The 13th-century Arabic dictionary 2510:, year 2006, pages 497-517. See also 1824:Du Cange's Glossary of Medieval Latin 1649:This word's first known record is in 474:. In the alchemy and medicine writer 178:year 1112 influenced by Latin suffix 5529:= "lead (a metal)"; classical Latin 5521:= "courageous man"; classical Latin 5149:" and flagged it as a recent word – 4640:One medieval Arabic introduction to 4592:, by Paul Kunitzsch, year 2005; and 4474:Hensleigh Wedgwood year 1882 page 11 4326:meaning "blind in one eye" and عوار 3086:wrote a chapter involving the title 2506:, by William R Newman, a chapter in 2473:by Lawrence M. Principe, year 2012, 2240:= "curlew bird" and today's Spanish 2119:meaning sun-dried bricks are in the 2022:("the paths") is always pronounced " 2010:means brick, "the brick" is written 5479:horse-hair or wool used as stuffing 5090:as a variant of the medieval Latin 4648:of Al-Biruni. Al-Biruni emphasises 3355:The Life and Legend of Michael Scot 2040:about half of the Arabic consonants 1591:. One of the words they do use is " 24: 4458:Blount's dictionary (1707 edition) 4454:Kersey-Phillips' dictionary (1706) 3457:. Early records in English are in 2683:regarding Paracelsus and on pages 2312:is very rare, and an insertion of 2191:Lexico Dictionaries | English 2115:Six instances of medieval Spanish 136:), military commander, also Emir. 25: 5643: 5487:"garment made of coarse material" 4961:and another type is "goldsmith's 4501:is phonetically a good match for 4115:. The spelling in Hindi is इत्र 3961:alcachofa | carchofa | alcarchofa 3793:by Girolamo Caracausi (year 1983) 3661:, by Walter W. Skeat, year 1888. 3374:. Those two Latin texts speak of 3146:The Algebra of Mohammed ben Musa 2679:, by E.J. Holmyard, year 1931 on 2042:. In front of the other half the 2034:". This pronunciation applies to 1757:Concise Oxford English Dictionary 5019:. Later-medieval Latin also had 4880:"A Treatise on the Bezoar Stone" 4556:and the plural form of this was 4420:, by Sergio Aprosio, year 2001, 3757:Ibn Batuta's 14th-century Arabic 3629:. In the medieval dictionary of 1892:, Vol 38 number 2, pages 371-373 1559:= "the juice" (from Arabic root 544:alembic (distillation apparatus) 5604: 5429: 5411: 5393: 5269: 5211: 5193: 5182:substance, we propose the name 5123: 5105: 5077: 4893: 4864: 4846: 4825:Travels of Ludovico di Varthema 4735: 4711: 4634: 4616: 4599: 4546: 4528: 4478:Walter Skeat year 1888 page 781 4316: 4298: 4254: 4217: 4169: 4151: 4075: 4057: 4041: 3985: 3896:A Dictionary of Andalusi Arabic 3879: 3861: 3770: 3749:Al-Masudi's 10th-century Arabic 3725: 3707: 3694: 3668: 3599: 3581: 3568: 3507: 3489: 3439: 3421: 3338: 3311: 3266: 3248: 3203: 3182: 3164: 3032: 3014: 3001: 2949:in the 11th-century dictionary 2869: 2849:Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi 2831: 2813: 2746: 2728: 2711: 2621: 2535: 2517: 2459: 2421: 2403: 2385: 2201: 2179: 2165: 1522:with the same meaning. Today's 1028:(circa 1550), northern Italian 4872:Yule & Burnell (year 1903) 4770:in the medieval travel writer 4596:, by Richard Lorch, year 1999. 3968:, by Maíllo Salgado, year 1998 3364:Liber de Aluminibus et Salibus 3358:and some of its history is in 2504:"From Alchemy to 'Chymistry' " 2141:Archivo de Filología Aragonesa 2109: 1977: 1961: 1931: 1730: 1072:), an Arabic nickname for the 574:became the 9th-century Arabic 398:= "alchemist". By deletion of 13: 1: 5169:. Regarding the Spanish word 4949:. The medieval Arabic writer 4233:Corpus Diacrónico del Español 4133:Yule & Burnell, year 1903 4032:assassino @ TLIO (in Italian) 3840:darsena | arsana | tarsanatus 3808:it:Giovan Battista Pellegrini 3791:Arabismi Medievali di Sicilia 3416:Corpus Diacrónico del Español 2806:(CNRTL) is a division of the 2768:Corpus Diacrónico del Español 2671:regarding Paracelsus, and on 2256:= "the diver" (from verb غطس 1955:Arabismi Medievali di Sicilia 1919:Arabismi Medievali di Sicilia 5317:= "amalgam" is presented in 4876:Devic (year 1876)(in French) 4654:ref (page 115 and elsewhere) 4607:açumut + açumuth @ CORDE RAE 3959:Early records in Spanish of 3060:Liber Algebrae et Almucabola 2076:Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari 2014:but universally pronounced " 1784:, by Raja Tazi (year 1998), 1763:American Heritage Dictionary 1723: 1699:. The name is first seen in 1697:borago | borrago | borragine 472:sublimation & deposition 7: 5336:لغم @ Ibn Sīda's dictionary 5309:(if it occurred) is called 5175:Ref: (year 1869) (page 144) 5094:, from the medieval Arabic 4706:ref (page 755 and page 225) 4107:= "perfume", and also عطار 3963:= "artichoke" are cited in 2236:bird" from medieval Arabic 1985:"The definition of admiral" 1745:Online Etymology Dictionary 10: 5648: 5612:"The definition of borage" 5188:Ref: (year 1826)(page 411) 5049:Martin Ruland's year 1612 4973:in medieval Arabic are in 4929:meant specifically borax. 