448:. In some but not all studies, activation of Broca's area is reported for speechreading, suggesting that articulatory mechanisms can be activated in speechreading. Studies of the time course of audiovisual speech processing showed that sight of speech can prime auditory processing regions in advance of the acoustic signal. Better lipreading skill is associated with greater activation in (left) superior temporal sulcus and adjacent inferior temporal (visual) regions in hearing people. In deaf people, the circuitry devoted to speechreading appears to be very similar to that in hearing people, with similar associations of (left) superior temporal activation and lipreading skill.
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the speech movements without hearing. However, children blind from birth can confuse /m/ and /n/ in their own early production of
English words – a confusion rarely seen in sighted hearing children, since /m/ and /n/ are visibly distinctive, but auditorially confusable. The role of vision in children aged 1–2 years may be less critical to the production of their native language, since, by that age, they have attained the skills they need to identify and imitate speech sounds. However, hearing a non-native language can shift the child's attention to visual and auditory engagement by way of lipreading and listening in order to process, understand and produce speech.
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which are phonemically similar to each other ('lexical neighbors', such as spit/sip/sit/stick...etc.), others are unlike all other words: they are 'unique' in terms of the distribution of their phonemes ('umbrella' may be an example). Skilled users of the language bring this knowledge to bear when interpreting speech, so it is generally harder to identify a heard word with many lexical neighbors than one with few neighbors. Applying this insight to seen speech, some words in the language can be unambiguously lip-read even when they contain few visemes - simply because no other words could possibly 'fit'.
101:
143:, the viewer's knowledge of the spoken language, familiarity with the speaker and style of speech, and the context of the lip-read material are as important as the visibility of the speaker. While most hearing people are sensitive to seen speech, there is great variability in individual speechreading skill. Good lipreaders are often more accurate than poor lipreaders at identifying phonemes from visual speech.
280:) in the education of deaf people. The extent to which one or other approach is beneficial depends on a range of factors, including level of hearing loss of the deaf person, age of hearing loss, parental involvement and parental language(s). Then there is a question concerning the aims of the deaf person and their community and carers. Is the aim of education to enhance communication generally, to develop
237:, people may tend to rely more on lip-reading, and are encouraged to do so. However, greater reliance on lip-reading may not always make good the effects of age-related hearing loss. Cognitive decline in aging may be preceded by and/or associated with measurable hearing loss. Thus lipreading may not always be able to fully compensate for the combined hearing and cognitive age-related decrements.
169:
adult mouth movements such as sticking out the tongue or opening the mouth, which could be a precursor to further imitation and later language learning. Infants are disturbed when audiovisual speech of a familiar speaker is desynchronized and tend to show different looking patterns for familiar than for unfamiliar faces when matched to (recorded) voices. Infants are sensitive to
190:
babies up to the age of around 6 months. However, older
Spanish-exposed infants lose the ability to 'see' this distinction, while it is retained for English-exposed infants. Such studies suggest that rather than hearing and vision developing in independent ways in infancy, multimodal processing is the rule, not the exception, in (language) development of the infant brain.
362:, groups of sounds that look alike on the lips (visemes) like p, b, m, or f, v. The aim is to get the gist, so as to have the confidence to join in conversation and avoid the damaging social isolation that often accompanies hearing loss. Lipreading classes are recommended for anyone who struggles to hear in noise, and help to adjust to hearing loss.
300:, pre-implant lip-reading skill can predict post-implant (auditory or audiovisual) speech processing. In adults, the later the age of implantation, the better the visual speechreading abilities of the deaf person. For many deaf people, access to spoken communication can be helped when a spoken message is relayed via a trained,
350:; with both of these forms of hearing loss, the high-frequency sounds are lost first. Since many of the consonants in speech are high-frequency sounds, speech becomes distorted. Hearing aids help but may not cure this. Lipreading classes have been shown to be of benefit in UK studies commissioned by the
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The aim of teaching and training in lipreading is to develop awareness of the nature of lipreading, and to practice ways of improving the ability to perceive speech 'by eye'. While the value of lipreading training in improving 'hearing by eye' was not always clear, especially for people with acquired
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as a first language, or to develop skills in the spoken language of the hearing community? Researchers now focus on which aspects of language and communication may be best delivered by what means and in which contexts, given the hearing status of the child and her family, and their educational plans.
