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more strength, which allows it to carry more weight, and therefore more active material, and so the plates can be thicker, which in turn contributes to battery lifespan since there is more material available to shed before the battery becomes unusable. High-antimony alloy grids are still used in batteries intended for frequent cycling, e.g. in motor-starting applications where frequent expansion/contraction of the plates need to be compensated for, but where outgassing is not significant since charge currents remain low. Since the 1950s, batteries designed for infrequent cycling applications (e.g., standby power batteries) increasingly have leadâcalcium or leadâselenium alloy grids since these have less hydrogen evolution and thus lower maintenance overhead. Leadâcalcium alloy grids are cheaper to manufacture (the cells thus have lower up-front costs), and have a lower self-discharge rate, and lower watering requirements, but have slightly poorer conductivity, are mechanically weaker (and thus require more antimony to compensate), and are more strongly subject to corrosion (and thus a shorter lifespan) than cells with leadâselenium alloy grids.
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1096:
increase the gas transport through the separator; hydrogen or oxygen gas produced during overcharge or charge (if the charge current is excessive) is able to freely pass through the glass mat and reduce or oxidize the opposing plate, respectively. In a flooded cell, the bubbles of gas float to the top of the battery and are lost to the atmosphere. This mechanism for the gas produced to recombine and the additional benefit of a semi-saturated cell providing no substantial leakage of electrolyte upon physical puncture of the battery case allows the battery to be completely sealed, which makes them useful in portable devices and similar roles. Additionally, the battery can be installed in any orientation, though if it is installed upside down, then acid may be blown out through the overpressure vent.
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separators inhibit the plates from touching each other, which would otherwise constitute a short circuit. In flooded and gel cells, the separators are insulating rails or studs, formerly of glass or ceramic, and now of plastic. In AGM cells, the separator is the glass mat itself, and the rack of plates with separators are squeezed together before insertion into the cell; once in the cell, the glass mats expand slightly, effectively locking the plates in place. In multi-cell batteries, the cells are then connected to one another in series, either through connectors through the cell walls, or by a bridge over the cell walls. All intra-cell and inter-cell connections are of the same lead alloy as that used in the grids. This is necessary to prevent
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is profitable to add water to an AGM battery, but this must be done slowly to allow for the water to mix throughout the battery via diffusion. When a lead-acid battery loses water, its acid concentration increases, increasing the corrosion rate of the plates significantly. AGM cells already have a high acid content in an attempt to lower the water loss rate and increase standby voltage, and this brings about shorter life compared to a leadâantimony flooded battery. If the open circuit voltage of AGM cells is significantly higher than 2.093 volts, or 12.56 V for a 12 V battery, then it has a higher acid content than a flooded cell; while this is normal for an AGM battery, it is not desirable for long life.
1465:
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the battery capacity is greatly reduced. In addition, the sulfate portion (of the lead sulfate) is not returned to the electrolyte as sulfuric acid. It is believed that large crystals physically block the electrolyte from entering the pores of the plates. A white coating on the plates may be visible in batteries with clear cases or after dismantling the battery. Batteries that are sulfated show a high internal resistance and can deliver only a small fraction of normal discharge current. Sulfation also affects the charging cycle, resulting in longer charging times, less-efficient and incomplete charging, and higher battery temperatures.
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sulfates which adhered to the lead plate. Then, during the battery's initial charge (called "formation"), the cured paste on the plates was converted into electrochemically active material (the "active mass"). Faure's process significantly reduced the time and cost to manufacture lead-acid batteries, and gave a substantial increase in capacity compared with Planté's battery. Faure's method is still in use today, with only incremental improvements to paste composition, curing (which is still done with steam, but is now a very tightly controlled process), and structure and composition of the grid to which the paste is applied.
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and kidney damage, hearing impairment, and learning problems in children. The auto industry uses over 1,000,000 metric tons (980,000 long tons; 1,100,000 short tons) of lead every year, with 90% going to conventional lead-acid vehicle batteries. While lead recycling is a well-established industry, more than 40,000 metric tons (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) ends up in landfills every year. According to the federal Toxic
Release Inventory, another 70,000 metric tons (69,000 long tons; 77,000 short tons) are released in the lead mining and manufacturing process.
774:), and ranges from 1.8 V to 2.27 V. Equalization voltage, and charging voltage for sulfated cells, can range from 2.67 V to almost 3 V (only until a charge current is flowing). Specific values for a given battery depend on the design and manufacturer recommendations, and are usually given at a baseline temperature of 20 °C (68 °F), requiring adjustment for ambient conditions. IEEE Standard 485-2020 (first published in 1997) is the industry's recommended practice for sizing lead-acid batteries in stationary applications.
1142:-based lead-acid batteries used in portable radios from the early 1930s were not fully sealed). This converts the formerly liquid interior of the cells into a semi-stiff paste, providing many of the same advantages of the AGM. Such designs are even less susceptible to evaporation and are often used in situations where little or no periodic maintenance is possible. Gel cells also have lower freezing and higher boiling points than the liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.
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this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead-acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.
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also have a lower energy density than flat-plate cells, and less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher-capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.
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reasons a conventional car battery can be ruined by leaving it stored for a long period and then used and recharged. The mat significantly prevents this stratification, eliminating the need to periodically shake the batteries, boil them, or run an "equalization charge" through them to mix the electrolyte. Stratification also causes the upper layers of the battery to become almost completely water, which can freeze in cold weather; AGMs are significantly less susceptible to damage due to low-temperature use.
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1570:. The force of the explosion can cause the battery's casing to burst, or cause its top to fly off, spraying acid and casing fragments. An explosion in one cell may ignite any combustible gas mixture in the remaining cells. Similarly, in a poorly ventilated area, connecting or disconnecting a closed circuit (such as a load or a charger) to the battery terminals can also cause sparks and an explosion, if any gas was vented from the cells.
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corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to increase surface area. Initially, this process used electricity from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of producing batteries greatly declined. Planté plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to increase their surface area.
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823:(8â12%) alloys to give the structures additional rigidity. However, high-antimony grids have higher hydrogen evolution (which also accelerates as the battery ages), and thus greater outgassing and higher maintenance costs. These issues were identified by U. B. Thomas and W. E. Haring at Bell Labs in the 1930s and eventually led to the development of leadâ
1522:, but this is a very slow process. Repeated cycles of partial charging and discharging will increase stratification of the electrolyte, reducing the capacity and performance of the battery because the lack of acid on top limits plate activation. The stratification also promotes corrosion on the upper half of the plates and sulfation at the bottom.