4676:as a blue ink colourant – 4470:Martin's dictionary (1749) 4466:Bailey's dictionary (1726) 4462:Hatton's dictionary (1712) 4123:, or by imperfect purists 3818:in Italian comes the form 3229:is a very frequent word – 3132:volume 1 (year 2005); and 3108:Al-Karaji a.k.a. Al-Karkhi 3092:Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam 2500:Early Science and Medicine 2018:". Similarly, the written 1769:Collins English Dictionary 1669:. The medieval Latin name 1185:= "aubergine" and Catalan 926:Italian maritime republics 190:maritime republic of Genoa 5366:= "-like" = "sort of") – 5021:tincar | atincar | tinkar 4884:Annals of Medical History 4718:Middle English Dictionary 4656:. The 9th-century Arabic 4428:, usually in the plurals 4175:A book on agriculture by 2643:powders, synonymous with 2173:"The definition of adobe" 2143:, Volume 67, on page 248. 2006:= "the". In Arabic where 1510:, Latin adopted the name 1305:Treatise on the Astrolabe 1024:(1538), northern Italian 36:before entering English. 4953:(died c. 930) said that 4933:was used primarily as a 4664:is used as eye makeup – 4609:, which quotes from the 4322:Medieval Arabic had عور 4189:Clément-Mullet year 1866 3639:ref: برقوق @ Baheth.info 3574:"Anil" and "Aniline" in 3536:Indigo in the Arab World 3525:. Users of the wordform 3120:Diophantus of Alexandria 3050:, 200 pages, year 1915; 2862:17 December 2007 at the 2598:De Simplicibus Medicinis 2340:and in the 16th century 1667:stibi | stibium | stimmi 1032:(16th century), English 746:) or قلويِّ | Qoulawi ( 446:), very finely powdered 5499:borra @ TLIO.ovi.cnr.it 5475:"coarse wool, stuffing" 5348:Book of Precious Stones 4812:Yule & Burnell 1903 4658:Stone Book of Aristotle 4646:Book of Precious Stones 4337:29 October 2013 at the 4210:29 October 2013 at the 4205:الباذنجان @ Baheth.info 4019:History of the Ismailis 3914:Reinhart Dozy year 1869 3765:Engelmann and Dozy 1869 3644:29 October 2013 at the 3368:Book of Alums and Salts 3048:Louis Charles Karpinski 2929:29 October 2013 at the 2600:by Serapion the Younger 2496:"Alchemy vs. Chemistry" 2213:www.merriam-webster.com 1751:Random House Dictionary 1695:is from medieval Latin 1229:) = "of or relating to 476:Theophrastus Paracelsus 4818:and wrote "Azami" for 4345:Arabic-English Lexicon 4111:= "perfume"; see e.g. 4092:The view of Hindoostan 4016:" is §610 of the book 3943:Marcel Devic year 1876 3739:Encyclopaedia of Islam 3682:@ HispanicSeminary.org 3396:ref: TLIO (in Italian) 3096:al-jabr wa al-muqābala 3088:Aljebra et Almuchabala 2471:The Secrets of Alchemy 2432:was a Late Greek word 2102:Arabic-English Lexicon 2095:Arabic-English Lexicon 2030:is always pronounced " 1952:year 1113 is cited in 1925:Arabismen im Deutschen 1701:Constantinus Africanus 1651:Constantinus Africanus 1079:religious sect in the 1000:(circa 1400), Spanish 27:List Knowledge article 5509:appended. The suffix 4696:) is inferior to the 4523:see TLIO (in Italian) 4426:StoriaPatriaGenova.it 4393:The Arabic origin of 4347:, pages 2193 and 2195 4012:"Genesis of the word 3788:. More in Italian at 3776:English "arsenal" in 3609:means plum nowadays. 3557:(1250; 1300; 1501) – 3447:"ambre #2" @ CNRTL.fr 3346:Liber Luminis Luminum 3104:(ref, pages viii - x) 2378:can be the parent of 2209:"Definition of AFRIT" 1090:Assissini | Assassini 860:history of indigo dye 48:Wiktionary dictionary 5443:is an Arabic name. ( 5179:Pierre Jean Robiquet 5145:as "madder from the 4886:year 1935, 8 pages. 4778:came from Sumatra – 4678:ref (on pages 29–30) 4440:(ablative plural of 3972:artichaut @ CNRTL.fr 3898:, year 1997 page 153 3885:Medieval records of 3780:. More in French at 3615:ref: Dozy, year 1869 3412:ref: French Chauliac 2963:without saying what 2959:is another word for 2802:in French language. 