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A simple visemic measure of 'lipreadability' has been questioned by some researchers. The 'phoneme equivalence class' measure takes into account the statistical structure of the lexicon and can also accommodate individual differences in lip-reading ability. In line with this, excellent lipreading is
41:
by visually interpreting the movements of the lips, face and tongue without sound. Estimates of the range of lip reading vary, with some figures as low as 30% because lip reading relies on context, language knowledge, and any residual hearing. Although lip reading is used most extensively by deaf and
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Uses for machine lipreading could include automated lipreading of video-only records, automated lipreading of speakers with damaged vocal tracts, and speech processing in face-to-face video (i.e. from videophone data). Automated lipreading may help in processing noisy or unfamiliar speech. Automated
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Given the many studies indicating a role for vision in the development of language in the pre-lingual infant, the effects of congenital blindness on language development are surprisingly small. 18-month-olds learn new words more readily when they hear them, and do not learn them when they are shown
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Seeing the mouth plays a role in the very young infant's early sensitivity to speech, and prepares them to become speakers at 1 – 2 years. In order to imitate, a baby must learn to shape their lips in accordance with the sounds they hear; seeing the speaker may help them to do this. Newborns imitate
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modelling which aim to deliver reliable 'text-to-(seen)-speech' outputs. A complementary aim—the reverse of making faces move in speech—is to develop computer algorithms that can deliver realistic interpretations of speech (i.e. a written transcript or audio record) from natural video data of a
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uses lipreading with accompanying hand shapes that disambiguate the visemic (consonant) lipshape. Cued speech is said to be easier for hearing parents to learn than a sign language, and studies, primarily from
Belgium, show that a deaf child exposed to cued speech in infancy can make more efficient
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While lip-reading silent speech poses a challenge for most hearing people, adding sight of the speaker to heard speech improves speech processing under many conditions. The mechanisms for this, and the precise ways in which lip-reading helps, are topics of current research. Seeing the speaker helps
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Many factors affect the visibility of a speaking face, including illumination, movement of the head/camera, frame-rate of the moving image and distance from the viewer (see e.g.). Head movement that accompanies normal speech can also improve lip-reading, independently of oral actions. However, when
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Trainers recognise that lipreading is an inexact art. Students are taught to watch the lips, tongue and jaw movements, to follow the stress and rhythm of language, to use their residual hearing, with or without hearing aids, to watch expression and body language, and to use their ability to reason
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is considered to be an auditory skill, it is intrinsically multimodal, since producing speech requires the speaker to make movements of the lips, teeth and tongue which are often visible in face-to-face communication. Information from the lips and face supports aural comprehension and most fluent
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lip-reading can be reliably tested in hearing preschoolers by asking them to 'say aloud what I say silently'. In school-age children, lipreading of familiar closed-set words such as number words can be readily elicited. Individual differences in lip-reading skill, as tested by asking the child to
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for the phonetic structure of their own language - and may lose the early sensitivity to mouth patterns that are not useful. The speech sounds /v/ and /b/ which are visemically distinctive in
English but not in Castilian Spanish are accurately distinguished in Spanish-exposed and English-exposed
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of spoken language data). Demonstration models, using machine-learning algorithms, have had some success in lipreading speech elements, such as specific words, from video and for identifying hard-to-lipread phonemes from visemically similar seen mouth actions. Machine-based speechreading is now
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While visemes offer a useful starting point for understanding lipreading, spoken distinctions within a viseme can be distinguished and can help support identification. Moreover, the statistical distribution of phonemes within the lexicon of a language is uneven. While there are clusters of words
104:
The legend to this puzzle reads "Here is a class of a dozen boys, who, being called up to give their names were photographed by the instantaneous process just as each one was commencing to pronounce his own name. The twelve names were Oom, Alden, Eastman, Alfred, Arthur, Luke, Fletcher, Matthew,
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Most tests of lipreading were devised to measure individual differences in performing specific speech-processing tasks and to detect changes in performance following training. Lipreading tests have been used with relatively small groups in experimental settings, or as clinical indicators with
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may be more difficult for deaf children, who need to be skilled speech-readers in order to master this necessary step in literacy acquisition. Lip-reading skill is associated with literacy abilities in deaf adults and children and training in lipreading may help to develop literacy skills.
390:, the aim is to generate realistic facial actions, especially mouth movements, that simulate human speech actions. Computer algorithms to deform or manipulate images of faces can be driven by heard or written language. Systems may be based on detailed models derived from facial movements (
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Campbell, R; MacSweeney, M; Surguladze, S; Calvert, G; McGuire, P; Suckling, J; Brammer, MJ; David, AS (2001). "Cortical substrates for the perception of face actions: an fMRI study of the specificity of activation for seen speech and for meaningless lower-face acts (gurning)".
105:
Theodore, Richard, Shirmer, and
Hisswald. Now it would not seem possible to be able to give the correct name to each of the twelve boys, but if you practice the list over to each one, you will find it not a difficult task to locate the proper name for every one of the boys."
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is the smallest detectable unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish words from one another. /pit/ and /pik/ differ by one phoneme and refer to different concepts. Spoken
English has about 44 phonemes. For lip reading, the number of visually distinctive units -
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Visemes can be captured as still images, but speech unfolds in time. The smooth articulation of speech sounds in sequence can mean that mouth patterns may be 'shaped' by an adjacent phoneme: the 'th' sound in 'tooth' and in 'teeth' appears very different because of the
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are words that look similar when lip read, but which contain different phonemes. Because there are about three times as many phonemes as visemes in
English, it is often claimed that only 30% of speech can be lip read. Homophenes are a crucial source of mis-lip reading.
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utterances. The positive effects of adding vision to heard speech are greater in noisy than quiet environments, where by making speech perception easier, seeing the speaker can free up cognitive resources, enabling deeper processing of speech content.
