727:
organizations and a system of deferring part of the men's pay until they returned to
Nyasaland. However, many workers left independently, disregarding government restrictions and licensed recruiters For much of the first half of the 20th century, there was a debate on whether Nyasaland should have as its main economic function agriculture on European owned estates, peasant cash-crop production or the supply of migrant labor. Although labor migration was predominant in the Northern Province of Nyasaland and Eastern Province of Northern Rhodesia, regarding them simply as labor reserves ignores the increasing importance of peasant cash crop production in these areas and government attempts to find suitable cash crops which could replace migrant laboring as the main source of local cash incomes. Peasant cash-crop production in Nyasaland's Central Province and this together with agriculture on European-owned estates in the Southern Province were far more important than labor migration to their local economies and that of Nyasaland as a whole in the colonial period.
677:
effects, and the cost to
Nyasaland of its colonial era railways. Two more recent assessments are that British rule was a mixed blessing for many of the peoples of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, as it brought an end to warfare and slave raiding, yet redirected much of their productive labor toward the capitalism of the south, and that many labor migrants travelled south clandestinely, ignoring governmental restrictions, in search of financial security; although many were exploited, others achieved modest prosperity after their return from their savings out of higher wages earned abroad.
564:
ethnic and regional consciousness that had been established earlier in the 20th century, but which became less prominent during struggles for independence. This revival reflected the artificial origin of most post-colonial
African states and their rapid adoption of one-party rule: the development of regionalism and tribalism was a reaction to the dominant party trying to impose a false unity on the existence of ethnic diversity.
644:, at the same time promoting the Chewa culture as the only authentic Malawian culture. In addition to renaming the Chinyanja language Chichewa in 1968, Tumbuka was abolished as an official language and the medium of instruction in the Northern Region in the same year, and examination results and the secondary school entrance system were manipulated to assist candidates from the Central Region and disadvantage those from the
494:. He considered that the absence of many able-bodied men restricted the ability of those women, youths and older men remaining to produce food or cash crops, and European farmers discouraged the growth of cash crops that might compete with them. As a result of these policies, Vail believed that, for the forty years until 1939, the people the British colonies were impoverished and exploited and that post-
519:. He argued the country's economy was burdened by heavy debts arising from colonial railway construction, which he considered was designed to benefit British companies and interests at the expense of Nyasaland and which hindered its economic development. Initially, the landlocked protectorate was reached from the Indian Ocean along the
702:
she had been misadvised by Ngoni informants, but he did not consider the efficiency or otherwise of slash-and-burn cultivation. Recent research supports Read's views, showing that, in 1998, most soils in Malawi were adequate for growing maize, as fertility had declined much less rapidly than forecast between the 1930s and 1950s.
730:
Vail and White considered that the colonial administration of
Mozambique pressured local Africans into migrant labor by discouraging them from growing cash crops and requiring them to engage in productive labor. However, Penvenne argued that Vail and White did not clearly distinguish between coercive
701:
cultivation, which a few tropical agriculturalists from the 1950s began to recognize them as sympathetic to the environment, and which many modern-day tropical agriculturalists consider may be more efficient than fixed cultivation of many tropical soils. Vail expressly rejected Read's views, claiming
554:
in general. He suggested that this debt burden left its government with insufficient funds to promote the growing of exportable crops by
African farmers. The high freight charges levied by the railways to Beira were a further disincentive to agricultural development and forced protectorate to rely on
328:
Vail returned to the United States in 1978, and was visiting
Associate Professor successively at Virginia for the 1978–79 academic year, UCLA, for 1979–80 and Ohio for 1980–81. He then gained a Research Fellowship on the Yale Southern African Research Program in 1981-82, returning to Virginia for the
676:
Vail's research was regarded as innovative when published, but his views in three areas have been reassessed by other scholars or modified by later research: the extent of ecological damage caused by
African agricultural practices, the degree of compulsion involved in labor migration and its overall
563:
In the 1980s, Vail considered the historical background to the creation of ethnicity and the resurgence of tribalism in
Central and Southern Africa. His experience in Malawi suggested to him that, in the late 1960s shortly after the independence of several former colonies, there was a revival of the
444:
began to import
European goods into the area and to transport young African men to work in European enterprises the south. Scottish Presbyterian missionaries also arrived in the area and Mbelwa, who had little power over influential Ngoni military leaders, sought an alliance with the missionaries to
710:
