702:. Such a process is normally not described as "language death", because it involves an unbroken chain of normal transmission of the language from one generation to the next, with only minute changes at every single point in the chain. Thus with regard to Latin, for example, there is no point at which Latin "died"; it evolved in different ways in different geographic areas, and its modern forms are now identified by a plethora of different names such as French, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc. Language shift can be used to understand the evolution of Latin into the various modern forms. Language shift, which could lead to language death, occurs because of a shift in language behaviour from a speech community. Contact with other languages and cultures causes change in behaviour to the original language which creates language shift.
494:(UN) estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over the next hundred years most of these will become extinct. These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure". A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with the land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image.
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reduced stage of use is generally considered moribund. Half of the spoken languages of the world are not being taught to new generations of children. Once a language is no longer a native language—that is, if no children are being socialized into it as their primary language—the process of transmission is ended and the language itself will not survive past the current generations.
501:, "language reclamation will become increasingly relevant as people seek to recover their cultural autonomy, empower their spiritual and intellectual sovereignty, and improve wellbeing. There are various ethical, aesthetic, and utilitarian benefits of language revival—for example, historical justice, diversity, and employability, respectively."
456:, there is a theory that argues that "the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue(s)."
403:, the death of language has consequences for individuals and the communities as a whole. There have been links made between their health (both physically and mentally) and the death of their traditional language. Language is an important part of their identity and as such is linked to their well-being.
222:
Linguicide (also known as language genocide, physical language death, and biological language death): occurs when all or almost all native speakers of that language die because of natural disasters, wars etc. Linguicide usually refers to forced language loss through assimilation or destruction of the
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in the linguistic literature—the language that is being lost generally undergoes changes as speakers make their language more similar to the language to which they are shifting. This process of change has been described by Appel (1983) in two categories, though they are not mutually exclusive. Often
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Change in the land of a speech community: This occurs when members of a speech community leave their traditional lands or communities and move to towns with different languages. For example, in a small isolated community in New Guinea, the young men of the community move to towns for better economic
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Gradual language death: the most common way that languages die. Generally happens when the people speaking that language interact with speakers of a language of higher prestige. This group of people first becomes bilingual, then with newer generations the level of proficiency decreases, and finally
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devoted to the study of ethnolinguistic vitality, Vol. 32.2, 2011, with several authors presenting their own tools for measuring language vitality. A number of other published works on measuring language vitality have been published, prepared by authors with varying situations and applications in
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A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining, and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is effectively dead. A language that has reached such a
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Radical language death: the disappearance of a language when all speakers of the language cease to speak the language because of threats, pressure, persecution, or colonisation. In the case of radical death, language death is very sudden therefore the speech community skips over the semi-speaker
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Language death is rarely a sudden event, but a slow process of each generation learning less and less of the language until its use is relegated to the domain of traditional use, such as in poetry and song. Typically the transmission of the language from adults to children becomes more and more
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to using other languages. As speakers shift, there are discernible, if subtle, changes in language behavior. These changes in behavior lead to a change of linguistic vitality in the community. There are a variety of systems that have been proposed for measuring the vitality of a language in a
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as extinct." The language vitality for Ainu has weakened because of
Japanese becoming the favoured language for education since the end of the nineteenth century. Education in Japanese heavily impacted the decline in use of the Ainu language because of forced linguistic assimilation.
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which may be voluntary or may be forced upon a population. Speakers of some languages, particularly regional or minority languages, may decide to abandon them because of economic or utilitarian reasons, in favor of languages regarded as having greater utility or prestige.
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Cultural contact and clash: Culture contact and clash affects how the community feels about the native language. Cultural, economic and political contact with communities that speak different languages are factors that may alter a community's attitude towards their own
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As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050.
1457:
Sivak, L., Westhead, S., Richards, E., Atkinson, S., Richards, J., Dare, H., Zuckermann, G., Gee, G., Wright, M., Rosen, et al. (2019). "Language
Breathes Life" – Barngarla Community Perspectives on the Wellbeing Impact of Reclaiming a Dormant Australian Aboriginal
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found that
Indigenous communities in which a majority of members speak the traditional language exhibit low suicide rates while suicide rates were six times higher in groups where less than half of its members communicate in their ancestral language.