394:); on anatomical modelling of actions of the jaw, mouth and tongue; or on mapping of known viseme- phoneme properties. Facial animation has been used in speechreading training (demonstrating how different sounds 'look'). These systems are a subset of
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progress in learning a spoken language than from lipreading alone. The use of cued speech in cochlear implantation for deafness is likely to be positive. A similar approach, involving the use of handshapes accompanying seen speech, is
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face in action: this is facial speech recognition. These models too can be sourced from a variety of data. Automatic visual speech recognition from video has been quite successful in distinguishing different languages (from a
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Havy, M., Foroud, A., Fais, L., & Werker, J.F. (in press; online
January 26, 2017). The role of auditory and visual speech in word-learning at 18 months and in adulthood. Child Development. (Pre-print
249:: People with autism may show reduced lipreading abilities and reduced reliance on vision in audiovisual speech perception. This may be associated with gaze-to-the-face anomalies in these people.
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Until around six months of age, most hearing infants are sensitive to a wide range of speech gestures - including ones that can be seen on the mouth - which may or may not later be part of the
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D.Stork and M.Henneke (Eds) (1996) Speechreading by Humans and machines: Models
Systems and Applications. Nato ASI series F Computer and Systems sciences Vol 150. Springer, Berlin Germany
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Mohammed, Tara; Campbell, Ruth; MacSweeney, Mairéad; Barry, Fiona; Coleman, Michael (2006). "Speechreading and its association with reading among deaf, hearing and dyslexic individuals".
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months before they have learned to speak. These studies and many more point to a role for vision in the development of sensitivity to (auditory) speech in the first half-year of life.
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Mills, A.E. 1987 The development of phonology in the blind child. In B.Dodd & R.Campbell(Eds) Hearing by Eye: the psychology of lipreading, Hove UK, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates
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Auer, ET; Bernstein, LE (1997). "Speechreading and the structure of the lexicon: computationally modeling the effects of reduced phonetic distinctiveness on lexical uniqueness".
76:- is much smaller, thus several phonemes map onto a few visemes. This is because many phonemes are produced within the mouth and throat, and are hard to see. These include
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Bosseler, Alexis; Massaro, Dominic W. (2003). "Development and Evaluation of a Computer-Animated Tutor for Vocabulary and Language Learning in Children with Autism".
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Hall DA1, Fussell C, Summerfield AQ. 2005 Reading fluent speech from talking faces: typical brain networks and individual differences.J. Cogn Neurosci. 17(6):939-53.
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Mohammed T1, Campbell R; Macsweeney, M; Barry, F; Coleman, M (2006). "Speechreading and its association with reading among deaf, hearing and dyslexic individuals".
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hearing loss, there is evidence that systematic training in alerting students to attend to seen speech actions can be beneficial. Lipreading classes, often called
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59:). The extent to which people make use of seen speech actions varies with the visibility of the speech action and the knowledge and skill of the perceiver.
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individual patients and clients. That is, most lipreading tests to date have limited validity as markers of lipreading skill in the general population.
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Dodd B. 1987 The acquisition of lipreading skills by normally hearing children. In B.Dodd & R.Campbell (Eds) Hearing by Eye, Erlbaum NJ pp163-176
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Burnham, D; Dodd, B (2004). "Auditory-visual speech integration by prelinguistic infants: perception of an emergent consonant in the McGurk effect".
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2745:"Lipreading: A review of its Continuing Importance for Speech Recognition with an Acquired Hearing Loss and Possibilities for Effective Training"
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Deaf people are often better lip-readers than people with normal hearing. Some deaf people practice as professional lipreaders, for instance in
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Woodhouse, L; Hickson, L; Dodd, B (2009). "Review of visual speech perception by hearing and hearing-impaired people: clinical implications".
212:'speak the word that you lip-read', or by matching a lip-read utterance to a picture, show a relationship between lip-reading skill and age.
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436:, were activated by seen speech, the neural circuitry for speechreading was shown to include supra-modal processing regions, especially
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253:: People with Williams syndrome show some deficits in speechreading which may be independent of their visuo-spatial difficulties.
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Thomas, SM; Jordan, TR (2004). "Contributions of oral and extraoral facial movement to visual and audiovisual speech perception".
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Davies R1, Kidd E; Lander, K (2009). "Investigating the psycholinguistic correlates of speechreading in preschool age children".
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has been a topic of interest in computational engineering, as well as in science fiction movies. The computational engineer
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AVISA; International Speech Communication Association special interest group focussed on lip-reading and audiovisual speech
289:(proficiency in both speech and sign language) is one dominant current approach in language education for the deaf child.
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440:(all parts) as well as posterior inferior occipital-temporal regions including regions specialised for the processing of
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Studies with pre-lingual infants and children use indirect, non-verbal measures to indicate sensitivity to seen speech.
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hard-of-hearing people, most people with normal hearing process some speech information from sight of the moving mouth.
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Calvert, GA; Bullmore, ET; Brammer, MJ; et al. (1997). "Activation of auditory cortex during silent lipreading".
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342:, are mainly aimed at adults who have hearing loss. The highest proportion of adults with hearing loss have an
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skills which can reflect difficulties in acquiring elements of the spoken language. In particular, reliable
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A number of studies report anomalies of lipreading in populations with distinctive developmental disorders.
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1991 Seeing Speech: visual information from lip movements modifies activity in the human auditory cortex".