258:'s lead-acid battery was the first battery that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. Planté's first model consisted of two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral. His batteries were first used to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881,
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Periodic overcharging creates gaseous reaction products at the plate, causing convection currents which mix the electrolyte and resolve the stratification. Mechanical stirring of the electrolyte would have the same effect. Batteries in moving vehicles are also subject to sloshing and splashing in the
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Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance-free, sealed, and VRLA. However, it is quite common to find resources stating that these terms refer to one or another
270:
Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions without leaking. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position were first used in the late 1920s, and in the 1930s, portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell to be mounted vertically or horizontally (but
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While AGM cells do not permit watering (typically it is impossible to add water without drilling a hole in the battery), their recombination process is fundamentally limited by the usual chemical processes. Hydrogen gas will even diffuse right through the plastic case itself. Some have found that it
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is stored in a discharged state, the heavier acid molecules tend to settle to the bottom of the battery, causing the electrolyte to stratify. When the battery is then used, the majority of the current flows only in this area, and the bottom of the plates tends to wear out rapidly. This is one of the
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grid alloys in Europe a few years later. Both leadâcalcium and leadâselenium grid alloys still add antimony, albeit in much smaller quantities than the older high-antimony grids: leadâcalcium grids have 4â6% antimony while leadâselenium grids have 1â2%. These metallurgical improvements give the grid
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The grid developed by Faure was of pure lead with connecting rods of lead at right angles. In contrast, present-day grids are structured for improved mechanical strength and improved current flow. In addition to different grid patterns (ideally, all points on the plate are equidistant from the power
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patented a method of coating a lead grid (which serves as the current conductor) with a paste of lead oxides, sulfuric acid, and water, followed by curing phase in which the plates were exposed to gentle heat in a high-humidity environment. The curing process changed the paste into a mixture of lead
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Gaston Planté found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Planté's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was required to
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The active materials change physical form during charge/discharge, resulting in growth and distortion of the electrodes, and shedding of electrodes into the electrolyte. Once the active material has fallen out of the plates, it cannot be restored into position by any chemical treatment. Similarly,
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deposits of heavily discharged plates. However, the dissolved material is then no longer available to participate in the normal charge-discharge cycle, so a battery temporarily revived with EDTA will have a reduced life expectancy. Residual EDTA in the lead-acid cell forms organic acids which will
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Sulfation occurs in lead-acid batteries when they are subjected to insufficient charging during normal operation. It impedes recharging; sulfate deposits ultimately expand, cracking the plates and destroying the battery. Eventually, so much of the battery plate area is unable to supply current that
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have a different geometry for their positive electrodes. The positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of leadâoxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side, so their geometry is called tubular or cylindrical. The advantage of this is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte,
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and the
Ecology Center of Ann Arbor, Michigan, the batteries of vehicles on the road contained an estimated 2,600,000 metric tons (2,600,000 long tons; 2,900,000 short tons) of lead. Some lead compounds are extremely toxic. Long-term exposure to even tiny amounts of these compounds can cause brain
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A typical lead-acid battery contains a mixture with varying concentrations of water and acid. Sulfuric acid has a higher density than water, which causes the acid formed at the plates during charging to flow downward and collect at the bottom of the battery. Eventually the mixture will again reach
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SLI batteries (starting, lighting, ignition; e.g., car batteries) suffer the most deterioration because vehicles normally stand unused for relatively long periods of time. Deep-cycle and motive power batteries are subjected to regular controlled overcharging, eventually failing due to corrosion of
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state and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid when the battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate does not recombine into electrolyte and slowly converts into a stable crystalline form that no longer dissolves on recharging.
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Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In
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Starting batteries are lighter than deep-cycle batteries of the same size, because the thinner and lighter cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose, disintegrated material to fall off the plates and collect at the bottom of the cell, prolonging the
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Lead-acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and therefore maximum current output, which can easily be damaged by deep discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in
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AGM cells that are intentionally or accidentally overcharged will show a higher open-circuit voltage according to the water lost (and acid concentration increased). One amp-hour of overcharge will electrolyse 0.335 grams of water per cell; some of this liberated hydrogen and oxygen will recombine,
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mat soaked in electrolyte. There is only enough electrolyte in the mat to keep it wet, and if the battery is punctured, the electrolyte will not flow out of the mats. The principal purpose of replacing liquid electrolyte in a flooded battery with a semi-saturated fiberglass mat is to substantially
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than flat-plate cells. This makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with weight or space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they
751:
The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole; otherwise, the overall
196:
As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead-acid batteries are widely used even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy densities. In 1999, lead-acid battery sales accounted for 40â50% of the value from batteries sold worldwide (excluding
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The cells of VRLA batteries typically swell when the internal pressure rises, thereby giving a warning to users and mechanics. The deformation varies from cell to cell, and is greatest at the ends where the walls are unsupported by other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be carefully
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In a valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery, the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells largely recombine into water. Leakage is minimal, although some electrolyte still escapes if the recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. Since VRLA batteries do not require (and make impossible)
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produced inside the cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause gas to build up. If this happens (for example, on overcharging), then the valve vents the gas and normalizes the pressure, producing a characteristic acidic smell. However, valves can fail, such as if dirt and debris accumulate,
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condensate dispersant is a more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves the dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead particles, and thereby improves handling and
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VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983, because the acid electrolyte is absorbed into the separator, so it cannot spill. The separator also helps them better withstand vibration. They are also popular in stationary applications such as telecommunications sites, due to their small
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When a battery is charged or discharged, only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte, are initially affected. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called "interface charge" or "surface charge", spreads by
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As electrons accumulate, they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged electrode from the solution, which limits further reaction, unless charge is allowed to flow out of the
1103:
Another advantage to the AGM design is that the electrolyte becomes the separator material and is mechanically strong. This allows the plate stack to be compressed together in the battery shell, slightly increasing energy density compared to liquid or gel versions. AGM batteries often show a
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To reduce the water loss rate, calcium is alloyed with the plates; however, gas build-up remains a problem when the battery is deeply or rapidly charged or discharged. To prevent over-pressurization of the battery casing, AGM batteries include a one-way blow-off valve, and are often known as
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Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in a cell container. The alternate plates then constitute alternating positive and negative electrodes, and within the cell are later connected to one another (negative to negative, positive to positive) in parallel. The
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About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead-acid battery rated around 60 A·h is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case. For example, there are approximately 8.7 kg (19 lb) of lead in a typical 14.5-kg (32 lb) battery.
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Some batteries are designed as a compromise between starter (high-current) and deep cycle. They are able to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep-cycle batteries. They may be referred to as "marine/motorhome" batteries, or "leisure batteries".
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Charge current needs to match the ability of the battery to absorb the energy. Using too large a charge current on a small battery can lead to boiling and venting of the electrolyte. In this image a VRLA battery case has ballooned due to the high gas pressure developed during
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The only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems.
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Chemical additives have been used ever since the lead-acid battery became a commercial item, to reduce lead sulfate buildup on plates and improve battery condition when added to the electrolyte of a vented lead-acid battery. Such treatments are rarely, if ever, effective.
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If the battery is overfilled with water and electrolyte, then thermal expansion can force some of the liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.
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Lead is highly toxic to humans, and recycling it can result in pollution and contamination of people, resulting in numerous and lasting health problems. One ranking identifies lead-acid battery recycling as the world's most deadly industrial process, in terms of
763:
is a three-stage charging procedure for lead-acid batteries. A lead-acid battery's nominal voltage is 2.2 V for each cell. For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge.
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reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of long needleâlike
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conductor), modern-day processes also apply one or two thin fiberglass mats over the grid to distribute the weight more evenly. And while Faure had used pure lead for his grids, within a year (1881) these had been superseded by leadâ
253:
The French scientist
Nicolas Gautherot observed in 1801 that wires that had been used for electrolysis experiments would themselves provide a small amount of "secondary" current after the main battery had been disconnected. In 1859,
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through various techniques such as pulse charging, but there are no peer-reviewed publications verifying their claims. Sulfation prevention remains the best course of action, by periodically fully charging the lead-acid batteries.
262:
invented an improved version that consisted of a lead grid lattice, into which a lead oxide paste was pressed, forming a plate. This design was easier to mass-produce. An early manufacturer (from 1886) of lead-acid batteries was
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measurements. Regular testing reveals whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Recent maintenance procedures have been developed allowing "rehydration", often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity.
2225:
1726:. Copper connectors produce blue and white corrosion crystals. Corrosion of a battery's terminals can be reduced by coating the terminals with petroleum jelly or a commercially available product made for the purpose.
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pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.
193:. Lead-acid batteries suffer from relatively short cycle lifespan (usually less than 500 deep cycles) and overall lifespan (due to the "double sulfation" in the discharged state), as well as long charging times.
802:
The lead-acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However, such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard-sized plates, and for only a few minutes.
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Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries: it is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the
868:. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated
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that arise from cycling. Starting batteries kept on a continuous float charge will suffer corrosion of the electrodes which will also result in premature failure. Starting batteries should therefore be kept
3000:, lead (Pb) toxicity: key concepts | ATSDR â environmental medicine & environmental health education - CSEM case studies in environmental medicine (CSEM), agency for toxic substances and disease registry
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not inverted) due to valve design. In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA, or "sealed") was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat (AGM) types, allowing operation in any position.