2557:of eggshells and an 2270:Ahmad al-Qalqashandi 2099:(year 1863). Lane's 2097:, volume 1, page xxx 1373: 704:Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī 192:starting in 1195 as 107: 5497:means "wadding") – 5489:; medieval Italian 5441:borrago | borragine 5344:لغم @ Lisan al-Arab 5177:. In 1826, chemist 4947:H. Grieb, year 2004 4827:(page 7 footnote 3) 4444:), as published in 4028:assassin @ CNRTL.fr 3931:kharshuf | khurshuf 3887:kharshuf | kharshūf 3804:Raja Tazi year 1998 3802:. And in German at 3300:= "alkali ashes" – 3110:(died circa 1029), 2989:Corriente year 2008 2924:فصفصة @ Baheth.info 2799:CNRTL.fr Etymologie 2677:Makers of Chemistry 2631:. Ruland said: (1) 2565:in Latin in 1363 – 2467:Alchimie @ CNRTL.fr 2442:Liddell-Scott-Jones 2288:. In modern Arabic 2282:Zakariya al-Qazwini 2264:, and some others. 2133:English translation 952:, and 15th-century 650:, translatable as " 394:= "alchemical" and 297:1001 Arabian Nights 166:in year 1113 where 5523:plumbago (mineral) 5423:www.dictionary.com 5405:www.dictionary.com 5281:www.dictionary.com 5205:www.dictionary.com 5131:madder plant, aka 5117:www.dictionary.com 4905:www.dictionary.com 4858:www.dictionary.com 4784:Benjoin @ CNRTL.fr 4747:www.dictionary.com 4700:stone (interpret: 4628:www.dictionary.com 4540:www.dictionary.com 4446:Blancard year 1884 4417:Vocabolario Ligure 4310:www.dictionary.com 4185:Banqueri year 1802 4163:www.dictionary.com 4096:Eastern Hindoostan 4069:www.dictionary.com 3997:www.dictionary.com 3873:www.dictionary.com 3719:www.dictionary.com 3593:www.dictionary.com 3553:(1250; 1482), and 3501:www.dictionary.com 3451:عنبر @ Baheth.info 3433:www.dictionary.com 3276:was obtained from 3260:www.dictionary.com 3176:www.dictionary.com 3026:www.dictionary.com 3009:history of alfalfa 2881:www.dictionary.com 2825:www.dictionary.com 2740:www.dictionary.com 2721:English Dictionary 2587:Synonyma Medicinae 2529:www.dictionary.com 2415:www.dictionary.com 1687:(botanical family) 1599:" and another is " 1461:), a type of hard 1326:lazulite (mineral) 1318:lazurite (mineral) 1016:, today's Italian 612:history of alfalfa 518:), vault, dome or 5382:in Arabic – ref: 5240:came from Arabic 5084:Tincal @ CNRTL.fr 5051:Lexicon Alchemiae 4584:= "directions" – 4117:ittr | itr | itra 3923:, as reported in 3912:, as reported in 3902:pages xiii - xvii 3816:port city of Pisa 3523:ref (on page 866) 3143:(year 1996); and 3114:(died 1123), and 3072:Gerard of Cremona 3056:Robert of Chester 2939:قتت @ Baheth.info 2663:. Reference also 2659:Lexicon alchemiae 2606: 2589:by Simon of Genoa 2574:alcohol | alcofol 2572:. In these cases 2434:chemeia | chumeia 2121:Libro de Palladio 1937:The Latin suffix 1829:Chanson de Roland 1332:lāzward | lāzūard 1322:azurite (mineral) 934:Arsenal of Venice 730:al-qalī | al-qilī 478:(died 1541), the 44:Glossary of Islam 34:Romance languages 16:(Redirected from 5639: 5616: 5615: 5608: 5602: 5503:borra @ ETIMO.it 5483:"shaggy garment" 5433: 5427: 5426: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5397: 5391: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5273: 5267: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5197: 5191: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5109: 5103: 5081: 5075: 5045:tincar | atincar 4920:Medieval Arabic 4918: 4909: 4908: 4897: 4891: 4868: 4862: 4861: 4850: 4844: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4739: 4733: 4715: 4709: 4672:, uses powdered 4638: 4632: 4631: 4620: 4614: 4603: 4597: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4532: 4526: 4391: 4382: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4302: 4296: 4258: 4252: 4229:HispanicSeminary 4221: 4215: 4183:= "aubergine" – 4173: 4167: 4166: 4155: 4149: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4061: 4055: 4045: 4039: 4010: 4001: 4000: 3989: 3983: 3957: 3946: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3865: 3859: 3822:(date 1313-23), 3774: 3768: 3731:Medieval Arabic 3729: 3723: 3722: 3711: 3705: 3698: 3692: 3689:@ Diccionari.cat 3672: 3666: 3655: 3649: 3637:is an apricot – 3625:means apricot – 3603: 3597: 3596: 3585: 3579: 3572: 3566: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3493: 3487: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3425: 3419: 3342: 3336: 3335: 3315: 3309: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3252: 3246: 3207: 3201: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3168: 3162: 3136:by André Allard 3084:Leonardo of Pisa 3036: 3030: 3029: 3018: 3012: 3005: 2999: 2894: 2885: 2884: 2873: 2867: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2817: 2811: 2796:More details at 2794: 2771: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2732: 2726: 2715: 2709: 2654:alcool | alcohol 2625: 2619: 2616:of Pseudo-Mesuae 2602: 2539: 2533: 2532: 2521: 2515: 2493: 2484: 2463: 2457: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2407: 2401: 2389: 2383: 2366:. The fact that 2280:(died 1229) and 2226: 2217: 2216: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2197:on 5 March 2021. 