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Capek, CM; Macsweeney, M; Woll, B; Waters, D; McGuire, PK; David, AS; Brammer, MJ; Campbell, R (2008).
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which use large databases of speakers and speech material (following the successful model for auditory
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257:: Children with SLI are also reported to show reduced lipreading sensitivity, as are people with
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Erber, NP (1969). "Interaction of audition and vision in the recognition of oral speech stimuli".
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often associated with more broad-based cognitive skills including general language proficiency,
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In connection with lipreading and literacy development, children born deaf typically show
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of their native language. But in the second six months of life, the hearing infant shows
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context. This feature of dynamic speech-reading affects lip-reading 'beyond the viseme'.
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Sumby, WH; Pollack, I (1954). "Visual contribution to speech intelligibility in noise".
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343:
321:
3040:
2457:"What really matters in the early literacy development of deaf children"
706:
3785:
3611:
Speechreading for information gathering: a survey of scientific sources
3491:"Cortical circuits for silent speechreading in deaf and hearing people"
3029:"An improved automatic lipreading system to enhance speech recognition"
2276:
2259:
1236:
1219:
226:
3457:
2831:
1836:
1827:
1783:
1566:
Kyle, FE; Campbell, R; Mohammed, T; Coleman, M; MacSweeney, M (2013).
1196:
489:
4380:
1953:"Can children with autism spectrum disorders "hear" a speaking face?"
935:
417:
222:
182:
2362:
Pimperton, Hannah; Ralph-Lewis, Amelia; MacSweeney, Mairead (2017).
3549:, B.Dodd and R.Campbell (Eds), Erlbaum Asstes, Hillsdale NJ, USA;
3239:
1715:"The processing of audio-visual speech: empirical and neural bases"
1615:
Tye-Murray, N; Hale, S; Spehar, B; Myerson, J; Sommers, MS (2014).
970:
Tye-Murray, N; Hale, S; Spehar, B; Myerson, J; Sommers, MS (2014).
590:
258:
85:
3374:"Visual speech speeds up the neural processing of auditory speech"
2442:"Reading and dyslexia in deaf children | Nuffield Foundation"
55:
listeners of a language are sensitive to seen speech actions (see
3698:
3633:
3275:
3190:
2979:
2144:
314:
273:
68:
420:
person identification, replacing password-based identification.
159:
Lipreading and language learning in hearing infants and children
3440:
Bernstein, LE; Jiang, J; Pantazis, D; Lu, ZL; Joshi, A (2011).
3191:
Skipper, JI; van Wassenhove, V; Nusbaum, HC; Small, SL (2007).
2495:
246:
81:
73:
38:
3014:"Google's DeepMind AI can lip-read TV shows better than a pro"
2427:
2361:
2050:
193:
3027:
Petajan, E.; Bischoff, B.; Bodoff, D.; Brooke, N. M. (1988).
1950:
1451:
International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders
1148:
Spelke, E (1976). "Infants intermodal perception of events".
523:
International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders
276:') compared with other communication methods (most recently,
215:
118:
3601:
Lipreading Classes in Scotland: the way forward. 2015 Report
2742:
1666:"Prediction and constraint in audiovisual speech perception"
1068:
302:
3026:
2580:
2093:
1951:
Irwin, JR; Tornatore, LA; Brancazio, L; Whalen, DH (2011).
1614:
1565:
969:
3371:
2743:
Bernstein, LE; Jordan, N; Auer, ET; Eberhardt, SP (2022).
1217:
3488:
374:
177:
The next six months; a role in learning a native language
124:
3605:
3439:
1261:"Narrowing of intersensory speech perception in infancy"
3573:"What Is the Hardest Language in the World to Lipread?"
2257:
862:
602:
464:
Altieri, N. A.; Pisoni, D. B.; Townsend, J. T. (2011).
3104:
3094:
http://www.planetbiometrics.com-article-details-i-2250
2996:"The innovators: Can computers be taught to lip-read?"
813:
3615:
3372:
Van Wassenhove, V; Grant, KW; Poeppel, D (Jan 2005).
2805:
863:
Files, BT; Tjan, BS; Jiang, J; Bernstein, LE (2015).
463:
133:
37:, is a technique of understanding a limited range of
3596:
Scottish Sensory Centre 2005: workshop on lipreading
2218:"Deaf Children's bimodal bilingualism and education"
1389:
520:
240:
3139:
3072:Luettin, Juergen; Thacker, Neil A.; Beet, Steve W.
1218:Rosenblum, LD; Schmuckler, MA; Johnson, JA (1997).
2632:"Cued Speech and the reception of spoken language"
1317:
2587:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
2298:
1719:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
1572:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
4451:
4050:Manila Christian Computer Institute for the Deaf
2952:"Lip-reading computer can distinguish languages"
2258:Bernstein, LE; Demorest, ME; Tucker, PE (2000).
470:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
3378:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2893:
2668:
1448:
1396:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1265:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1069:"HuffPost - Breaking News, U.S. and World News"
466:"Some normative data on lip-reading skills (L)"
3142:"Neural pathways for visual speech perception"
3071:
2975:"Video to Text: Lip reading and word spotting"
2806:Altieri, NA; Pisoni, DB; Townsend, JT (2011).