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Canada and there was a link found between their traditional language knowledge and the prevalence of diabetes. The greater their knowledge was of their traditional language, the lower the prevalence of diabetes was within their communities.
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631:. This happens when a language in the course of its normal development gradually morphs into something that is then recognized as a separate, different language, leaving the old form with no native speakers. Thus, for example,
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speakers replace elements of their own language with something from the language they are shifting toward. Also, if their heritage language has an element that the new language does not, speakers may drop it.
1990:
1687:
Crystal, David. 2010. "Language
Planning". In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Third Edition, edited by David Crystal, 382–387. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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Oster, R.T., Grier, A., Lightning, R., Mayan, M.J., & Toth, E.L. (2014). Cultural continuity, traditional
Indigenous language, and diabetes in Alberta First Nations: a mixed methods study.
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aimed at helping preserve languages that are at risk of extinction. Its goal is to compile up-to-date information about endangered languages and share the latest research about them.
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restricted, to the final setting that adults speaking the language will raise children who never acquire fluency. One example of this process reaching its conclusion is that of the
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opportunities. The movement of people puts the native language in danger because more children become bilingual which makes the language harder to pass down to future generations.
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Harrison, K. David. (2007) When
Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press.
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Language revitalization is an attempt to slow or reverse language death. Revitalization programs are ongoing in many languages, and have had varying degrees of success.
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Top-to-bottom language death: happens when language shift begins in a high-level environment such as the government, but still continues to be used in casual context.
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Bottom-to-top language death: occurs when the language starts to be used for only religious, literary, ceremonial purposes, but not in casual context. (As in
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2430:'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance, and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures'
759:
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1621:
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Hale, Ken; Krauss, Michael; Watahomigie, Lucille J.; Yamamoto, Akira Y.; Craig, Colette; Jeanne, LaVerne M. et al. (1992). Endangered languages.
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is slowly dying: "The UNESCO Atlas of the World's
Languages in Danger lists Hokkaido Ainu as critically endangered with 15 speakers ... and both
919:
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Reasons for language revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as the
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decreases, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety. Language death can affect any language form, including
2298:
Motamed, Fereydoon; (1974). La métrique diatemporelle: ou des accords de temps revolutifs dans les langues à flexions quantitatives. "
1902:
Ehala, Martin. 2009. An evaluation matrix for ethnolinguistic vitality. In
Susanna Pertot, Tom Priestly & Colin Williams (eds.),
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710:
Except in case of linguicide, languages do not suddenly become extinct; they become moribund as the community of speakers gradually
848:
1415:
Dorian, Nancy C. (September 1978). "Fate of morphological complexity in language death: Evidence from East
Sutherland Gaelic".
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1803:
1212:
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reported only 7,102 known living languages; and on 23 February 2016, Ethnologue reported only 7,097 known living languages.
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Schilling-Estes, Natalie; & Wolfram, Walt. (1999). Alternative models of dialect death: Dissipation vs. concentration.
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Linguists distinguish between language "death" and the process where a language becomes a "dead language" through normal
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The language must be used in new environments and the areas the language is used (both old and new) must be strengthened.
1763:
Länsisalmi, Riikka (October 2016). "Northern Voices: Examining
Language Attitudes in Recent Surveys on Ainu and Saami".
1192:
2125:
Dorian, Nancy C. (1978). The fate of morphological complexity in language death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic.
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479:
1665:""Think In Navajo": Reflections from the Field on Reversing Navajo Language Shift in Homes, Schools and Communities"
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Languages with a small, geographically isolated population of speakers can die when their speakers are wiped out by
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The endangered community must possess an ethnic identity that is strong enough to encourage language preservation
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in East Sutherland, Scotland (Dorian: 1978) as fluent speakers still used the historic plural formation, whereas
1835:
2682:
2046:
Campbell, Lyle; & Muntzel, M. (1989). The structural consequences of language death. In N. C. Dorian (Ed.).