2193:. Archived from 2183: 2177: 2176: 2169: 2163: 2155: 2144: 2125:medieval Spanish 2113: 2107: 2064: 2051: 2000: 1989: 1988: 1981: 1975: 1965: 1959: 1941:is discussed in 1935: 1929: 1880: 1869: 1816: 1807: 1734: 1520:tincar | atincar 1500: 1499: 1498: 1497: 1495: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1409: 1408: 1407: 1406: 1404: 1348:), lazurite and 1347: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1342: 1300:açumut | açumuth 1289: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1284: 1220: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1215: 1180: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1175: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1135: 1119:attar (of roses) 1109:to the Latinate 1071: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1066: 1036:(1531), English 1008:(1423), Italian 1004:(1423), Spanish 991: 990: 989: 988: 986: 910:meaning apricot. 889: 888: 887: 886: 884: 853: 852: 851: 850: 848: 808: 807: 806: 805: 803: 759: 758: 757: 756: 754: 745: 744: 743: 742: 740: 697: 696: 695: 694: 692: 645: 644: 643: 642: 640: 609: 608: 607: 606: 604: 565: 564: 563: 562: 560: 517: 516: 515: 514: 512: 445: 444: 443: 442: 440: 380: 379: 378: 377: 375: 327: 326: 325: 324: 322: 293: 292: 291: 290: 288: 235: 234: 233: 232: 230: 135: 134: 133: 132: 130: 21: 5647: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5637: 5636: 5622: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5610: 5609: 5605: 5434: 5430: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5399: 5398: 5394: 5330: 5292: 5288: 5275: 5274: 5270: 5216: 5212: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5133:Rubia tinctorum 5128: 5124: 5111: 5110: 5106: 5082: 5078: 4957:is one type of 4919: 4912: 4899: 4898: 4894: 4874:. "Bezoard" in 4869: 4865: 4852: 4851: 4847: 4780:Dozy, year 1869 4758: 4754: 4741: 4740: 4736: 4716: 4712: 4686:hajar al-armenī 4639: 4635: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4604: 4600: 4551: 4547: 4534: 4533: 4529: 4450:NED (year 1888) 4392: 4385: 4339:Wayback Machine 4321: 4317: 4304: 4303: 4299: 4259: 4255: 4247:to the Spanish 4222: 4218: 4212:Wayback Machine 4174: 4170: 4157: 4156: 4152: 4080: 4076: 4063: 4062: 4058: 4046: 4042: 4011: 4004: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3976:artichoke @ NED 3958: 3949: 3919: 3884: 3880: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3778:NED (year 1888) 3775: 3771: 3730: 3726: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3702:NED (year 1888) 3699: 3695: 3673: 3669: 3656: 3652: 3646:Wayback Machine 3604: 3600: 3587: 3586: 3582: 3576:NED (year 1888) 3573: 3569: 3512: 3508: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3444: 3440: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3402:using the word 3400:Guy de Chauliac 3343: 3339: 3332:10.2307/1005932 3316: 3312: 3271: 3267: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3208: 3204: 3187: 3183: 3170: 3169: 3165: 3112:Umar al-Khayyam 3037: 3033: 3020: 3019: 3015: 3006: 3002: 2931:Wayback Machine 2895: 2888: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2864:Wayback Machine 2847:= "alembic" is 2836: 2832: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2795: 2774: 2751: 2747: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2716: 2712: 2626: 2622: 2563:Guy de Chauliac 2540: 2536: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2494: 2487: 2464: 2460: 2426: 2422: 2409: 2408: 2404: 2390: 2386: 2278:Yaqut al-Hamawi 2227: 2220: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2156: 2147: 2114: 2110: 2088:"Lisan Al-Arab" 2065: 2054: 2001: 1992: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1966: 1962: 1946:, by A. Brachet 1936: 1932: 1881: 1872: 1817: 1810: 1802:(year 1869) by 1794:(year 