Vail's suggestions that the forced recruitment of labor and the forced consumption of foreign goods were imposed on the
Tumbuka and Ngoni in northern Nyasaland in the later 19th century, or that other African men in Nyasaland, eastern Northern Rhodesia or Mozambique had little or no option but to
575:
Although accepting that all these explanations might have some validity, Vail considered them unhistorical and pointed to the impoverishment of Central and Southern Africa in the late 19th and early 20th century through ecological catastrophes such as the rinderpest epidemic, disease, locusts and
470:
forces which conquered the Ngoni in that area later in the decade. Restrictions on Africans possessing guns for hunting elephants and other wild animals deprived them, in Vail's view, of sources of income and meat, and the imposition of a hut tax and land expropriation in Northern Rhodesia in the
333:
which he co-authored with Landeg White, was published. Its history was based on archival material and also on African women's songs that recorded the African suffering caused by Portuguese rule in the Lower Zambezi. In 1983, he organized a symposium for historians and anthropologists of southern
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in Northern Nyasaland is based on the views of 19th century missionaries who regarded Ngoni farming practices as environmentally destructive, wasteful and therefore morally wrong, and also the attitudes of colonial officials from the 1930s onward who accepted the missionaries' views without any
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also provided educational advancement for some southerners. Those that these missions trained became an educated African elite, who found employment as teachers, in the civil service or in commerce, and whose political aim was African advancement to higher positions in the administration and to
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promoted. Before the ratification of a British protectorate over what became Nyasaland, there were many ethnic groups in the area. Missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries homogenized the various local dialects into a relatively small number of standardized languages, so that the
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tactics, from the rigid classification of African peoples into fixed tribes by European anthropologists or when previously isolated rural groups came together and into conflict in urban or industrial settings. He also questioned whether the growth of ethnic particularism was related to uneven
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Rather than consistently promoting labor migration, the Nyasaland government opposed all migration of workers outside the protectorate before 1903 and from 1913 to 1936 and, when it did allow migrancy, the government insisted on enforcing controls on the numbers recruited by licensed labor
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Although Pachai strongly believed that the development of Nyasaland's railways was a positive contribution by the British government to the protectorate's development, Vail considered that the policies of the British government and the local colonial administration turned Nyasaland into an
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showed that revenue was maintained in the first part of that decade and rose in the second half, and that ordinary government expenditure rose by 50% in the period, with significant increases in Social Services and Natural Resources spending and staff, although the amounts were small.
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Although Mbelwa's Ngoni retained their autonomy until 1904, Vail considers that their social and economic position and those of the Tumbuka were weakened as previous relatively egalitarian class systems became more unequal when they were drawn into the capitalist economy. The Ngoni in
623:
in the south, including many Muslims debarred from Christian education, and the Chewa in the centre, where fewer missions were founded, were more resentful of the intervention of the colonial state and protective of their traditional culture than motivated by political aspirations.
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in Southern Rhodesia had been opened in 1899 and, after a possible alternative rail route from Quelimane toward the Nyasaland border stalled after the First World War, the British government was under pressure from British-owned companies to link Nyasaland's railways to this line.
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churches gave rise to new identities that, for European missionaries or anthropologists or educated Africans themselves, were ethnic identities, each with its language, often fixed by missionaries for used in education, and a rediscovered or manufactured history and traditions.
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over the Zambezi out of the expected increase in government revenues. By 1935, the country was liable to repay debts of ÂŁ5.1 million. Vail also notes that the colonial administration abandoned development plans in the 1930s, attributing this to its indebtedness rather than the
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in 1953. Rather than draining Nyasaland's admittedly meagre public funds, as Vail suggests, the railway and Zambezi Bridge cost it relatively little and provided a more effective, if underutilized, link to the outside world than the previously used option of river transport.
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concept saw the colonial period as an episode in building the post-colonial nation. This view weighed the benefits of the physical infrastructure and economic structures inherited by the new nation against colonial restrictions on African political and social advancement.