1102:
586:
437:
2471:
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Joshua James Zwisler, Apples - Journal of Applied Language Studies 15(2), Sep 2021. doi:10.47862/apples.103419
2147:. Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language (No. 7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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769:
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1945:
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Tsunoda, Tasaku. Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 2005. Print.
513:
490:. During the past century, it is estimated that more than 2,000 languages have already become extinct. The
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Hallett, D., Chandler, M.J., & Lalonde, C.E. (2007). Aboriginal language knowledge and youth suicide.
699:
2268:
When languages collide: Perspectives on language conflict, language competition, and language coexistence
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863:
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Mohan, Peggy; & Zador, Paul. (1986). Discontinuity in a life cycle: The death of Trinidad Bhojpuri.
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The process of language change may also involve the splitting up of a language into a family of several
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786:
375:
17:
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Theory of language death, and, language decay and contact-induced change: Similarities and differences
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Knowles-Berry, Susan (Winter 1987). "Linguistic decay in Chontal Mayan: the speech of semi-speakers".
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2662:
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Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages
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647:. Dialects of a language can also die, contributing to the overall language death. For example, the
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community. One of the earliest is the GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) proposed by
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The creation and promotion of programs that educate students on the endangered language and culture
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M. Lynne Landwehr. 2011. Methods of language endangerment research: a perspective from Melanesia.
37:
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813:
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428:
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The most common process leading to language death is one in which a community of speakers of one
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in 1991. A noteworthy publishing milestone in measuring language vitality is an entire issue of
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833:
652:
384:
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972:
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Akira Yamamoto has identified nine factors that he believes will help prevent language death:
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speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a
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2372:
Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. (1992). Theory of language death. In M. Brenzinger (Ed.) (pp. 7–30).
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Lewis, M. Paul & Gary F. Simons. 2010. Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman's GIDS.
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Language death and language maintenance: Theoretical, practical and descriptive approaches
2005:
Language death: Factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa
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phase where structural changes begin to happen to languages. The languages just disappear.
8:
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61:
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Linguistic genocide or linguicide?: A discussion of terminology in forced language loss.
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131:
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2369:. Arbeitspapier (No. 12). Köln: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität zu Köln.
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2022:
1813:
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Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region
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The language must have written materials that encompass new and traditional content
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115:
98:
83:
43:
2478:
International Symposium on "Linguistic Rights in the World: The current situation"
2347:. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education.
1941:
731:
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Other cases of language revitalization which have seen some degree of success are
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2401:
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Language in danger: The loss of linguistic diversity and the threat to our future
2053:. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education.
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873:
808:
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472:
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335:
243:
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Language attrition: the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level
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2162:(International Journal of the Sociology of Language vol. 12). The Hague: Mouton.
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In light of our differences: How diversity in nature and culture makes us human
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Mark E. Karan (2011): Understanding and forecasting Ethnolinguistic Vitality.
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165:
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1875:"Tools and techniques for endangered-language assessment and revitalization"
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may be regarded as a "dead language" although it changed and developed into
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683:
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On biocultural diversity: Linking language, knowledge, and the environment
1998:
Language decline and death in Africa: Causes, consequences, and challenges
1428:
1025:
Hall, Christopher J.; Smith, Patrick H.; Wicaksono, Rachel (11 May 2015).
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allegiance to the second language until they cease to use their original,
134:(also called language loss), which describes the loss of proficiency in a
111:, the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major language.
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2472:
Globalization & the Myth of Killer Languages: What's Really Going on?
2388:
Linguistic genocide in education—or worldwide diversity and human rights?
1904:
Rights, promotion and integration issues for minority languages in Europe
1296:
How the History of Linguicide Threatens Indigenous Peoples in Asia Today.
1052:
632:
153:
105:, the death of a language from natural or political causes, and, rarely,
71:
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Language endangerment: What have pride & prestige got to do with It?