1999:
386:, among others, pioneered its development. In
3801:
3649:
3583:
2896:Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
1915:
1663:
1091:
913:
3883:
3570:
3081:Applied Science and Engineering Laboratories
2812:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
2629:
1764:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1761:
916:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
814:Spehar, B; Goebel, S; Tye-Murray, N (2015).
778:
737:
695:Journal of the American Academy of Audiology
340:lipreading and managing hearing loss classes
4112:Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris
3560:, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale NJ
2347:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2299:Bergeson TR1, Pisoni DB; Davis, RA (2005).
2187:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1493:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1390:Lewkowicz, DJ; Hansen-Tift, AM (Jan 2012).
1182:
1018:
194:Early language production: one to two years
3808:
3794:
3656:
3642:
2808:"Some normative data on lipreading skills"
2538:
1918:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
691:"Investigating speechreading and deafness"
216:In hearing adults: lifespan considerations
4354:Schools for the deaf in the United States
3514:
3465:
3407:
3397:
3301:
3216:
3167:
3157:
2839:
2768:
2694:
2606:
2472:
2389:
2379:
2324:
2275:
2121:
2111:
2027:
2017:
1976:
1892:
1835:
1807:Taljaard, Schmulian; et al. (2015).
1791:
1738:
1689:
1640:
1591:
1542:
1470:
1425:
1415:
1331:
1294:
1284:
1235:
1044:
995:
890:
880:
839:
755:
714:
665:
655:
497:
4334:Montreal Institute for the Deaf and Mute
3815:
3616:Successful Online Speechreading Training
2215:
1806:
1712:
332:
235:hearing becomes less reliable in old-age
221:at all levels of speech processing from
99:
3921:Parkash Memorial Deaf & Dumb School
2414:"Communication support for deaf people"
163:
62:
14:
4452:
4215:St John's Catholic School for the Deaf
4155:Antonio Provolo Institute for the Deaf
3931:Vatika High School for Deaf & Dumb
3507:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.11.026
3325:Sams, M; et al. (1991). "Aulenko
3074:"Speaker Identification by Lipreading"
2993:
1516:
1147:
375:Lipreading and lip-speaking by machine
270:Debate has raged for hundreds of years
125:How can it 'work' with so few visemes?
4413:
4321:
4306:Sir James Whitney School for the Deaf
4223:
4170:
4127:
4073:
3968:
3953:Fukui Prefectural School for the Deaf
3789:
3637:
3556:D. W. Massaro (1987, reprinted 2014)
3140:Bernstein, LE; Liebenthal, E (2014).
2454:
2203:"Hands & Voices :: Articles"
637:
555:
4274:British Columbia School for the Deaf
3558:Speech perception by ear and by eye
3324:
2881:"Rule-Based Visual Speech Synthesis"
2498:Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics
1866:
1258:
688:
225:discrimination to interpretation of
4279:Ernest C. Drury School for the Deaf
2719:"Lipreading Alphabet: Round Vowels"
2260:"Speech perception without hearing"
24:
4178:St Petersburg College for the Deaf
3663:
3564:
3133:
2908:10.1023/B:JADD.0000006002.82367.4f
2736:
2147:Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics
907:
134:Variation in readability and skill
109:
25:
4491:
4295:Metro Toronto School for the Deaf
3916:Patiala School for the Deaf-blind
2669:Leybaert, J; LaSasso, CJ (2010).
781:J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform
241:In specific (hearing) populations
80:and most gestures of the tongue.
4236:Centre for Deaf Studies, Bristol
2539:Kyle, F. E.; Harris, M. (2010).
2317:10.1097/00003446-200504000-00004
2000:Irwin, JR; Brancazio, L (2014).
1969:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01619.x
1930:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01766.x
1664:Peelle, JE; Sommers, MS (2015).
358:and deduce. They are taught the
3996:SMK Pendidikan Khas Persekutuan
3534:
3482:
3433:
3424:
3365:
3318:
3269:
3233:
3184:
3098:
3087:
3065:
3020:
3006:
2987:
2958:
2944:
2938:"Visual Speech Synthesis - UEA"
2930:
2887:
2873:
2856:
2799:
2785:
2725:from the original on 2014-06-23
2711:
2662:
2623:
2599:10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0039)
2574:
2532:
2489:
2448:
2434:
2420:
2406:
2355:
2292:
2251:
2209:
2195:
2138:
2087:
2044:
1993:
1944:
1909:
1860:
1800:
1755:
1706:
1657:
1608:
1584:10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0039)
1559:
1517:Jerger, S; et al. (2009).
1510:
1501:
1442:
1383:
1374:
1364:
1311:
1252:
1211:
1176:
1141:
1128:
1085:
1061:
1037:10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0137)
1012:
963:
950:
856:
807:
738:Jordan, TR; Thomas, SM (2011).
311:delayed development of literacy
272:over the role of lip-reading ('
202:
4389:Victorian College for the Deaf
3774:Christian Mission for the Deaf
2630:Nicholls, GH; Ling, D (1982).
2264:Perception & Psychophysics
1867:Hung, SC; et al. (2015).