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Acid fumes that vaporize through the vent caps, often caused by overcharging, and insufficient battery box ventilation can allow the sulfuric acid fumes to build up and react with the exposed metals.
1718:
Corrosion on the positive terminal is caused by electrolysis, due to a mismatch of metal alloys used in the manufacture of the battery terminal and cable connector. White corrosion is usually lead or
978:("treeing"), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators allow the flow of ions between the plates of an electrochemical cell to form a closed circuit. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat,
656:, which bubbles out and is lost. The design of some types of lead-acid battery allows the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with pure water to replace any that has been lost this way.
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operations, among other reasons. Alternatives are unlikely to displace them for applications such as engine starting or backup power systems, since the batteries, although heavy, are low-cost.
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through the medium, or by the flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the electrolyte density is greater when the sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by
577:
1382:
The capacity of a lead-acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it is discharged. The empirical relationship between discharge rate and capacity is known as
1169:. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer: VRLA cells do require maintenance. As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells "dry out" and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking regular internal
598:(s) is approximately 400 kJ, corresponding to the formation of 36 g of water. The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mole, so theoretically a cell can produce two
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service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises enough, then it may touch the bottom of the plates and cause failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.
2236:
1013:. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the battery's
1333:
Specially-designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as
1892:
1550:, emitting hydrogen and oxygen. This process is known as "gassing". Wet cells have open vents to release any gas produced, and VRLA batteries rely on valves fitted to each cell.
1267:
use lead-acid batteries, where the weight is used as part of a counterweight. Lead-acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early
1648:
is one of the most successful recycling programs in the world. In the United States 99% of all battery lead was recycled between 2014 and 2018. However, documents of the U.S.
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isolated and discarded. Personnel working near batteries at risk of explosion should protect their eyes and exposed skin from burns due to spraying acid and fire by wearing a
1504:
Sulfation can be avoided if the battery is fully recharged immediately after a discharge cycle. There are no known independently-verified ways to reverse sulfation. There are
835:
The open-circuit effect is a dramatic loss of battery cycle life, which was observed when calcium was substituted for antimony. It is also known as the antimony free effect.
1618:
Attempts are being made to develop alternatives (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal and of lead
614:
per kilogram of reactants, but in practice, a lead-acid cell gives only 30â40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.
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Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.
3031:
1698:. Epsom salts reduce the internal resistance in a weak or damaged battery and may allow a small amount of extended life. EDTA can be used to dissolve the
748:, the specific gravity was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.
1201:
Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centres,
668:, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze in a cold environment when the battery has a low charge and a correspondingly low sulfuric acid concentration.
274:
It was discovered early in 2011 that lead-acid batteries did in fact use some aspects of relativity to function, and to a lesser degree liquid metal and
1480:. They generate electricity through a double sulfate chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with
1198:(SLI) batteries, with an estimated 320 million units shipped in 1999. In 1992 about 3 million tons of lead were used in the manufacture of batteries.
2252:
2196:
1715:
Corrosion of the external metal parts of the lead-acid battery results from a chemical reaction of the battery terminals, plugs, and connectors.
181:. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead-acid batteries have relatively low
888:
with higher discharge and charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells have a higher
1663:
Lead-acid battery-recycling sites have themselves become a source of lead pollution, and by 1992, the EPA had selected 29 such sites for its
2424:
2910:
A dispute on battery additives when Dr. Vinal of the
National Bureau of Standards reported on this for the National Better Business Bureau.
2977:
1899:
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sacrifices safety by leaving the face exposed to possible flying acid, case or battery fragments, and heat from a potential explosion.
1205:, and off-grid household electric power systems. Lead-acid batteries are used in emergency lighting and to power sump pumps in case of
2815:
1373:
711:. Therefore, a liquid-medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise-similar gel cell.
213:. For these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and reduce maintenance requirements.
189:. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by
3700:
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2659:
These data suggest that certain subtle neurobehavioral effects in children may occur at very low PbBs. (PbB means lead blood level)
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characteristic "bulging" in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes, due to the expansion of the positive plates.
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grid alloys in 1935 for standby power batteries on the U.S. telephone network. Related research led to the development of leadâ
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internal physical problems such as cracked plates, corroded connectors, or damaged separators cannot be restored chemically.
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The
Impacts of Lead Industry Economics and Hazardous Waste Regulations on Lead-Acid Battery Recycling: Revision and Update,
699:
is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during the charge. This motion can be electrically-driven proton flow (the
634:. The electrolyte solution has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which stores most of the chemical energy.
3017:
17:
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produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and is then consumed at the positive plates, while
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plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but it deteriorates in the acid electrolyte.
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1009:, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and
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An effective pollution control system is a necessity to prevent lead emission. Continuous improvement in battery
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of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple
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Fully charged: Lead dioxide positive plate, lead negative plate, and concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid solution
228:
In the charged state, the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between metallic
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The electrolyte can seep from the plastic-to-lead seal where the battery terminals penetrate the plastic case.
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2797:"Pure Earth, USC and Macquarie University Publish Landmark Lead Study in The Lancet Planetary Health Journal,"
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per kilogram for a 2-volt cell (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). This comes to 167
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caps are available for flooded cells to recombine hydrogen and oxygen. A VRLA cell normally recombines any
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2750:"Engineering Bulletin: Selection of Control Technologies for Remediation of Lead Battery Recycling Sites"
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between the positive and negative plates prevent short circuits through physical contact, mostly through
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2355:
Sudhan S. Misra (25 May 2007). "Advances in VRLAnext term battery technology for telecommunications".
2226:"Handbook for stationary lead-acid batteries Part 1: basics, design, operation modes and applications"
2204:
4051:
3798:
3649:
3563:
3528:
3508:
3460:
3368:
2125:
1949:
1827:
665:
4066:
3964:
3644:
3485:
3194:
1220:
1041:
921:
210:
1660:
lostâresulting in 2,000,000 to 4,800,000 estimated years of individual human life lost, globally.
4071:
4016:
4001:
3954:
3934:
3893:
3868:
3848:
3828:
3686:
3419:
2549:
Equalize charging can prevent sulfation if performed prior to the lead sulfate forming crystals.
1422:
1045:
971:
925:
2842:
Ballantyne, Andrew D.; Hallett, Jason P.; Riley, D. Jason; Shah, Nilay; Payne, David J. (2018).
4196:
4160:
4061:
3241:
2965:
2959:
2044:
2037:
1817:
1782:
1174:
1107:
The mat also prevents the vertical motion of the electrolyte within the battery. When a normal
811:
637:
259:
248:
206:
2081:
1239:
as well. Valve-regulated lead-acid batteries cannot spill their electrolyte. They are used in
4026:
3922:
3843:
3358:
3199:
1792:
1787:
1611:
1170:
1091:
In the absorbent glass mat (AGM) design, the separators between the plates are replaced by a
1014:
1002:
998:
760:
653:
85:
2576:
1472:
Lead-acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to
3904:
3888:
3873:
3709:
3353:
3125:
2997:
2855:
2820:
2614:
2399:
2390:
Isoi, T.; Furukawa, H. (1996). "Valve-regulated lead/Acid batteries for SLI use in Japan".
2364:
2094:
1864:
1308:
1178:
630:
In the fully-charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate is
174:
2169:
For one example account of the importance of battery specific gravity to submariners, see
1971:
727:
can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of charge.