1401:
164:
and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign
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1080:
656:
589: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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used simple suffixation or did not include any plural formation at all;
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181:
177:
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The creation of school programs that are both bilingual and bicultural
2492:
CELCE talk: Politics of Language, Politics of Death (by Gerald Roche)
2145:
Investigating obsolescence: Studies in language contraction and death
1498:
Pine, Aidan; Turin, Mark (29 March 2017). "Language Revitalization".
1460:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16
776:
358:
1106:
564:
27:
Process in which a language eventually loses its last native speaker
2604:
2079:
1237:
Brenzinger, Matthias; Heine, Bernd; Sommer, Gabriele (March 1991).
1028:
Mapping Applied Linguistics: A Guide for Students and Practitioners
691:
483:
263:
239:
180:
recorded 7,358 living languages known in 2001, but on 20 May 2015,
79:
54:
1578:"Welsh was saved from extinction. Cantonese might not be so lucky"
678:, leaving the common parent language "dead". This has happened to
1948:
PLoS.ONE 8(10) Oct. 22.: e77056. doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0077056
695:
526:
There must be a dominant culture that favors linguistic diversity
415:
267:
209:
127:
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509:
441:
407:
2175:
Grenoble, Lenore A.; & Whaley, Lindsay J. (Eds.). (1998).
2039:
Campbell, Lyle. (1994). Language death. In R. E. Asher (Ed.),
2158:
Dressler, Wolfgand & Wodak-Leodolter, Ruth (eds.) (1977)
1622:"Leokī: A Powerful Voice of Hawaiian Language Revitalization"
679:
544:
There must be language materials created that are easy to use
205:
156:), language death has typically resulted from the process of
1730:
Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization
1313:"Language Death and Disappearance: Causes and Circumstances"
2280:
Maurais, Jacques; & Morris, Michael A. (Eds.). (2003).
2138:
Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect
1001:
Living Through Languages: An African Tribute to René Dirven
541:
The endangered speech community must be completely involved
900:
898:
414:
Another study was also conducted on aboriginal peoples in
394:
2323:
Vanishing voices: The extinction of the world's languages
2177:
Endangered languages: Current issues and future prospects
1733:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 20.
1199:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. x–xi,
406:
One study conducted on aboriginal youth suicide rates in
1191:
Dorian, Nancy C. (6 July 1989), Dorian, Nancy C. (ed.),
974:
Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning
1993:, Glossa. An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 2, num. 2.
1991:"Linguistic sustainability for a multilingual humanity"
895:
2450:
Lost Tongues and the Politics of Language Endangerment
1790:(1 ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 3–24.
504:
196:
and may manifest itself in one of the following ways:
93:
is when the language is no longer known, including by
1930:
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
1882:
Trace Foundation Lecture Series Proceedings: Preprint
1534:
The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice
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953:
951:
949:
941:
Langue et colonialisme: petit traité de glottophagie.
722:
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
1298:
Patricia Wattimena, Cultural Survival, 11 March 2019
114:
Language death is a process in which the level of a
2232:Hill, Jane. (1983). Language death in Uto-Aztecan.
760:
Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation
2277:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
2211:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
1917:International Journal of the Sociology of Language
1597:
1024:
961:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 19
946:
444:is the only example of a language's acquiring new
2140:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1727:Grenoble, Leonore A.; Whaley, Lindsay J. (2005).
1619:
2654:
2422:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
2321:Nettle, Daniel; & Romaine, Suzanne. (2000).
730:, Martin Ehala, M. Lynne Landwehr, Mark Karan,
2243:Janse, Mark; & Tol, Sijmen (Eds.). (2003).
2114:(1973). Grammatical change in a dying dialect.
1977:Spoken here: Travels among threatened languages
1788:Routledge Handbook of Japanese Sociolinguistics
538:For native speakers to receive teacher training
2413:Words of the world: The global language system
2358:Robins, R. H.; & Uhlenbeck, E. M. (1991).
1786:. In Heinrich, Patrick; Ohara, Yumiko (eds.).
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1532:Hinton, Leanne; & Hale, Ken (eds.). 2001.