1921) by 1735: 1731: 1726: 1543: 1512:borax | baurach 1493: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1397: 1376: 1340: 1337: 1336: 1335: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1277: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1128: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1059: 984: 981: 980: 979: 882: 879: 878: 877: 846: 843: 842: 841: 801: 798: 797: 796: 752: 749: 748: 747: 738: 735: 734: 733: 706:(died 998) and 690: 687: 686: 685: 638: 635: 634: 633: 602: 599: 598: 597: 558: 555: 554: 553: 510: 507: 506: 505: 457: 453: 438: 435: 434: 433: 373: 370: 369: 368: 320: 317: 316: 315: 286: 283: 282: 281: 228: 225: 224: 223: 220:al-tūb | at-tūb 128: 125: 124: 123: 110: 56: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5645: 5635: 5634: 5618: 5617: 5603: 5428: 5410: 5392: 5342:(died 1312) – 5328: 5286: 5268: 5210: 5192: 5122: 5104: 5076: 4910: 4892: 4863: 4845: 4752: 4734: 4720:, entries for 4710: 4692:) (interpret: 4690:Armenian stone 4633: 4615: 4598: 4578:Ibn al-Haytham 4574:Book of Optics 4545: 4527: 4511:ʿawār | ʿawārī 4499:ʿawār | ʿawārī 4383: 4315: 4297: 4253: 4241:Diccionari.cat 4216: 4168: 4150: 4125:Attar of Roses 4074: 4056: 4040: 4024:assassin @ NED 4002: 3984: 3947: 3917: 3878: 3860: 3786:Dozy year 1869 3769: 3724: 3706: 3693: 3667: 3650: 3598: 3580: 3567: 3506: 3488: 3438: 3420: 3350:Michael Scotus 3337: 3310: 3265: 3247: 3213:= "alidade" – 3202: 3181: 3163: 3031: 3013: 3000: 2985:Dozy year 1869 2886: 2868: 2830: 2812: 2772: 2745: 2727: 2710: 2673:numerous pages 2620: 2551:Raja Tazi 1998 2534: 2516: 2485: 2475:on pages 51-53 2458: 2420: 2402: 2384: 2218: 2200: 2178: 2164: 2145: 2129:original Latin 2108: 2052: 2046:is pronounced 2026:". Similarly, 1990: 1976: 1960: 1939:-aldus | -aldi 1930: 1870: 1808: 1796:Ernest Weekley 1728: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1720: 1689: 1680:borage (plant) 1676: 1675: 1647: 1641: 1640: 1624: 1617: 1616: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1571:is improbable. 1549: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1481: 1467: 1466: 1457:(from Persian 1453:), and بادزهر 1433: 1427: 1426: 1390: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1328: 1314:azure (colour) 1310: 1309: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1161: 1155: 1154: 1121: 1115: 1114: 1056:al-Ḥashshāshūn 1048: 1042: 1041: 972: 966: 965: 918: 912: 911: 870: 864: 863: 834: 820: 819: 789: 779: 778: 726: 720: 719: 678: 672: 671: 626: 620: 619: 590: 584: 583: 546: 540: 539: 498: 492: 491: 455: 451: 426: 420: 419: 361: 351: 350: 308: 302: 301: 274: 268: 267: 216: 210: 209: 116: 109: 106: 105: 104: 97: 90: 83: 76: 69: 62: 55: 52: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5644: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5613: 5607: 5600: 5596: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5471:burra | borra 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5449:, p. 176, at 5448: 5447: 5442: 5438: 5437:lisān al-thūr 5432: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5326: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5315:al-malgham(a) 5312: 5311:dissimilation 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5256: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5233: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5214: 5206: 5202: 5196: 5189: 5185: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5134: 5126: 5118: 5114: 5108: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5080: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5052: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4995: 4991: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4935:fluxing agent 4932: 4928: 4923: 4917: 4915: 4906: 4902: 4896: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4867: 4859: 4855: 4849: 4842: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4738: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4680:. Medievally 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4619: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4531: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4418: 4413: 4409: 4407: 4402: 4401: 4396: 4390: 4388: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4346: 4340: 4336: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4287: 4282: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4249:(al)berengena 