8:
4056:
4041:
3976:
3944:
3939:
3755:
3503:
3401:
3131:
2773:
Ericson, Bret; Howard Hu; Emily Nash; Greg
Ferraro; Julia Sinitsky; Mark Patrick Taylor:
1812:
1519:
1505:
1256:
1202:
700:
275:
201:. Large-format lead-acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies in
2971:
2859:
2618:
2403:
2368:
1868:
4046:
3917:
3728:
3424:
3221:
2878:
2843:
1822:
1762:
1328:
1292:
1275:
1129:
975:
884:
878:
865:
3770:
2068:
295:
Fully discharged: two identical lead sulfate plates and diluted sulfuric acid solution
4120:
3808:
3226:
3166:
3117:
2925:
2883:
2676:
2602:
2556:
2515:
2411:
2304:
2265:
2176:
2048:
2006:
1675:
1645:
1631:
1303:
1248:
1236:
3838:
2650:, USA: CDC Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, August 2007, p. 31
369:
The release of two conduction electrons gives the lead electrode a negative charge.
3986:
3981:
3793:
3733:
3518:
3475:
3434:
3383:
3348:
3269:
3256:
2873:
2863:
2775:"Blood lead levels in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review,"
2761:
2734:
2626:
2622:
2489:
2407:
2376:
2372:
2253:"Recommended voltage settings for 3 phase charging of flooded lead acid batteries."
1872:
1807:
1723:
1383:
1338:
1212:
733:
300:
2900:
1986:
255:
178:
3853:
3780:
3629:
3340:
3189:
3146:
3003:
2907:
2829:
2792:
2640:
2600:
2431:
2281:
1228:
993:
An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties, including
51:
4089:
3743:
3495:
3465:
3320:
3087:
2553:
Industrial applications of batteries: from cars to aerospace and energy storage
1260:
1224:
856:
852:
599:
182:
68:
2835:
1877:
1852:
197:
China and Russia), equivalent to a manufacturing market value of about US$ 15
4181:
4175:
3723:
3667:
3558:
3551:
3373:
3305:
3300:
3264:
3181:
3121:
3082:
3072:
3009:
1753:
1574:
1481:
1240:
1206:
889:
792:
767:
320:
190:
186:
142:
2733:, by Putnam, Hayes & Bartlett, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, (also at
3927:
3883:
3818:
3760:
3738:
3284:
3279:
3246:
3151:
3141:
3077:
3061:
2887:
2332:
1802:
1767:
1719:
1547:
1485:
1477:
1350:
1334:
1155:
987:
860:
844:
771:
631:
444:
233:
222:
2953:
4155:
4140:
3878:
3803:
3662:
3546:
3363:
3315:
3274:
3231:
3161:
2235:. GNB Industrial Power, Exide Technologies. February 2012. Archived from
1691:
1594:
1582:
1539:
1268:
1195:
1135:
1092:
869:
787:
607:
583:
316:
264:
43:
3678:
2868:
2816:"Getting the Lead Out: Why Battery Recycling Is a Global Health Hazard,"
2808:
2717:
2113:
4099:
3833:
3813:
3634:
3594:
3573:
3568:
3470:
3378:
3310:
3236:
3176:
3107:
2802:
2786:
1436: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1252:
1139:
796:
737:
724:
708:
1851:
May, Geoffrey J.; Davidson, Alistair; Monahov, Boris (February 2018).
299:
In the discharged state, both the positive and negative plates become
4145:
4135:
4125:
4094:
3750:
3589:
3330:
3325:
3112:
3092:
2753:
1671:
1664:
1567:
1551:
1489:
1391:
1346:
1299:
1232:
1216:
1010:
979:
770:
varies depending on battery type (flooded cells, gelled electrolyte,
745:
704:
611:
202:
122:
74:
57:
2550:
1411:
1150:"Maintenance-free", "sealed", and "VRLA" (valve regulated lead acid)
1030:
910:
3823:
3612:
3608:
3480:
3211:
3136:
3102:
2729:, September 1987, prepared for the Office of Policy Analysis, U.S.
1777:
1619:
1555:
1534:
1342:
1264:
1108:
828:
820:
719:
649:
37:
4130:
3639:
3523:
1747:
1703:
accelerate corrosion of the lead plates and internal connectors.
1699:
1590:
1586:
1394:
of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.
1311:
but charged regularly (at least once every two weeks) to prevent
1243:
supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in
1165:
regular checking of the electrolyte level, they have been called
824:
741:
641:
603:
198:
2767:
1652:, since 1982, have indicated rates varying between 60% and 95%.
1566:
Accumulated hydrogen and oxygen sometimes ignite in an internal
3450:
3429:
3206:
3156:
3006:, lead-acid battery desulfator (Home Power #77 June/July 2000)]
1644:
According to the
Battery Council, an industry group, lead-acid
1610:
According to a 2003 report entitled "Getting the Lead Out", by
1559:
645:
2985:
2745:
2743:
2673:
2670:
2601:
Henry A. Catherino; Fred F. Feres; Francisco
Trinidad (2004).
1640:
A worker recycling molten lead in a battery recycling facility
1134:
During the 1970s, researchers developed the sealed version or
4115:
2991:
2034:
291:
78:
2434:
tells about history, usage and recent developments for VRLA.
1357:. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less
622:
3604:
2988:(BCI), lead-acid battery manufacturers' trade organization.
2740:
2294:
1695:
1138:, which mixes a silica gelling agent into the electrolyte (
659:
229:
221:
batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as
153:
91:
2844:"Lead acid battery recycling for the twenty-first century"
2841:
2146:"Liquid Tin Bismuth Battery for Grid-Scale Energy Storage"
1298:
capacity loss and ultimately in premature failure, as the
1259:, marine applications, battery electric vehicles or micro
4150:
3051:
1674:
plants and furnace designs is required to keep pace with
983:
859:. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the leadâtoâ
1223:. Large lead-acid batteries are also used to power the
95:
61:
2084:, Corrosion-doctors.org; Last accessed on Jan 3, 2007,
1526:
cells, as the vehicle accelerates, brakes, and turns.
27:
Rechargeable battery type often used in motor vehicles
2551:
Broussely, Michel; Pistoia, Gianfranco, eds. (2007).
1853:"Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review"
1368:
533:
2675:. American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy.
2457:"The Characteristics and Use of Lead-acid Cap Lamps"
1743:
1488:. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided,
2173:
War in the Boats: My World War II Submarine
Battles
1506:
commercial products claiming to achieve desulfation
1235:when submerged, and are used as emergency power on
791:Internal view of a small lead-acid battery from an
2671:DeCicco, John M.; Kliesch, James (February 2001).
2444:Introduction to Deep-Cycle Batteries in RE Systems
2036:
1950:"All About Batteries, Part 3: Lead-acid Batteries"
1850:
571:
278:such as the CaâSb and SnâBi also use this effect.
1973:PS and PSG General Purpose Battery Specifications
1931:, Power-Sonic Corporation, 2018-12-17, p. 19
1667:clean-up, with 22 on its National Priority List.
572:{\displaystyle E_{cell}^{\circ }=2.05{\text{ V}}}
443:taking advantage of the metallic conductivity of
4173:
2295:Dell, Ronald; David Anthony; James Rand (2001).
2170:
1501:the positive plate grids rather than sulfation.
2901:http://museum.nist.gov/exhibits/adx2/partii.htm
2454:
2354:
2043:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p.
1100:"valve-regulated lead-acid", or VRLA, designs.
3039:
2980:, sme technical details on lead-acid batteries
2793:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30278-3âą
2035:Linden, David; Reddy, Thomas B., eds. (2002).
1988:PS Series - VRLA, AGM Battery, Valve Regulated
1898:. Trojan Battery Company. 2008. Archived from
1538:Car lead-acid battery after explosion showing
1312:
3694:
3025:
2514:. Toronto: Thomson Learning. pp. 302â4.
2274:
714:
185:. Despite this, they are able to supply high
2389:
2255:, Rolls Battery, Retrieved on 17 April 2015.
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
1925:Technical Manual: Sealed Lead Acid Batteries
1401:
1194:Most of the world's lead-acid batteries are
755:
2924:(4th ed.). Robert Bosch. p. 805.
2919:
2152:. International Tin Association. 2018-01-09
2114:"Focus: Relativity Powers Your Car Battery"
1573:Individual cells within a battery can also
1196:automobile starting, lighting, and ignition
1059:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
939:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
177:first invented in 1859 by French physicist
3701:
3687:
3032:
3018:
2258:
1361:, but can withstand frequent discharging.