1486:International Journal for Equity in Health, 13
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381:style loss, such as the loss of ritual speech;
299:During language loss—sometimes referred to as
2512:
2234:International Journal of American Linguistics
2043:(pp. 1960–1968). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
1599:"The struggle to preserve regional languages"
1387:
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1053:"Study by language researcher, David Graddol"
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130:. Language death should not be confused with
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2455:Languages don't kill languages; speakers do
1501:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
1367:. Cambridge University Press. p. 191.
192:Language death is typically the outcome of
2526:
2519:
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2395:Time Takes Its Toll on Old Swiss Language
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605:Learn how and when to remove this message
2311:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2284:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2179:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2108:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1873:Dwyer, Arienne M. (23–24 October 2009).
1781:
1504:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press.
849:List of last known speakers of languages
2093:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1360:
1127:
970:
627:, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to
395:Consequences for indigenous communities
14:
2655:
1986:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1833:
1690:
1662:
1551:"Aboriginal languages deserve revival"
1414:
1190:
223:identity of a certain group of people.
97:speakers, when it becomes known as an
2629:Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
2500:
2034:Language wars and linguistic politics
2007:. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
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246:with another language, and gradually
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2003:Brenzinger, Matthias (Ed.). (1992).
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587:adding citations to reliable sources
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2325:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2227:Les créoles: L'indispensable survie
1984:Language change: progress or decay?
1629:Computer Assisted Language Learning
505:Factors that prevent language death
24:
2270:. Columbus: Ohio State University.
2036:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1968:
1361:Crystal, David (6 November 2014).
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1301:
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2436:Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 111–127.
2434:Australian Journal of Linguistics
2420:Language contact: An introduction
2345:Revitalizing indigenous languages
2309:The ecology of language evolution
2247:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub.
2172:. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
2080:How Do You Learn a Dead Language?
2019:Language Death in the Isle of Man
1863:. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
1834:Tahara, Kaori (5 February 2019).
1784:"Ainu language and Ainu speakers"
1576:Griffiths, James (9 April 2019).
1074:Bilbo Baggins (16 January 2009).
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480:exploitation of natural resources
2282:Languages in a globalizing world
2266:Joseph, Brian D. (Ed.). (2003).
2143:Dorian, Nancy C. (Ed.). (1989).
2051:Stabilizing indigenous languages
2014:. Cologne: Rüdiger Köper Verlag.
1989:Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2007).
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1128:Graddol, D. (27 February 2004).
794:International auxiliary language
686:) eventually developed into the
563:
152:–present; following the rise of
53:
36:
2193:. Paris: Editions Odille Jacob.
1951:
1935:
1922:
1909:
1896:
1853:
1836:"The saga of the Ainu language"
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1720:
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1555:The Australian Higher Education
1539:
1526:
1491:
1478:
1465:
1408:
1381:
1311:Wurm, Stephen A. (March 1991).
1289:
1277:
1184:
1121:
574:needs additional citations for
2415:. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
2386:Skutnab-Kangas, Tove. (2000).
2106:The rise and fall of languages
2012:Endangered languages in Africa
1959:Revue Roumaine de Linguistique
1782:Fukazawa, Mika (5 June 2019).
1095:
1067:
1045:
1018:
991:
964:
933:
438:revival of the Hebrew language
13:
1:
2390:Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
1765:Studia Orientalia Electronica
888:
770:Lists of endangered languages
726:mind. These include works by
486:, or cultural danger such as
277:
146:
2428:and Michael Walsh. (2011).
2365:Sasse, Hans-JĂĽrgen. (1990).
2343:Reyhner, Jon (Ed.). (1999).
2336:Phillipson, Robert. (2003).
2314:Mühlhäusler, Peter. (1996).
2273:Maffi, Lusia (Ed.). (2001).
2032:Calvet, Louis-Jean. (1998).
1536:. San Diego: Academic Press.
1205:10.1017/cbo9780511620997.001
1105:. Ethnologue. Archived from
1055:. NBC News. 26 February 2004
514:Endangered Languages Project
7:
2418:Thomason, Sarah G. (2001).