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4202: 4201:Lisan Al-Arab 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4164: 4160: 4154: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4135:. The writer 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4121:Otto of Roses 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4097: 4093: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4053: 4049: 4044: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4020: 4015: 4009: 4007: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3967: 3966:Los Arabismos 3962: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3927: 3922: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3882: 3874: 3870: 3864: 3857: 3856:dār as-sināʿa 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3799: 3794: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3741:, 2nd Edition 3740: 3734: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3710: 3703: 3700:"Apricot" in 3697: 3690: 3688: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3647: 3643: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3611:Ibn al-Baitar 3608: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3584: 3577: 3571: 3564: 3563:Gual Camarena 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3290: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3272:The medieval 3269: 3261: 3257: 3251: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3215:ref (page 63) 3212: 3206: 3199: 3198: 3193: 3192: 3185: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3160: 3156: 3154: 3151:Diophantus's 3148: 3147: 3142: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3027: 3023: 3017: 3010: 3004: 2997: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2953: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2916: 2915:Lisan al-Arab 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2893: 2891: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2865: 2861: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2841: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2816: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2800: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2760: 2755: 2749: 2741: 2737: 2731: 2724: 2722: 2717:"Alcohol" in 2714: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2624: 2617: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2601: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2570: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2538: 2530: 2526: 2520: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2482: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2455: 2454: 2449: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2416: 2412: 2406: 2399: 2398: 2394: 2388: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2360: 2356:" – cited in 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2225: 2223: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2182: 2174: 2168: 2161: 2160: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2112: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2096: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1986: 1980: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1957: 1956: 1951: 1947: 1945: 1940: 1934: 1927: 1926: 1921: 1920: 1915: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1891: 1885: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1815: 1813: 1805: 1804:Reinhart Dozy 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1788: 1783: 1782: 1777: 1776: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1752: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1740: 1733: 1729: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1503:fluxing agent 1496: 1486: 1482: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1420:decaboxylated 1417: 1413: 1405: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1343: 1333: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1285: 1275: 1274:Alssamt|ssamt 1271: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1216: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1176: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1136: 1126: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1094:al-hashīshīya 1091: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1075: 1067: 1057: 1053: 1052:al-hashīshīya 1049: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 