740:using colored floating balls of differing
223:VRLA (valve-regulated lead-acid) batteries
36:
3708:
2877:
2867:
2203:. sec. "Battery voltages". Archived from
2019:
1964:
1876:
1722:crystals. Aluminum connectors corrode to
1690:Two compounds used for such purposes are
1605:
1452:Learn how and when to remove this message
1079:Learn how and when to remove this message
959:Learn how and when to remove this message
3098:Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve)
2539:. George G Haerrap & Co. p. 65.
2464:Trans. British Cave Research Association
2111:
2000:
1635:
1533:
1468:Sulfated plates from a 12-V 5-Ah battery
1463:
1372:
1186:footprint and installation flexibility.
786:
718:
660:Effect of charge level on freezing point
621:
290:
1994:
1650:Environmental Protection Administration
1322:
14:
4174:
2641:"2.3 LEAD DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS"
2509:
2005:(3rd ed.). Newnes. p. 1/10.
1773:Comparison of commercial battery types
1123:
1020:
3682:
3013:
2534:
1947:
1885:
1846:
1844:
1710:
1286:
606:) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4
2099:Wireless Constructor's Encyclopaedia
1434:adding citations to reliable sources
1405:
1057:adding citations to reliable sources
1024:
997:, porosity, pore size distribution,
937:adding citations to reliable sources
904:
461:The total reaction can be written as
1278:typically have two or three cells.
1274:Portable batteries for miners' cap
281:
24:
2603:"Sulfation in lead-acid batteries"
1841:
1369:Fast and slow charge and discharge
1001:, mechanical design and strength,
838:
25:
4213:
2942:
2512:Electricity, Magnetism, and Light
2455:Cowlishaw, M.F. (December 1974).
1512:
1263:, and motorcycles. Many electric
752:battery voltage may be assessed.
3769:
2994:, car and deep-cycle battery FAQ
2577:"Sulfation Remedies Demystified"
2264:Moderne Akkumulatoren, Page 55,
2112:Schirber, Michael (2011-01-14).
2093:
1746:
1410:
1161:of these designs, specifically.
1029:
909:
3200:Overhead valve (pushrod) layout
2913:
2894:
2758:Environmental Protection Agency
2731:Environmental Protection Agency
2697:"Battery Council International"
2689:
2664:
2633:
2594:
2569:
2543:
2528:
2503:
2484:Northern Arizona Wind & Sun
2474:
2448:
2437:
2418:
2383:
2348:
2339:
2317:
2288:
2246:
2218:
2189:
2163:
2138:
2105:
2087:
2075:
1948:Cowie, Ivan (13 January 2014).
1563:allowing pressure to build up.
1421:needs additional citations for
1213:Traction (propulsion) batteries
1189:
1130:VRLA battery § Gel battery
777:
744:. When used in diesel-electric
118:
2826:Yale School of the Environment
2648:TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR LEAD
2627:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.11.003
2377:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.11.005
2345:United States Patent 5,948,567
2061:
1979:
1941:
1916:
1658:disability-adjusted life years
1600:
1355:uninterruptible power supplies
1245:uninterruptible power supplies
586:(207 g) of Pb(s) converted to
114:
13:
1:
2001:Crompton, Thomas Roy (2000).
1893:"Product Specification Guide"
1834:
900:
671:
323:and becomes primarily water.
2555:. Elsevier. pp. 502â3.
2412:10.1016/0378-7753(95)02315-1
1681:
1625:
582:The net energy released per
319:loses much of its dissolved
286:
7:
2780:The Lancet Planetary Health
2082:"Gaston Planté (1834-1889)"
2069:"Lead Acid Battery History"
1739:
1484:in the electrolyte to form
617:
160:Charge temperature interval
102:Charge/discharge efficiency
10:
4218:
3041:Internal combustion engine
2947:
2848:Royal Society Open Science
2301:Royal Society of Chemistry
2175:. Brassey's. p. 112.
1629:
1546:Excessive charging causes
1326:
1290:
1167:maintenance-free batteries
1153:
1127:
843:Modern-day paste contains
715:Measuring the charge level
246:
242:
4108:
4080:
3902:
3859:Metalâair electrochemical
3778:
3767:
3716:
3658:
3622:
3582:
3537:
3509:Diesel particulate filter
3494:
3461:Idle air control actuator
3443:
3410:
3402:Engine control unit (ECU)
3392:
3339:
3293:
3255:
3175:
3060:
3047:
2956:, battery plate sulfation
2920:Horst Bauer, ed. (1996).
2756:: EPA/540/S-95/011, U.S.
2510:Saslow, Wayne M. (2002).
2171:Ruhe, William J. (1996).
2126:American Physical Society
1878:10.1016/j.est.2017.11.008
1857:Journal of Energy Storage
1529:
1476:, the crystallization of
1402:Sulfation and desulfation
1281:
1271:(valve) radio receivers.
1221:battery electric vehicles
782:
756:Voltages for common usage
666:freezing-point depression
232:at the negative side and
211:stand-alone power systems
159:
148:
137:
129:
109:
101:
84:
67:
50:
35:
3574:Viscous fan (fan clutch)
3486:Throttle position sensor
3195:Overhead camshaft layout
2974:, DC supply (April 2002)
2832:, retrieved May 15, 2021
2805:, retrieved May 15, 2021
2764:) retrieved May 15, 2021
2737:) retrieved May 15, 2021
2607:Journal of Power Sources
2425:EU Aviation News website
2392:Journal of Power Sources
2357:Journal of Power Sources
2282:"IEEE 485-2020 Standard"
2197:"Deep Cycle Battery FAQ"
1577:, causing an explosion.
4187:Motor vehicle batteries
3113:Core plug (freeze plug)
2297:Understanding Batteries
2097:. "Lead-acid battery".
1542:fracture in casing ends
1518:uniform composition by
377:Positive plate reaction
327:Negative plate reaction
207:emergency power systems
4192:Rechargeable batteries
4161:Semipermeable membrane
3950:Lithiumâironâphosphate
2003:Battery Reference Book
1818:Vanadium redox battery
1798:Silverâcalcium battery
1783:History of the battery
1641:
1606:Environmental concerns
1543:
1469:
1379:
812:Camille Alphonse Faure
799:
728:
627:
573:
296:
260:Camille Alphonse Faure
249:History of the battery
239:on the positive side.
4032:Rechargeable alkaline
3710:Electrochemical cells
2968:, lead-acid batteries
2962:, battery desulfation
2486:, visited 2006-07-23"
2095:Camm, Frederick James
2039:Handbook Of Batteries
1828:Sodiumâsulfur battery
1793:List of battery types
1788:List of battery sizes
1639:
1612:Environmental Defense
1537:
1467:
1376:
1015:operating temperature
1003:electrical resistance
999:specific surface area
790:
761:IUoU battery charging
722:
654:electrolysis of water
625:
574:
294:
276:molten-salt batteries
163:Min. â35°C, max. 45°C
110:Energy/consumer-price
4012:Nickelâmetal hydride
3354:Compression ignition
2821:Yale Environment 360
2329:www.labatscience.com
2242:on January 18, 2020.
2150:InternationalTin.org
1589:, and gloves. Using
1430:improve this article
1323:Deep-cycle batteries
1302:disintegrate due to
1257:electrified bicycles
1053:improve this section
933:improve this section
885:Deep-cycle batteries
531:
209:like hospitals, and
205:, high-availability
175:rechargeable battery
149:Nominal cell voltage
4022:Polysulfideâbromide
3864:Nickel oxyhydroxide
3756:Thermogalvanic cell
3504:Catalytic converter
2922:Automotive Handbook
2869:10.1098/rsos.171368
2860:2018RSOS....571368B
2800:The Pollution Blog,
2619:2004JPS...129..113C
2537:The Boy Electrician
2404:1996JPS....59..143I
2369:2007JPS...168...40M
1869:2018JEnSt..15..145M
1813:Lithium-ion battery
1678:for lead smelters.