1793:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-6664-3
1472:11858/00-001M-0000-002E-2344-8
1220:"The McGurk effect in infants"
1019:Feld, JE; Sommers, MS (2009).
772:
731:
682:
631:
596:
584:
549:
514:
457:
416:lipreading may contribute to
13:
1:
4405:Kelston Deaf Education Centre
4081:Singapore School for the Deaf
3255:10.1016/s0926-6410(01)00054-4
2749:American Journal of Audiology
2065:10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00208-1
1259:Pons, F; et al. (2009).
451:
428:Following the discovery that
4441:List of schools for the deaf
4290:Manitoba School for the Deaf
3891:Lutheran School For The Deaf
3571:Dan Nosowitz (18 Feb 2020).
3343:10.1016/0304-3940(91)90914-f
3119:10.1126/science.276.5312.593
2994:Hickey, Shane (2016-04-24).
1682:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.03.006
1633:10.1044/2013_JSLHR-H-12-0273
1320:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1162:10.1016/0010-0285(76)90018-9
988:10.1044/2013_JSLHR-H-12-0273
832:10.1044/2015_JSLHR-H-14-0360
423:
410:automatic speech recognition
296:. In deaf people who have a
255:Specific Language Impairment
7:
4329:Halifax School for the Deaf
4300:Robarts School for the Deaf
4269:Alberta School for the Deaf
3947:Central School for the Deaf
3911:Patiala School for the Deaf
3621:
3294:10.1016/j.bandl.2013.03.002
2793:"Campaigns and influencing"
1185:Developmental Psychobiology
593:Cyclopedia of Puzzles, 1914
406:neural-net based algorithms
264:
10:
4496:
4285:MacKay School for the Deaf
3857:Tabora Deaf-Mute Institute
3709:Simultaneous communication
2560:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.04.011
1535:10.1016/j.jecp.2008.08.002
1342:10.1016/j.tics.2009.08.004
793:10.1037/0096-1523.30.5.873
45:
4437:
4397:
4373:
4366:
4346:
4261:
4252:
4190:
4163:
4147:
4120:
4104:
4097:
4066:
4037:
4021:
4013:Naxal School for the Deaf
4005:
3988:
3961:
3939:
3903:
3876:
3869:
3849:
3841:Kisii School for the Deaf
3828:
3821:
3764:
3717:
3671:
2883:. 1995. pp. 299–302.
2761:10.1044/2021_AJA-21-00112
2510:10.1080/02699200500266745
2237:10.1017/S0261444815000348
2159:10.1080/02699200500266745
1463:10.1080/13682820801997189
757:10.3758/s13414-011-0152-4
535:10.1080/13682820802090281
404:making successful use of
4312:W. Ross Macdonald School
3243:Brain Res Cogn Brain Res
3159:10.3389/fnins.2014.00386
2687:10.1177/1084713810375567
2381:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00106
2113:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00422
2019:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00397
882:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00878
744:Atten Percept Psychophys
657:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00878
438:superior temporal sulcus
365:
315:phoneme-grapheme mapping
303:professional lip-speaker
3399:10.1073/pnas.0408949102
2675:Trends in Amplification
1417:10.1073/pnas.1114783109
1286:10.1073/pnas.0904134106
4480:Education for the deaf
4314:(for deafblind people)
3737:Edward Miner Gallaudet
3694:Manually coded English
3584:Laura Ringham (2012).
1885:10.2188/jea.JE20140147
1731:10.1098/rstb.2007.2155
1621:J Speech Lang Hear Res
1106:10.1126/science.897687
1025:J Speech Lang Hear Res
976:J Speech Lang Hear Res
820:J Speech Lang Hear Res
430:auditory brain regions
352:Action on Hearing Loss
106:
4231:Ovingdean Hall School
4135:Claremont Institution
3628:Automated Lip Reading
3547:Hearing By Eye (1987)
3209:10.1093/cercor/bhl147
2648:10.1044/jshr.2502.262
2474:10.1093/deafed/enm020
2461:J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ
617:10.1044/jshr.2504.600
570:10.1044/jshr.1202.423
380:Automated lip-reading
333:Teaching and training
103:
3976:Gwangju Inhwa School
3836:Humble Hearts School
3816:Schools for the deaf
3331:Neuroscience Letters
2216:Swanwick, R (2016).
1713:Campbell, R (2008).
1150:Cognitive Psychology
1136:Cognitive Psychology
360:lipreaders' alphabet
287:Bimodal bilingualism
187:perceptual narrowing
164:The first few months
63:Phonemes and visemes
4465:Human communication
4205:Jordanstown Schools
3390:2005PNAS..102.1181V
3041:10.1145/57167.57170
2824:2011ASAJ..130....1A
2548:J Exp Child Psychol
2444:. 19 November 2019.
1776:1954ASAJ...26..212S
1725:(1493): 1001–1010.
1523:J Exp Child Psychol
1408:2012PNAS..109.1431L
1277:2009PNAS..10610598P
928:1997ASAJ..102.3704A
707:10.3766/jaaa.21.3.4
482:2011ASAJ..130....1A
294:forensic lipreading
278:total communication
4200:Donaldson's School
4045:Bohol Deaf Academy
3282:Brain and Language
3035:. pp. 19–25.