2301:" Open Library OL25631615M.
2191:Halte Ă la mort des langues
2017:Broderick, George. (1999).
1672:Northern Arizona University
1390:Anthropological Linguistics
737:
706:Measuring language vitality
482:, political danger such as
60:The last three speakers of
10:
2704:
2466:Language birth & death
2229:. Paris: Editions Entente.
2075:. Cambridge: Polity Press.
1996:Batibo, Herman M. (2005).
1982:Aitchinson, Jean. (1991).
1329:10.1177/039219219103915302
1255:10.1177/039219219103915303
1239:"Language Death in Africa"
1197:Investigating Obsolescence
939:Calvet, Jean-Louis. 1974.
910:"Stop, revive and survive"
787:Lists of extinct languages
667:
616:
426:
334:loss, such as was seen in
2637:
2613:
2575:
2534:
2411:de Swaan, Abram. (2001).
2136:Dorian, Nancy C. (1981).
2078:Cyr, Christine. (2008). "
1473:Cognitive Development, 22
829:Linguistic discrimination
365:, complex constructions);
201:no native speakers exist.
2624:Father Tongue hypothesis
2393:Slater, Julia. (2010). "
2189:Hagège, Claude. (2000).
2182:Hagège, Claude. (1992).
2104:Dixon, R. M. W. (1997).
2071:Crystal, David. (2004).
2056:Crystal, David. (2000).
1861:Reversing Language Shift
1663:Werito, Vincent (2020).
1641:10.1080/0958822970100405
1574:For Welsh and Hawaiian:
1130:"The Future of Language"
700:New Indo-Aryan languages
351:may become increasingly
187:
2547:Synchrony and diachrony
2542:Comparative Linguistics
2400:2 December 2012 at the
2207:Harmon, David. (2002).
2184:Le souffle de la langue
2089:Dalby, Andrew. (2003).
2000:. Multilingual Matters.
1946:Digital Language Death.
1859:Fishman, Joshua. 1991.
1796:10.4324/9781315213378-1
1154:10.1126/science.1096546
814:Language revitalization
429:Language revitalization
423:Language revitalization
374:loss of word-formation
295:Consequences on grammar
254:. This is a process of
46:script on a clay tablet
2668:Historical linguistics
2528:Historical linguistics
2021:. TĂĽbingen: Niemeyer.
1698:"Endangered Languages"
957:Crystal, David (2000)
834:Linguistic imperialism
452:. Even in the case of
401:Indigenous communities
385:morphological leveling
2683:Cultural assimilation
2186:. Paris: Odile Jacob.
1975:Abley, Mark. (2003).
1561:on 23 September 2009.
1429:10.1353/lan.1978.0024
1004:. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA.
698:) developed into the
158:cultural assimilation
120:linguistic competence
2360:Endangered languages
2340:. London: Routledge.
2318:. London: Routledge.
2305:Mufwene, Salikoko S.
1979:. London: Heinemann.
912:, Higher Education,
641:Early Modern English
583:improve this article
390:analogical leveling.
311:undergeneralization;
101:. A related term is
2426:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
2073:Language revolution
1547:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
1146:2004Sci...303.1329G
1140:(5662): 1329–1331.
906:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
859:Native Tongue Title
765:Endangered language
450:liturgical language
308:overgeneralization;
168:, largely those of
91:language extinction
2614:Relationship with
2166:Fishman, Joshua A.
1549:(26 August 2009).
883:(documentary film)
745:Classical language
676:daughter languages
499:Ghil'ad Zuckermann
363:lexical categories
289:Dalmatian language
170:European countries
138:of an individual.
132:language attrition
2688:Extinct languages
2678:Linguistic rights
2650:
2649:
1805:978-1-315-21337-8
1214:978-0-521-32405-2
1109:on 5 October 2001
869:Regional language
864:Prestige language
854:Minority language
844:Linguistic rights
839:Linguistic purism
804:Language movement
755:Cultural hegemony
750:Cultural genocide
694:, which (through
688:Romance languages
682:, which (through
615:
614:
607:
252:heritage language
16:(Redirected from
2695:
2673:Education policy
2663:Sociolinguistics
2600:Syntactic change
2521:
2514:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2112:Dorian, Nancy C.