987: 977: 973: 971: 968: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 917: 914: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 885: 875: 871: 869: 866: 865: 861: 857: 849: 839: 835: 833: 829: 825: 822: 821: 817: 812: 804: 794: 790: 788: 785:and possibly 784: 781: 780: 775: 771: 767: 763: 755: 741: 731: 727: 725: 722: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 693: 683: 679: 677: 674: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 641: 631: 627: 625: 622: 621: 617: 613: 605: 595: 591: 589: 586: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 561: 551: 547: 545: 542: 541: 537: 534:begot French 533: 529: 526:around 1275. 525: 521: 513: 503: 499: 497: 494: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 449: 441: 431: 427: 425: 422: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 388: 384: 376: 366: 362: 360: 356: 353: 352: 348: 343: 339: 335: 331: 323: 313: 309: 307: 304: 303: 299: 298: 289: 279: 275: 273: 270: 269: 265: 264: 260: 256: 252: 247: 243: 239: 238:adoba | adova 231: 221: 217: 215: 212: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 182: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 156: 151: 147: 143: 139: 131: 121: 117: 115: 112: 111: 103: 102: 98: 96: 95: 91: 89: 88: 84: 82: 81: 77: 75: 74: 70: 68: 67: 63: 61: 58: 57: 51: 49: 45: 41: 37: 35: 30: 19: 5606: 5540: 5536: 5535:where Latin 5530: 5526: 5525:where Latin 5518: 5517:where Latin 5510: 5506: 5494: 5490: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5451:Google Books 5444: 5440: 5436: 5431: 5422: 5413: 5404: 5395: 5379: 5375: 5363: 5360:kal-malghama 5359: 5355: 5347: 5331: 5319: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5289: 5280: 5271: 5260: 5254: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5231: 5226: 5222: 5213: 5204: 5195: 5183: 5170: 5162: 5158: 5142: 5132: 5125: 5116: 5107: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5079: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5020: 5000: 4993: 4986: 4982: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4942: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4904: 4895: 4883: 4870:"Bezoar" in 4866: 4857: 4848: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4824: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4775: 4759: 4755: 4746: 4737: 4728: 4722: 4717: 4713: 4697: 4688:(literally: 4685: 4681: 4673: 4661: 4657: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4627: 4618: 4610: 4601: 4581: 4573: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4539: 4530: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4405: 4399: 4394: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4327: 4323: 4318: 4309: 4300: 4292: 4285: 4277: 4256: 4248: 4244: 4236: 4224: 4219: 4200: 4197:al-bādhinjān 4196: 4192: 4180: 4177:Ibn Al-Awwam 4171: 4162: 4153: 4137:Fanny Parkes 4124: 4120: 4116: 4108: 4104: 4095: 4094:: Volume 2: 4091: 4082: 4077: 4068: 4059: 4051: 4043: 4034: ; and 4018: 4013: 3996: 3987: 3965: 3960: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3924: 3920: 3909: 3905: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3872: 3863: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3811: 3797: 3790: 3772: 3760: 3752: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3727: 3718: 3709: 3696: 3686: 3679: 3675: 3670: 3663:Downloadable 3658: 3657:Reported in 3653: 3634: 3622: 3619:Ibn al-Awwam 3606: 3601: 3592: 3583: 3570: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3500: 3491: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3441: 3432: 3423: 3403: 3387: 3384:milh al-qalī 3383: 3379: 3375: 3367: 3363: 3354: 3345: 3340: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3297: 3294:milh al-qalī 3293: 3288: 3282: 3273: 3268: 3259: 3250: 3234: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3210: 3205: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3175: 3166: 3155:(in English) 3152: 3145: 3140: 3137: 3128: 3116:Ibn al-Banna 3100:Al-Khwarizmi 3095: 3087: 3079: 3075: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3052:downloadable 3043: 3034: 3025: 3016: 3003: 2993: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2919: 2913: 2901: 2898:Ibn Al-Awwam 2880: 2871: 2844: 2839: 2833: 2824: 2815: 2798: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2739: 2730: 2720: 2719:N. 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