1353:, and others), and
1304:mechanical stresses
1203:grid energy storage
1124:Gelled electrolytes
1120:but not all of it.
1021:Absorbent glass mat
701:Grotthuss mechanism
640:with high charging
602:of charge (192,971
557:
130:Self-discharge rate
32:
18:Lead-acid batteries
4202:1859 introductions
3785:(non-rechargeable)
3729:Concentration cell
3630:Knocking / pinging
3222:Combustion chamber
2906:2016-03-14 at the
2818:November 2, 2020,
2752:, September 1992,
2581:Batteryvitamin.net
2482:""Battery FAQ" at
2430:2009-08-13 at the
1823:Sodium-ion battery
1763:Automotive battery
1711:Corrosion problems
1676:emission standards
1642:
1544:
1470:
1380:
1329:Deep-cycle battery
1293:Automotive battery
1287:Starting batteries
1237:nuclear submarines
1007:ionic conductivity
879:galvanic corrosion
800:
772:absorbed glass mat
729:
676:During discharge,
628:
569:
534:
527:(l)
297:
219:absorbed glass-mat
42:12-volt lead-acid
30:
4169:
4168:
3676:
3675:
3645:Stratified charge
3412:Electrical system
3394:Engine management
3227:Compression ratio
3167:Starter ring gear
3066:rotating assembly
2986:btterycouncil.org
2724:"Conclusions" in
2682:978-0-918249-45-6
2562:978-0-444-52160-6
2521:978-0-12-619455-5
2310:978-0-85404-605-8
2182:978-1-57488-028-1
2101:(third ed.).
2054:978-0-07-135978-8
1646:battery recycling
1632:Battery recycling
1462:
1461:
1454:
1339:electric vehicles
1249:electric scooters
1089:
1088:
1081:
969:
968:
961:
567:
203:cell phone towers
171:lead-acid battery
167:
166:
31:Lead-acid battery
16:(Redirected from
4209:
3965:Lithiumâtitanate
3910:
3786:
3773:
3734:Electric battery
3703:
3696:
3689:
3680:
3679:
3519:Exhaust manifold
3384:Spark plug wires
3270:Boost controller
3257:Forced induction
3034:
3027:
3020:
3011:
3010:
2936:
2935:
2917:
2911:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2881:
2871:
2839:
2833:
2812:
2806:
2771:
2765:
2747:
2738:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2701:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2645:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2488:. Archived from
2478:
2472:
2471:
2461:
2452:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2398:(1â2): 143â146.
2387:
2381:
2380:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2331:. Archived from
2321:
2315:
2314:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2278:
2272:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2230:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2142:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2042:
2032:
2017:
2016:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1930:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1904:
1897:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1848:
1756:
1751:
1750:
1724:aluminum sulfate
1457:
1450:
1446:
1443:
1437:
1414:
1406:
1084:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1064:
1033:
1025:
964:
957:
953:
950:
944:
913:
905:
734:specific gravity
698:
697:
696:
686:
685:
684:
597:
596:
595:
578:
576:
575:
570:
568:
565:
556:
551:
526:
524:
523:
513:
512:
511:
501:
500:
499:
491:
490:
480:
479:
478:
468:
455:
454:
453:
438:
436:
435:
425:
424:
423:
413:
412:
411:
402:
401:
400:
390:
389:
388:
364:
363:
362:
353:
352:
351:
341:
340:
339:
314:
313:
312:
301:lead(II) sulfate
282:Electrochemistry
138:Cycle durability
120:
116:
40:
33:
29:
21:
4217:
4216:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4172:
4171:
4170:
4165:
4104:
4083:
4076:
3997:Nickelâhydrogen
3955:Lithiumâpolymer
3911:
3908:
3907:
3898:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3774:
3765:
3712:
3707:
3677:
3672:
3654:
3650:Top dead centre
3618:
3578:
3533:
3490:
3439:
3413:
3406:
3395:
3388:
3335:
3289:
3251:
3207:Tappet / lifter
3190:Flathead layout
3180:
3171:
3065:
3056:
3043:
3038:
3004:alton-moore.net
2972:cbcdesign.co.uk
2950:
2945:
2940:
2939:
2932:
2918:
2914:
2908:Wayback Machine
2899:
2895:
2840:
2836:
2830:Yale University
2813:
2809:
2772:
2768:
2748:
2741:
2722:
2718:
2708:
2706:
2704:Battery Council
2699:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2669:
2665:
2653:
2651:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2583:
2575:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2548:
2544:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2508:
2504:
2495:
2493:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2438:
2432:Wayback Machine
2423:
2419:
2388:
2384:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2293:
2289:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2263:
2259:
2251:
2247:
2239:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2208:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2168:
2164:
2155:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2130:
2128:
2110:
2106:
2092:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2033:
2020:
2013:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1953:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1849:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1713:
1684:
1634:
1628:
1608:
1603:
1532:
1515:
1458:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1427:
1415:
1404:
1371:
1331:
1325:
1295:
1289:
1284:
1261:hybrid vehicles
1231:(conventional)
1229:diesel-electric
1225:electric motors
1192:
1158:
1152:
1132:
1126:
1085:
1074:
1068:
1065:
1050:
1034:
1023:
965:
954:
948:
945:
930:
914:
903:
841:
839:Modern approach
785:
780:
758:
717:
695:
692:
691:
690:
688:
683:
681:
680:
679:
677:
674:
662:
620:
594:
591:
590:
589:
587:
564:
552:
538:
532:
529:
528:
522:
519:
518:
517:
515:
510:
507:
506:
505:
503:
498:
495:
494:
493:
489:
486:
485:
484:
482:
477:
474:
473:
472:
470:
466:
452:
449:
448:
447:
445:
434:
431:
430:
429:
427:
422:
419:
418:
417:
415:
410:
408:
407:
406:
404:
399:
396:
395:
394:
392:
387:
384:
383:
382:
380:
361:
359:
358:
357:
355:
350:
347:
346:
345:
343:
338:
335:
334:
333:
331:
311:
308:
307:
306:
304:
289:
284:
251:
245:
237:
52:Specific energy
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4215:
4205:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4090:Atomic battery
4086:
4084:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4062:Vanadium redox
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4037:Silverâcadmium
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4007:Nickelâlithium
4004:
3999:
3994:
3992:Nickelâcadmium
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3962:
3960:Lithiumâsulfur
3957:
3952:
3947:
3937:
3932:
3931:
3930:
3920:
3914:
3912:
3909:(rechargeable)
3905:Secondary cell
3903:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3829:EdisonâLalande
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3788:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3747:
3746:
3744:Trough battery
3741:
3731:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3713:
3706:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3683:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3626:
3624:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3543:
3541:
3539:Cooling system
3535:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3500:
3498:
3496:Exhaust system
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3466:Inlet manifold
3463:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3404:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3345:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3321:Fuel injection
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3261:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3186:
3184:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3088:Connecting rod
3085:
3080:
3075:
3069:
3067:
3058:
3057:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3037:
3036:
3029:
3022:
3014:
3008:
3007:
3001:
2995:
2992:batteryfaq.org
2989:
2982:
2981:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2943:External links
2941:
2938:
2937:
2930:
2912:
2893:
2834:
2814:Pearce, Fred:
2807:
2795:, as cited in
2766:
2739:
2716:
2688:
2681:
2663:
2632:
2613:(1): 113â120.
2593:
2568:
2561:
2542:
2527:
2520:
2502:
2473:
2447:
2436:
2417:
2382:
2347:
2338:
2335:on 2008-08-20.