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Vail's argument that the cost of railway links impoverished Nyasaland, preventing the government from promoting efficient peasant agriculture has also been questioned. The Nyasaland government only had to pay interest and repay capital on the loans for constructing the
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cultivation and extensive cattle herding and their preference for living in large villages rather than in dispersed farmsteads, as the original inhabitants had done, caused overgrazing and the loss of soil fertility near the villages and the development of uncultivated
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labor conscription for work within Mozambique and migrant labor recruitment, where workers actively sought higher wages outside its territory. This external migrant labor was voluntary and often the subject of disapproval by officials or companies based in Mozambique.
383:. Vail saw underdevelopment as a step-by-step process of impoverishment and stagnation that started in the middle of the 19th century but accelerated under colonial rule. His theme, developed in four significant papers published between 1975 and 1981, was that the in
266:
Leroy married Patricia Ann Horochena, who held a master's degree in mathematics from the University of Wisconsin – Madison in 1967. In 1988, she and Vail took a Zambian girl, Sharon Mulenga, into their home as their daughter. Patricia Vail died on 26 February 2007.
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rivers, which were free of customs dues to international traffic, but falling Shire river levels in the early 20th century created difficulties in maintaining a continuous service. The first railway project was to link the most developed part of the country, the
756:
Although Vail mentions that various development projects were shelved in 1935, he does not provide a direct link between this and the increased public debt. A more detailed review of the Nyasaland government's actual revenue and expenditure in the 1929 to 1939
320:, remaining there until 1978. During his time at this university, he organized an undergraduate course in African Languages and a Masters course in African History, and published several important articles on the history of Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique.
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in the late 1950s and early 1960s were Tumbuka speaking northerners or graduates of Blantyre Mission and, in 1963, in preparation for independence, these took a majority of the ministerial posts in Banda's government. Shortly after independence, in the
694:. Read regarded the Ngoni as having an efficient agricultural system based on the labor of their serfs, and accounts from the 1870s to 1890s mention extensive cultivation and cattle herding, and the apparent health and prosperity of the Ngoni people.
349:, was published in 1992. This argued that oral history was real history and that poets and their poetry for played a significant role in transmitting Southern African history. In 1994, after the Banda regime had ended, Vail returned to Malawi as a
1545:
L Vail, (1981). The Making of the "Dead North": A Study of the Ngoni Rule in Northern Malawi, c. 1855-1907', in J.B. Peires (ed.), Before and After Shaka: Papers in Nguni History. Grahamstown, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes
640:, a key aim of the mission-educated elite, led to their resignation or sacking and, in most cases, their exile. In the aftermath of this, Banda purged their supporters from positions of influence and replaced them with Chewa nominees from the
422:
into a mixed agricultural economy placed, in Vail's view, increasing pressure on subject peoples to produce more cereals, which provoked a series of revolts among these subjects in the 1870s. Vail believed that Ngoni practices of shifting or
263:, where he studied African history and historical linguistics. He was awarded an M.A. in History in 1965, after which he was involved in Bantu language research at Madison, in its newly founded Department of African Languages and Literature.
576:
famine, colonial land expropriation and taxes and labor migrancy, all of which amounted to African people losing control of their lives. He believed that the decline of traditional power systems and the growth of both European organized and
486:. The colonial policies in these areas and in Mozambique resulted in leaving local African men at best little choice but become labor migrants and at worst in their forced recruitment for the mines, farms and other employers of
584:
In the decade following independence in 1964, political views in Malawi were frequently expressed in ethnic terms, and groups that had prospered under the colonial regime were stigmatized as being unfaithful to the country's
311:
in 1971 followed by later ones reinterpreting Tumbuka history and examining the operations of Portuguese companies in the lower Zambezi Valley of Mozambique. He returned to in Madison in 1971 to complete his doctoral thesis
366:
In the 1970s, soon after many former African colonies had become independent, two different approaches were taken to the historical treatment of the period of colonial rule, in Malawi and elsewhere in Africa. One, the
544:
Although, as Vail stated, the primary benefit of the Beira route did not accrue to Nyasaland, the protectorate was expected to pay interest and repay capital on loans for the construction of the railway link and the
1604:
613:
The education provided by Scottish-run missions at several sites in the Northern Province of Nyasaland was superior to that found in most other parts of the protectorate, although other Scottish missionaries at
436:
moved and infected nearby cattle. In what became northern Nyasaland, revolts by the oppressed Tumbuka, ecological degradation and the famine it caused undermined the position of the local Ngoni king, Mbelwa.