2455:Mayer, C. (2007).
2277:10.3758/bf03205546
1237:10.3758/BF03211902
1224:Percept Psychophys
638:Files, BT (2015).
348:noise-related loss
149:executive function
107:
78:glottal consonants
4447:
4446:
4433:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4385:
4362:
4361:
4342:
4341:
4248:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4186:
4185:
4143:
4142:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4059:
4058:Deaf-mute program
3984:
3983:
3899:
3898:
3865:
3864:
3783:
3782:
3551:Hearing by Eye II
3458:10.1002/hbm.21139
3203:(10): 2387–2399.
2832:10.1121/1.3593376
2636:J Speech Hear Res
2305:Ear & Hearing
2225:Language Teaching
1828:10.1111/coa.12607
1784:10.1121/1.1907309
1271:(26): 10598–602.
1197:10.1002/dev.20032
960:Feb;53(2):220-228
689:Auer, ET (2010).
605:J Speech Hear Res
558:J Speech Hear Res
490:10.1121/1.3593376
446:biological motion
251:Williams syndrome
52:speech perception
16:(Redirected from
4487:
4421:Van Asch College
4411:
4410:
4383:
4371:
4370:
4319:
4318:
4259:
4258:
4221:
4220:
4210:Mary Hare School
4168:
4167:
4125:
4124:
4102:
4101:
4071:
4070:
4057:
3966:
3965:
3881:
3880:
3874:
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3826:
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3810:
3803:
3796:
3787:
3786:
3658:
3651:
3644:
3635:
3634:
3592:
3590:
3580:
3529:
3528:
3518:
3495:Neuropsychologia
3486:
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3411:
3401:
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2621:
2620:
2610:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2545:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2504:(7–8): 621–630.
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2053:Neuropsychologia
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1997:
1991:
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1980:
1948:
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1941:
1913:
1907:
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1816:Clin Otolaryngol
1813:
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1138:Oct;11(4):478-84
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1016:
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936:10.1121/1.420402
911:
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628:
600:
594:
588:
582:
581:
553:
547:
546:
518:
512:
511:
501:
461:
396:speech synthesis
388:facial animation
354:charity (2012).
298:cochlear implant
223:phonetic feature
171:McGurk illusions
141:connected speech
33:, also known as
21:
4495:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4450:
4449:
4448:
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4409:
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4254:
4240:
4219:
4192:
4182:
4159:
4139:
4116:
4085:
4062:
4033:
4029:Ida Rieu School
4017:
4001:
3980:
3957:
3935:
3895:
3861:
3845:
3817:
3814:
3784:
3779:
3766:
3760:
3713:
3667:
3662:
3624:
3588:
3567:
3565:Further reading
3537:
3532:
3487:
3483:
3452:(10): 1660–76.
3438:
3434:
3429:
3425:
3370:
3366:
3323:
3319:
3274:
3270:
3238:
3234:
3197:Cerebral Cortex
3189:
3185:
3138:
3134:
3113:(5312): 593–6.
3103:
3099:
3092:
3088:
3076:
3070:
3066:
3051:
3025:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2992:
2988:
2973:
2970:Wayback Machine
2963:
2959:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2892:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2866:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2804:
2800:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2741:
2737:
2728:
2726:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2667:
2663:
2628:
2624:
2579:
2575:
2543:
2537:
2533:
2494:
2490:
2453:
2449:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2360:
2356:
2340:
2339:
2297:
2293:
2256:
2252:
2220:
2214:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2180:
2179:
2153:(7–8): 621–30.
2143:
2139:
2092:
2088:
2059:(8): 1396–406.
2049:
2045:
1998:
1994:
1963:(5): 1397–403.
1949:
1945:
1914:
1910:
1865:
1861:
1811:
1805:
1801:
1760:
1756:
1711:
1707:
1662:
1658:
1613:
1609:
1564:
1560:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1486:
1485:
1447:
1443:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1365:
1333:10.1.1.554.4323
1316:
1312:
1257:
1253:
1216:
1212:
1181:
1177:
1146:
1142:
1133:
1129:
1090:
1086:
1077:
1075:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1017:
1013:
968:
964:
955:
951:
912:
908:
861:
857:
826:(3): 1093–102.
812:
808:
777:
773:
736:
732:
687:
683:
636:
632:
601:
597:
589:
585:
554:
550:
519:
515:
462:
458:
454:
426:
384:Steve Omohundro
377:
368:
335:
267:
243:
218:
205:
196:
179:
166:
161:
136:
127:
114:
111:Co-articulation
65:
48:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4493:
4483:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4445:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4423:
4417:
4415:
4408:
4407:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4394:
4392:
4391:
4386:
4377:
4375:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4357:
4356:
4350:
4348:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4336:
4331:
4325:
4323:
4316:
4315:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4276:
4271:
4265:
4263:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4227:
4225:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4196:
4194:
4188:
4187:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4180:
4174:
4172:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4157:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4144:
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4122:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4108:
4106:
4099:
4095:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4083:
4077:
4075:
4068:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4055:Miriam College
4052:
4047:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4031:
4025:
4023:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4015:
4009:
4007:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3999:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3972:
3970:
3963:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3955:
3950:
3943:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3907:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3878:
3871:
3867:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3859:
3853:
3851:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3832:
3830:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3812:
3805:
3798:
3790:
3781:
3780:
3778:
3777:
3770:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3684:Fingerspelling
3681:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3665:Deaf education
3661:
3660:
3653:
3646:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3581:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3554:
3544:
3541:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3530:
3501:(5): 1233–41.