2316:
2309:
2287:
2273:
2257:
2245:
2217:
2188:
2181:
2162:
2137:
2104:
2086:
2074:
2060:
2053:
2018:
2011:
1993:
1978:
1963:
1940:
1915:
1884:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1741:
1738:
1712:
1709:
1683:
1680:
1627:
1624:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1531:
1528:
1514:
1513:Stratification
1511:
1460:
1459:
1418:
1416:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1370:
1367:
1327:Main article:
1324:
1321:
1291:Main article:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1191:
1188:
1154:Main article:
1151:
1148:
1128:Main article:
1125:
1122:
1087:
1086:
1037:
1035:
1028:
1022:
1019:
967:
966:
917:
915:
908:
902:
899:
857:lignosulfonate
853:barium sulfate
840:
837:
793:electric-start
784:
781:
779:
776:
757:
754:
716:
713:
693:
682:
673:
670:
661:
658:
619:
616:
592:
580:
579:
563:
560:
555:
550:
547:
544:
541:
537:
520:
508:
496:
487:
475:
463:
462:
450:
441:
440:
432:
420:
409:
397:
385:
378:
367:
366:
360:
348:
336:
328:
309:
288:
285:
283:
280:
247:Main article:
244:
241:
235:
191:starter motors
187:surge currents
183:energy density
165:
164:
161:
157:
156:
150:
146:
145:
139:
135:
134:
131:
127:
126:
111:
107:
106:
103:
99:
98:
88:
86:Specific power
82:
81:
71:
69:Energy density
65:
64:
54:
48:
47:
41:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4214:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4197:Sulfuric acid
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4079:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4052:Sodiumâsulfur
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4027:Potassium ion
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3906:
3901:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3844:Lithium metal
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3799:Aluminiumâair
3797:
3795:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3724:Galvanic cell
3722:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3704:
3699:
3697:
3692:
3690:
3685:
3684:
3681:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3657:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3553:
3552:Water cooling
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3529:Oxygen sensor
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3493:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3444:Intake system
3442:
3436:
3435:Starter motor
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3391:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3374:Ignition coil
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3306:Petrol engine
3304:
3302:
3301:Diesel engine
3299:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3265:Blowoff valve
3263:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3182:Cylinder head
3178:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3073:Balance shaft
3071:
3070:
3068:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3053:
3046:
3042:
3035:
3030:
3028:
3023:
3021:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2998:atsdr.cdc.gov
2996:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2954:magnalabs.com
2952:
2951:
2933:
2931:0-8376-0333-1
2927:
2923:
2916:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2897:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2854:(5): 171368.
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2817:
2811:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2788:
2783:
2781:
2777:, March 2021
2776:
2770:
2763:
2762:nepis.epa.gov
2759:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2744:
2736:
2735:nepis.epa.gov
2732:
2728:
2727:
2720:
2705:
2698:
2692:
2684:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2649:
2642:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2564:
2558:
2554:
2546:
2538:
2531:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2492:on 2010-07-22
2491:
2487:
2485:
2477:
2470:(4): 199â214.
2469:
2465:
2458:
2451:
2445:
2440:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2312:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2270:3-939359-11-4
2267:
2261:
2254:
2249:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2221:
2207:on 2010-07-22
2206:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2184:
2178:
2174:
2166:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2083:
2078:
2070:
2064:
2056:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2040:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2014:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1990:
1989:
1982:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1951:
1944:
1927:
1926:
1919:
1905:on 2013-06-04
1901:
1894:
1888:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1808:Peukert's law
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1754:energy portal
1749:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1633:
1623:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1598:
1596:
1593:instead of a
1592:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1576:
1575:short circuit
1571:
1569:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1536:
1527:
1523:
1521:
1510:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1482:sulfuric acid
1479:
1475:
1466:
1456:
1453:
1445:
1442:December 2013
1435:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1419:This section
1417:
1413:
1408:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1393:
1387:
1385:
1384:Peukert's law
1375:
1366:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1351:electric cars
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1279:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1241:back-up power
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1208:
1207:power failure
1204:
1199:
1197:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1157:
1147:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1083:
1080:
1072:
1069:December 2017
1062:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1038:This section
1036:
1032:
1027:
1026:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
991:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
963:
960:
952:
949:December 2017
942:
938:
934:
928:
927:
923:
918:This section
916:
912:
907:
906:
898:
894:
891:
890:power density
886:
882:
880:
874:
871:
867:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
836:
833:
830:
826:
822:
816:
813:
808:
804:
798:
794:
789:
775:
773:
769:
768:Float voltage
765:
762:
753:
749:
747:
743:
739:
735:
726:
721:
712:
710:
706:
702:
669:
667:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
633:
624:
615:
613:
609:
605:
601:
585:
561:
558:
553:
548:
545:
542:
539:
535:
465:
464:
460:
459:
458:
456:
379:
376:
375:
374:
370:
329:
326:
325:
324:
322:
321:sulfuric acid
318:
302:
293:
279:
277:
272:
268:
266:
261:
257:
256:Gaston Planté
250:
240:
238:
231:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
179:Gaston Planté
176:
173:is a type of
172:
162:
158:
155:
151:
147:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
112:
108:
104:
100:
97:
93:
89:
87:
83:
80:
76:
72:
70:
66:
63:
59:
55:
53:
49:
45:
39:
34:
19:
4067:Zincâbromine
3874:Silver oxide
3809:Chromic acid
3781:Primary cell
3761:Voltaic pile
3739:Flow battery
3559:Electric fan
3359:Coil-on-plug
3285:Turbocharger
3280:Supercharger
3152:Main bearing
3142:Firing order
3132:Displacement
3078:Block heater
3062:Engine block
3050:Part of the
3049:
2921:
2915:
2896:
2851:
2847:
2837:
2819:
2810:
2799:
2785:
2778:
2769:
2760:, (also at:
2725:
2719:
2707:. Retrieved
2703:
2691:
2672:
2666:
2658:
2652:, retrieved
2647:
2635:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2584:. Retrieved
2580:
2571:
2552:
2545:
2536:
2530:
2511:
2505:
2494:. Retrieved
2490:the original
2483:
2476:
2467:
2463:
2450:
2439:
2420:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2341:
2333:the original
2328:
2319:
2296:
2290:
2276:
2260:
2248:
2237:the original
2232:
2220:
2209:. Retrieved
2205:the original
2200:
2191:
2172:
2165:
2154:. Retrieved
2149:
2140:
2129:. Retrieved
2121:
2117:
2107:
2098:
2089:
2077:
2063:
2038:
2012:07506-4625-X
2002:
1996:
1987:
1981:
1972:
1966:
1954:. Retrieved
1943:
1933:, retrieved
1924:
1918:
1907:. Retrieved
1900:the original
1887:
1860:
1856:
1803:UltraBattery
1768:Battery room
1735:
1732:
1728:
1720:zinc sulfate
1717:
1714:
1705:
1689:
1685:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1643:
1617:
1609:
1579:
1572:
1565:
1548:electrolysis
1545:
1524:
1516:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1486:lead sulfate
1478:lead sulfate
1473:
1471:
1448:
1439:
1428:Please help
1423:verification
1420:
1396:
1388:
1381:
1363:
1359:peak current
1358:
1335:photovoltaic
1332:
1317:
1309:open circuit
1296:
1273:
1215:are used in
1211:
1200:
1193:
1190:Applications
1184:
1166:
1163:
1159:
1156:VRLA battery
1144:
1133:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1075:
1066:
1051:Please help
1039:
995:permeability
992:
988:polyethylene
970:
955:
946:
931:Please help
919:
895:
883:
875:
861:lead sulfate
848:
845:carbon black
842:
834:
817:
809:
805:
801:
778:Construction
766:
759:
750:
730:
675:
663:
638:Overcharging
636:
632:lead dioxide
629:
608:ampere-hours
581:
442:
414:(aq) + 2e â
371:
368:
298:
273:
269:
252:
227:
218:
214:
195:
170:
168:
133:3%â20%/month
4156:Salt bridge
4141:Electrolyte
4072:Zincâcerium
4057:Solid state
4042:Silverâzinc
4017:Nickelâzinc
4002:Nickelâiron
3977:Molten salt
3945:Dual carbon
3940:Lithium ion
3935:Lithiumâair
3894:Zincâcarbon
3869:Siliconâair
3849:Lithiumâair
3583:Lubrication
3547:Air cooling
3364:Distributor
3316:Fuel filter
3294:Fuel system
3275:Intercooler
3242:Timing belt
3232:Head gasket
3162:Piston ring
2978:comcast.net
2535:J W Simms.