449:
as a betrayal of traditional values. At first, Mbelwa saw Christianity and missionary education as more suitable for Tumbuka serfs than polygamous Ngoni warriors, and their first missions were in Tumbuka or
572:
development in colonial times that gave some groups better access to education and employment, or to the creation of myths regarding ancestral political structures that were disrupted in the colonial era.
270:
In 1996, Vail suffered a massive heart attack but recovered and returned to work. However, he was later diagnosed with lymphoma which, in the autumn of 1998, spread uncontrollably. He died at his home in
1457:
J McCracken, (2003). Conservation and Resistance in Colonial Malawi: the 'Dead North' Revisited, in W Beinart and J McGregor (editors). Social History and African Environments, Oxford, James Currey.
656:
Towards the end of his career, Vail widened his interests, including a return to studying Bantu linguistics and at the time of his death, he had four books in progress, three on Central Africa
316:, which was accepted in 1972. He was unable to obtain an African history post in North America, so returned to Africa in 1973 as senior lecturer in history and African languages in the
1571:
L Vail, L White and J Penvenne, (1979). The Struggle for Mozambique: Capitalist Rivalries, 1900–40 (with Comments and Discussion) Review of the Fernand Braudel Center, Vol. 3, No. 2.
532:, to a suitable river port, although this line had to be extended southward as water levels in the Shire continued to fall, and it eventually reached the Zambezi. A railway from
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if its revenues exceeded target figures. During the period 1930 to 1947, it only paid interest in 1936 and repaid no capital, and all the accrued debt liabilities passed to the
1454:
J McCracken, (2002). The Ambiguities of Nationalism: Flax Musopole and the Northern Factor in Malawian Politics, c. 1956-1966, Journal of Southern African Studies Vol.28, No.1.
1445:
W Beinart, (1984). Soil Erosion, Conservationism and Ideas about Development: A Southern African Exploration, 1900–1960. Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1.
1489:
H L Moore and M Vaughan, (1994). Cutting Down Trees: Gender, Nutrition, and Agricultural Change in the Northern Province of Zambia, 1890–1990. London: James Currey, 1994.
341:
Vail became visiting Associate Professor of History at Harvard the spring term 1984, and received his first regular American academic appointment there later that year as
186:
that began in the mid-19th century and accelerated under colonial rule. After his return to the United States, he cooperated with Landeg White on studies of colonial
1560:
L Vail and L White, (1989). Tribalism in the Political History of Malawi, in L Vail (editor), the Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. Oxford, James Currey.
1599:
1549:
L Vail, (1989). Introduction: Ethnicity in Southern African History, in L Vail (editor), the Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. Oxford, James Currey.
345:
of History, being given tenure in 1990, and becoming Chairman of the Committee on African Studies from then until 1995. His second book with Landeg White,
1649:
1480:
606:
in the south. The Chewa and Nyanja languages are closely related and the official standard was called Chinyanja until 1968, when the president of Malawi
1448:
G C Bond, (2000). Historical Fragments and Social Constructions in Northern Zambia. Journal of African Cultural Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1, p. 81.
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of Zambia caused a further loss of status of among many indigenous groups, whose people become Ngoni serfs or refugees with limited access to land.
398:
in the late 18th and early 19th century and prompted social differentiation within their traditional societies. The mid-19th century incursion of
1486:
H Mitchell, (2013). In Search of Green Pastures: Labour Migration from Colonial Malawi, 1939–1960. The Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 66, No. 2.
1439:
723:. However, in the mid to late 1890s, some workers travelled voluntarily to Southern Rhodesia and South Africa where wages were much higher.
379:
in Central Africa. His attachment to this concept began with his research among what he called the dispossessed and atrociously exploited
615:
1539:
L Vail, (1975). The Making of an Imperial Slum: Nyasaland and Its Railways, 1895–1935. The Journal of African History, Vol. 16, No. 1.
1639:
1619:
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strengthen his position against those opponents that saw trying to accommodate the increasing European presence around the shores of
375:
Vail questioned the basis of the evolutionary Nation-building scheme of interpretation and was a strong advocate of the concept of
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S S Snapp, (1998). Soil Nutrient Status of Smallholder Farms in Malawi. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis Vol. 29.