1962:
1955:
1949:
1939:
1933:
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1920:
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1772:
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1754:
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1744:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1704:. Archived from
1694:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1658:
1657:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1626:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1606:. 25 August 2022
1601:
1592:
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1588:
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1562:
1557:. Archived from
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937:
931:
930:
929:
927:
918:, archived from
902:
799:Language contact
782:Extinct language
629:pseudoextinction
619:Extinct language
610:
603:
599:
596:
590:
567:
559:
272:natural disaster
151:
148:
124:language variety
116:speech community
99:extinct language
89:. By extension,
57:
40:
21:
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2698:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
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2653:
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2609:
2595:Semantic change
2590:Language change
2577:Language change
2571:
2530:
2525:
2488:, 24 April 2008
2444:
2439:
2402:Wayback Machine
2362:. Oxford: Berg.
1971:
1969:Further reading
1966:
1965:
1961:55(2). 103–120.
1956:
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1940:
1936:
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1914:
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1708:on 9 April 2014
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947:
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925:
923:
908:(6 June 2012),
903:
896:
891:
886:
874:Rosetta Project
809:Language policy
740:
708:
672:
670:Language change
666:
664:Language change
625:language change
621:
611:
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591:
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431:
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336:Scottish Gaelic
297:
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95:second-language
68:
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2562:Neogrammarians
2559:
2557:Language death
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2495:
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2482:United Nations
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2443:
2442:External links
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1932:32(2) 137–149.
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1740:978-0521016520
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1635:(4): 349–362.
1618:For Hawaiian:
1616:
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1477:
1464:
1450:
1423:(3): 590–609.
1407:
1396:(4): 332–341.
1380:
1373:
1364:Language Death
1350:
1300:
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1276:
1249:(153): 19–44.
1226:
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1038:978-1136836237
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984:978-1136235535
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959:Language Death
945:
932:
922:on 6 June 2012
915:The Australian
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819:Language shift
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736:
717:Joshua Fishman
707:
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668:Main article:
665:
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645:Modern English
637:Middle English
617:Main article:
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555:Dead languages
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520:Anthropologist
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492:United Nations
446:first language
427:Main article:
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194:language shift
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150: 1500 CE
136:first language
87:native speaker
78:occurs when a
76:language death
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2552:Protolanguage
2550:
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2383:(3), 486–521.
2382:
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2353:0-9670554-0-7
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2331:0-19-513624-1
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2295:(2), 291–319.
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2133:(3), 590–609.
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2066:0-521-65321-5
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2027:3-484-30395-6
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1942:András Kornai
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1604:The Economist
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1519:9780199384655
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1323:(153): 1–18.
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1031:. Routledge.
1030:
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977:. Routledge.
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880:The Linguists
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649:Ainu language
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595:December 2015
588:
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572:This section
570:
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361:loss (i.e.
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154:colonialism
108:glottophagy
72:linguistics
2657:Categories
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2122:, 413–438.
1884:. New York
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1475:, 392–399.
1081:chinaSMACK
889:References
657:Kuril Ainu
326:word order
318:contrasts;
278:Definition
182:Ethnologue
178:Ethnologue
103:linguicide
82:loses its
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2240:, 258–27.
1814:197996106
1458:Language.
1445:143011686
1345:143838613
1337:0392-1921
1271:144285294
1263:0392-1921
1193:"Preface"
1162:0036-8075
777:Ethnocide
690:, and to
359:syntactic
346:synthetic
244:bilingual
234:language.
122:in their
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2642:Category
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1417:Language
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1170:14988552
1113:22 March
1059:22 March
738:See also
692:Sanskrit
653:Sakhalin
484:genocide
469:Hawaiian
353:analytic
314:loss of
264:genocide
242:becomes
240:language
128:dialects
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465:Basque
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248:shifts
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