2363:(1): 40â8.
2201:WindSun.com
1952:. UBM Canon
1863:: 145â157.
1692:Epsom salts
1601:Environment
1595:face shield
1583:face shield
1378:overcharge.
1269:vacuum tube
1253:wheelchairs
1251:, electric
1175:conductance
1136:gel battery
1093:glass fibre
870:naphthalene
664:Because of
373:electrode.
317:electrolyte
315:), and the
265:Henri Tudor
44:car battery
4176:Categories
4109:Cell parts
4100:Solar cell
4082:Other cell
4047:Sodium ion
3918:Automotive
3635:Power band
3595:Oil filter
3569:Thermostat
3514:EGT sensor
3476:MAF sensor
3471:MAP sensor
3456:Air filter
3420:Alternator
3379:Spark plug
3311:Carburetor
3237:Rocker arm
3177:Valvetrain
3108:Crankshaft
3052:Automobile
2966:reuk.co.uk
2960:reuk.co.uk
2803:Pure Earth
2787:The Lancet
2654:2013-09-26
2586:August 29,
2496:2006-07-23
2211:2010-06-30
2156:2019-12-25
2131:2019-12-25
1956:3 November
1935:2014-01-09
1909:2014-01-09
1835:References
1630:See also:
1300:electrodes
1247:) and for
1233:submarines
1219:and other
1217:golf carts
1171:resistance
1140:silica-gel
972:Separators
901:Separators
849:blanc fixe
797:motorcycle
795:âequipped
746:submarines
738:hydrometer
725:hydrometer
709:convection
672:Ion motion
644:generates
612:watt-hours
4146:Half-cell
4136:Electrode
4095:Fuel cell
3972:Metalâair
3923:Leadâacid
3839:Leclanché
3751:Fuel cell
3369:Glow plug
3331:Fuel tank
3326:Fuel pump
3093:Crankcase
2754:Superfund
2709:25 August
2233:Edition 6
1682:Additives
1672:recycling
1665:Superfund
1626:Recycling
1568:explosion
1552:Catalytic
1520:diffusion
1490:amorphous
1474:sulfation
1392:diffusion
1347:golf cart
1337:systems,
1313:sulfation
1276:headlamps
1265:forklifts
1179:impedance
1040:does not
1011:oxidation
980:cellulose
976:dendrites
920:does not
866:dendrites
810:In 1880,
705:diffusion
703:), or by
554:∘
365:(aq) + 2e
287:Discharge
215:Gel-cells
117:) to 18 (
4126:Catalyst
3987:Nanowire
3982:Nanopore
3928:gelâVRLA
3889:Zincâair
3794:Alkaline
3668:Category
3613:Dry sump
3609:Wet sump
3600:Oil pump
3564:Radiator
3481:Throttle
3341:Ignition
3212:Camshaft
3137:Flywheel
3118:Cylinder
3103:Crankpin
2904:Archived
2888:29892351
2428:Archived
1778:Dry cell
1740:See also
1620:smelting
1587:overalls
1556:hydrogen
1343:forklift
1109:wet cell
829:selenium
821:antimony
650:hydrogen
642:voltages
618:Charging
604:coulombs
600:faradays
502:(aq) â 2
403:(aq) + 3
330:Pb(s) +
141:<350
4131:Cathode
3884:Zamboni
3854:Mercury
3819:Daniell
3640:Redline
3524:Muffler
3425:Battery
3349:Magneto
2948:General
2879:5990833
2856:Bibcode
2615:Bibcode
2400:Bibcode
2365:Bibcode
2118:Physics
1865:Bibcode
1700:sulfate
1591:goggles
1540:brittle
1061:removed
1046:sources
1017:range.
941:removed
926:sources
855:), and
825:calcium
742:density
652:gas by
566: V
514:(s) + 2
481:(s) + 2
426:(s) + 2
342:(aq) â
243:History
199:billion
4121:Binder
3879:Weston
3804:Bunsen
3663:Portal
3451:Airbox
3430:Dynamo
3157:Piston
3147:Stroke
3126:layout
3054:series
2928:
2886:
2876:
2679:
2559:
2518:
2325:"LABD"
2307:
2268:
2179:
2051:
2009:
1560:oxygen
1530:Safety
1282:Cycles
982:, and
783:Plates
646:oxygen
469:(s) +
391:(s) +
354:(s) +
143:cycles
105:50â95%
73:80â90
56:35â40
4116:Anode
3834:Grove
3814:Clark
3717:Types
3623:Other
3247:Valve
3217:Chest
2700:(PDF)
2644:(PDF)
2460:(PDF)
2240:(PDF)
2229:(PDF)
1929:(PDF)
1903:(PDF)
1896:(PDF)
1177:, or
125:/US$
4182:Lead
4151:Ions
3605:Sump
3122:bank
3083:Bore
2926:ISBN
2884:PMID
2791:DOI:
2711:2020
2677:ISBN
2588:2020
2557:ISBN
2516:ISBN
2305:ISBN
2266:ISBN
2177:ISBN
2049:ISBN
2045:23.5
2007:ISBN
1958:2015
1696:EDTA
1694:and
1558:and
1044:any
1042:cite
924:any
922:cite
648:and
588:PbSO
584:mole
562:2.05
504:PbSO
416:PbSO
344:PbSO
305:PbSO
230:lead
217:and
169:The
152:2.1
90:180
3824:Dry
3590:Oil
3179:and
3064:and
2874:PMC
2864:doi
2784:of
2623:doi
2611:129
2408:doi
2373:doi
2361:168
1873:doi
1432:by
1227:in
1055:by
986:or
984:PVC
935:by
689:HSO
471:PbO
446:PbO
439:(l)
393:HSO
381:PbO
332:HSO
234:PbO
119:fld
115:sld
113:7 (
4178::
3611:,
3124:,
2882:.
2872:.
2862:.
2850:.
2846:.
2828:,
2742:^
2702:.
2657:,
2646:,
2621:.
2609:.
2605:.
2579:.
2466:.
2462:.
2406:.
2396:59
2394:.
2371:.
2359:.
2327:.
2303:.
2299:.
2231:.
2199:.
2148:.
2124:.
2122:27
2120:.
2116:.
2047:.
2021:^
1871:.
1861:15
1859:.
1855:.
1843:^
1585:,
1386:.
1349:,
1345:,
1315:.
1255:,
1209:.
1173:,
1005:,
881:.
847:,
723:A
492:SO
467:Pb
457:.
267:.
225:.
123:Wh
121:)
96:kg
75:Wh
62:kg
58:Wh
3702:e
3695:t
3688:v
3615:)
3607:(
3128:)
3120:(
3033:e
3026:t
3019:v
2934:.
2890:.
2866::
2858::
2852:5
2823:,
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2782:,
2713:.
2685:.
2629:.
2625::
2617::
2590:.
2565:.
2524:.
2499:.
2468:1
2414:.
2410::
2402::
2379:.
2375::
2367::
2313:.
2284:.
2214:.
2185:.
2159:.
2134:.
2071:.
2057:.
2015:.
1960:.
1912:.
1881:.
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1867::
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1444:)
1440:(
1426:.
1341:(
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1067:(
1063:.
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929:.
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546:l
543:e
540:c
536:E
525:O
521:2
516:H
509:4
497:4
488:2
483:H
476:2
451:2
437:O
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428:H
421:4
405:H
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356:H
349:4
337:4
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303:(
236:2
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92:W
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60:/
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