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1533:
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1494:
1473:
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Vail was awarded a one-year traveling fellowship by the University of Wisconsin in 1967 and decided to undertake research in
135:
1528:
T J Thompson (1995). Christianity in Northern Malawi: Donald Fraser's Missionary Methods and Ngoni Culture. Leiden, Brill.
749:
1500:
D K Mphande, (2014). Oral Literature and Moral Education among the Lakeside Tonga of Northern Malawi, Mzuzu, Mzuni Press.
296:
and remained there until 1971. After leaving the country, he became a fierce critic of the regime of its first president,
1644:
1624:
252:
1614:
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L Vail (1977). Ecology and History: The example of Eastern Zambia. Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. III, No.2.
555:
exporting migrant labor, so producing widespread slum-like conditions and making it little more than a labor reserve.
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1462:
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C Baker, (1974). Depression and Development in Nyasaland 1929 — 1939. The Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1.
633:
182:
and his research in the first two countries inclined him toward the view that Central Africa underwent a period of
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become labor migrants seem overstated. The first labor migrancy from the area between the north-western shores of
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1629:
1609:
467:
158:(August 5, 1940 – March 27, 1999) whose birth name was Hazen Leroy Vail, was an American specialist in
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590:
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A G Irvine, (1959). The Balance of Payments of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 1945–1954. Oxford University Press.
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M Read, (1956). The Ngoni of Nyasaland. Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
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686:
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in modern Togo. It is possible that his dictionary of Lakeside Tonga may be published in the future.
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Vail did not accept, as other authors had claimed, that ethnicity resulted from the colonial powers’
441:
170:
of Central Africa and later extended his interests to Southern Africa. He taught in universities in
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577:
407:
403:
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According to Vail, the Ngoni invasions and the advent of colonial rule had created the so-called
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neighbourhood of Boston, where he attended local public schools. In 1952, he was admitted to the
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Africa that investigated the historical nature of African ethnicities in a landmark collection,
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610:, who came from the predominantly Chewa Central Province insisted on it being called Chichewa.
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86:
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valley predated these areas becoming British dependencies, and was initially directed to the
451:
70:
440:
These events predated any significant European presence in the area, but from the 1870s the
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317:
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259:. However, he quickly moved to the comparative tropical history program led by Curtin and
8:
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342:
233:
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The main objection of missionaries and colonial officials was to the Ngoni shifting or
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222:
34:
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on August 5, 1940, to parents of Canadian origin. His father, Hazen Claude Vail, from
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areas, although he later saw the missionaries’ value for the northern Ngoni state.
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256:
183:
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368:
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159:
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J McCracken, (2012). A History of Malawi, 1859–1966. Woodbridge, James Currey.
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epidemic of the early 1890s and many of their remaining cattle were seized by
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74:
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225:, arrived there as a young girl. He had one younger brother, born in 1943.
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221:, moved to Boston as an adult and his mother, born Mary Teresa MacLean in
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187:
1511:
B Pachai, (1973). Malawi: The History of the Nation. London, Longman.
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University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
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in Malawi and Zambia since 1850, a dictionary of Lakeside Tonga, and
241:
240:
to study Classics, but he changed to studying history after taking a
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created a demand for imported goods among the people to the west of
800:
Akyeampong, Appiah, Miller and Womack, Jr, (2000). Memorial Minute.
429:
97:
520:
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first decade of the 20th century further impoverished this area.
229:
163:
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in the areas between villages, into which wild animals carrying
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E Akyeampong, K A Appiah, J C Miller and J Womack, Jr. (2000).
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became the medium of teaching in the north of the country, the
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lost most of their cattle, representing their wealth, in the
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and on the value of African poetry and songs as a source of
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292:. He became a Lecturer in History in the newly founded
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policies came too late to make good the damage caused
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In 1967–68 Vail began linguistic research among the
255:, intending to study British imperial history under
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329:1982–83 academic year. Meanwhile, his first book,
307:of northern Malawi, publishing his first article,
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948:
1600:Morrissey College of Arts & Sciences alumni
1314:
636:, the rejection of their demand for more rapid
361:
1341:Moore and Vaughan, (2003), pp. 79-82, 89, 94
680:
336:The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa
619:obtain a political voice. In contrast, the
1650:Academic staff of the University of Malawi
1368:Vail, White and Penvenne (1979), pp. 277-8
1302:Vail, White and Penvenne (1979), pp. 247-8
662:Ideophones as stylistic devices in Tumbuka
413:
1440:Obituary of Patricia Ann (Horochena) Vail
244:course on medieval Europe, and graduated
558:
331:Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique
1483:Perspectives on History, November 1999.