3481:
3446:Hum Brain Mapp
3432:
3423:
3364:
3337:(1): 141–145.
3317:
3268:
3232:
3183:
3146:Front Neurosci
3132:
3097:
3086:
3064:
3050:978-0201142372
3049:
3019:
3005:
2986:
2957:
2943:
2929:
2902:(6): 653–672.
2886:
2872:
2855:
2798:
2784:
2755:(2): 453–469.
2735:
2710:
2661:
2622:
2593:(2): 416–426.
2573:
2554:(3): 229–243.
2531:
2488:
2447:
2433:
2419:
2405:
2368:Front. Psychol
2354:
2291:
2250:
2208:
2194:
2137:
2086:
2043:
1992:
1943:
1908:
1859:
1822:(6): 718–729.
1799:
1770:(2): 212–215.
1754:
1705:
1656:
1607:
1558:
1509:
1500:
1441:
1382:
1373:
1363:
1310:
1251:
1210:
1175:
1156:(4): 553–560.
1140:
1127:
1100:(4312): 74–8.
1084:
1060:
1031:(6): 1555–65.
1011:
962:
958:Speech Commun.
949:
922:(6): 3704–10.
906:
855:
806:
771:
750:(7): 2270–85.
730:
681:
644:Front. Psychol
630:
595:
583:
548:
513:
455:
453:
450:
434:Heschl's gyrus
425:
422:
392:motion capture
376:
373:
367:
364:
334:
331:
327:Visual Phonics
266:
263:
242:
239:
217:
214:
204:
201:
195:
192:
178:
175:
165:
162:
160:
157:
153:working memory
135:
132:
126:
123:
113:
108:
92:(e.g. vs. ).
64:
61:
47:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4492:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4442:
4436:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4390:
4387:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4365:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4347:United States
4345:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4320:
4313:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4257:
4251:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4189:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4166:
4162:
4156:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4126:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4100:
4096:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4069:
4065:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4020:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4008:
4004:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3884:Hong Kong SAR
3882:
3879:
3875:
3872:
3868:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3827:
3824:
3820:
3811:
3806:
3804:
3799:
3797:
3792:
3791:
3788:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3769:
3767:organizations
3763:
3756:
3755:Clayton Valli
3753:
3750:
3749:Andrew Foster
3747:
3744:
3743:Sophia Alcorn
3741:
3738:
3735:
3732:
3731:Laurent Clerc
3729:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3704:Sign language
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3672:Communication
3670:
3666:
3659:
3654:
3652:
3647:
3645:
3640:
3639:
3636:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3577:Atlas Obscura
3574:
3569:
3568:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3526:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3427:
3419:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3384:(4): 1181–6.
3383:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3313:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3249:(2): 233–43.
3248:
3244:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3101:
3095:
3090:
3082:
3075:
3068:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3015:
3009:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2961:
2953:
2947:
2939:
2933:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2882:
2876:
2865:
2859:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2794:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2724:
2720:
2714:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2681:(2): 96–112.
2680:
2676:
2672:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2535:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2467:(4): 411–31.
2466:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2443:
2437:
2429:
2423:
2416:. 2015-11-24.
2415:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2350:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2311:(2): 149–64.
2310:
2306:
2302:
2295:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2270:(2): 233–52.
2269:
2265:
2261:
2254:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2198:
2190:
2184:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2100:Front Psychol
2097:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2006:Front Psychol
2003:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1924:(8): 813–21.
1923:
1919:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1879:(8): 517–21.
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1810:
1803:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1627:(2): 556–65.
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:(2): 416–26.
1577:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1504:
1496:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1457:(2): 164–74.
1456:
1452:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1402:(5): 1431–6.
1401:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1377:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1326:(11): 470–8.
1325:
1321:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1230:(3): 347–57.
1229:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1191:(4): 204–20.
1190:
1186:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1137:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1007:
1003:
998:
993:
989:
985:
982:(2): 556–65.
981:
977:
973:
966:
959:
953:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
910:
902:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
874:
870:
869:Front Psychol
866:
859:
851:
847:
842:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
810:
802:
798:
794:
790:
787:(5): 873–88.
786:
782:
775:
767:
763:
758:
753:
749:
745:
741:
734:
726:
722:
717:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
685:
677:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
649:
645:
641:
634:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
599:
592:
587:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
552:
544:
540:
536:
532:
529:(3): 253–70.
528:
524:
517:
509:
505:
500:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
460:
456:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
421:
419:
413:
411:
407:
402:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
372:
363:
361:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
330:
328:
323:
319:
316:
312:
307:
305:
304:
299:
295:
290:
288:
283:
282:sign language
279:
275:
271:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
238:
236:
231:
228:
224:
213:
210:
200:
191:
188:
184:
174:
172:
156:
154:
150:
144:
142:
131:
122:
120:
112:
102:
98:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
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