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478:in Nyasaland and impoverishment around
236:, graduating in 1958, and then entered
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123:Hazen Claude Vail, Mary Teresa MacLean
16:American specialist in African studies
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253:University of Wisconsin–Madison
251:Vail attended graduate school at the
205:, known throughout his adult life as
750:Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
671:
162:and educator who specialized in the
1481:In Memoriam H. Leroy Vail (1940–99)
627:Many of the leading figures in the
589:culture which the ruling party and
353:monitor for the elections of 1994.
13:
734:
705:
651:
418:The conversion of migratory Ngoni
278:
14:
1661:
1164:Vail and White (1989), pp. 178-80
984:Vail and others (1979), pp. 250-2
966:Vail and others (1979), pp. 247-8
136:University of Wisconsin – Madison
1620:Linguists from the United States
1227:McCracken (2003), pp. 155-6, 162
1182:Vail and White (1989), pp. 182-4
1173:Vail and White (1989), pp. 181-2
1155:Vail and White (1989), pp. 173-4
1128:Vail and White (1989), pp. 156-7
1119:Vail and White (1989), pp. 151-2
828:Miller, Jr, (1999). In Memoriam.
658:Spirits, Women, and Deprivation,
198:Early life, education and family
1427:Memorial Minute – H. Leroy Vail
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1359:McCracken (2012), pp. 207, 257
1209:Mitchell (2013), pp. 17-18, 23
1047:Vail (1975), pp. 102-3, 109-10
1029:Vail (1975), pp. 89-90, 93, 98
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33:Professor of African History,
1:
1146:Vail and White (1989), p. 166
1137:Vail and White (1989), p. 178
975:Vail (1977), pp. 137-8, 143-4
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602:in the centre and Nyanja and
468:British South African Company
1640:People from Allston–Brighton
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283:
7:
1413:Baker (1974), pp. 11-12, 15
1350:McCracken (2003), pp. 161-2
1290:Vail (1977), pp. 137, 150-1
864:Vail (1981), pp. 233-4, 238
362:Underdevelopment hypothesis
314:Aspects of the Tumbuka Verb
309:The Noun Classes of Tumbuka
10:
1666:
1645:Boston Latin School alumni
1625:Harvard University faculty
1419:
1272:Snapp (1998), pp. 2572-88.
685:Much of Vail's account of
629:Nyasaland African Congress
1615:Historians of colonialism
1386:McCracken (2012), p. 175.
1377:Irvine (1959), pp. 181-2.
1323:McCraken (2012), pp. 85-7
1254:Thompson (2003), pp. 22-3
900:Vail (1981), pp. 248, 250
687:environmental degradation
681:Environmental degradation
347:Power and the Praise Poem
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28:
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1332:McCracken (2003), p. 156
1245:Beinart (1984), pp. 61-2
1218:McCracken (2002), p. 173
511:and a labor reserve for
219:Belleisle, New Brunswick
115:Sharon Mulenga (adopted)
94:Cause of death
84:March 27, 1999 (aged 58)
1056:Vail (1975), pp. 110-12
1038:Vail (1975), pp. 99-101
855:Vail (1989), p. xi, 3-4
414:In Ngoni occupied areas
1635:20th-century linguists
1438:Boston Globe, (2007).
1404:Baker (1974), pp. 9-10
1311:McCraken (2012), p. 84
1263:Vail (1981), pp. 231-2
1110:Vail (1989), pp. 10-13
1011:Vail (1975), pp. 89-90
936:Vail (1977), pp. 135-7
927:Vail (1977), pp. 133-4
918:Vail (1981), pp. 247-8
909:Vail (1981), pp. 251-3
882:Vail (1977), pp. 131-2
742:Trans-Zambezia Railway
484:North-Eastern Rhodesia
460:North-Eastern Rhodesia
107:Patricia Ann Horochena
87:Concord, Massachusetts
1479:J C. Miller, (1999).
1395:Vail, (1975), p. 111.
1191:Mphande (2014), p. 53
1101:Vail (1989), pp. 7-9
1065:Vail (1989), pp. x-xi
1002:Pachai (1973), p. 150
559:Creation of tribalism
442:African Lakes Company
402:into what is now the
228:Leroy grew up in the
1630:Historians of Malawi
1610:American Africanists
1092:Vail (1989), pp. 5-6
1083:Vail (1989), pp. 2-5
664:, the fourth was on
502:Nyasaland's railways
318:University of Zambia
294:University of Malawi
248:in history in 1962.
1595:Writers from Boston
1430:The Harvard Gazette
1281:Vail (1975), p. 111
1200:Bond (2000), p. 181
993:Vail (1977), p. 155
957:Vail (1981), p. 247
945:Vail (1977), p. 137
891:Vail (1981), p. 250
873:Vail (1981), p. 244
837:Boston Globe (2007)
634:1964 Cabinet Crisis
343:Associate Professor
234:Boston Latin School
1236:Read (1956), p. 58
1020:Vail (1975), p. 93
692:empirical evidence
357:Research interests
275:on 27 March 1999.
223:Cape Breton Island
35:Harvard University
1566:978-0-85255-043-4
1555:978-0-85255-043-4
1534:978-9-00410-208-8
1506:978-9-99080-244-3
1495:978-0-43508-088-4
1474:978-1-84701-050-6
1074:Vail (1989), p. 2
672:Alternative views
578:African initiated
536:in Mozambique to
513:Southern Rhodesia
488:Southern Rhodesia
153:
152:
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838:
835:
829:
826:
801:
798:
759:Great Depression
616:Blantyre Mission
596:Tumbuka language
552:Great Depression
408:Eastern Province
377:Underdevelopment
203:Hazen Leroy Vail
184:underdevelopment
65:Hazen Leroy Vail
56:Personal details
45:
19:
18:
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735:Railway finance
721:Shire Highlands
708:
706:Labor migration
683:
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654:
652:Later interests
646:Northern Region
569:divide-and-rule
561:
547:Dona Ana Bridge
530:Shire Highlands
504:
416:
404:Northern Region
369:Nation-building
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279:Academic career
246:magna cum laude
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160:African studies
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746:Zambezi Bridge
736:
733:
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704:
699:slash-and-burn
682:
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653:
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642:Central Region
638:Africanisation
608:Hastings Banda
600:Chewa language
560:
557:
503:
500:
425:slash-and-burn
415:
412:
406:of Malawi and
381:Tumbuka people
363:
360:
358:
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351:United Nations
325:
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305:Tumbuka people
298:Hastings Banda
285:
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238:Boston College
209:, was born in
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132:Boston College
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1432:15 June 2000.
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846:Pachai (1973)
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604:Yao languages
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509:Imperial Slum
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400:Ngoni peoples
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665:
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517:South Africa
508:
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496:World War II
492:South Africa
475:
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392:slave trades
385:Indian Ocean
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192:oral history
155:
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42:
1590:1999 deaths
1585:1940 births
1546:University.
690:supporting
447:Lake Malawi
420:pastoralism
396:Lake Malawi
261:Jan Vansina
168:linguistics
1579:Categories
766:References
713:Lake Nyasa
476:Dead North
464:rinderpest
434:Tsetse fly
207:Leroy Vail
188:Mozambique
156:Leroy Vail
142:Occupation
23:Leroy Vail
591:president
538:Salisbury
324:In the US
284:In Africa
242:sophomore
145:Historian
128:Education
120:Parent(s)
47:1990–1999
43:In office
715:and the
178:and the
112:Children
98:Lymphoma
1420:Sources
717:Luangwa
521:Zambezi
480:Chipata
273:Concord
230:Allston
164:history
1564:
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290:Malawi
211:Boston
176:Zambia
172:Malawi
104:Spouse
71:Boston
587:Chewa
534:Beira
525:Shire
452:Tonga
388:ivory
1562:ISBN
1551:ISBN
1530:ISBN
1513:ISBN
1502:ISBN
1491:ISBN
1470:ISBN
1459:ISBN
523:and
515:and
490:and
430:bush
390:and
166:and
81:Died
61:Born
744:or
621:Yao
482:in
1581::
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