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bright (based on the CIE normalized efficiency photopic visual function curve for a standard observer), its VCF is 0.88. Light at 514 nm has a VCF of 0.585, and light at 488 nm has a VCF of 0.194. Now let's look at our two lasers. We have a 10-watt YAG emitting 10 watts of 532 nm light. The visually corrected power is 10W * 0.88VCF = 8.8 visually corrected watts. The 18-watt argon has 10 watts of 514 nm light (10W * 0.585VCF = 5.85 visually corrected watts) plus 8 watts of 488 nm light (8W * 0.194VCF = 1.55 visually corrected watts). Add the two argon outputs and you get a total of 5.85 + 1.55 = 7.40 visually corrected watts. This is how a 10-watt YAG beam can appear brighter to the eye than an 18-watt argon beam – all other factors such as beam divergence being equal.
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319:) laser light could cause permanent eye injury. The injury could be relatively minor, such as spots only detectable by medical exam or on the periphery of vision. At higher power levels, the spots may be in the central vision, in the same area where the original light was viewed. Most unlikely of all is injury causing a complete and permanent loss of vision. To do this would require very specialized equipment and a desire to deliberately target aircraft.
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longer flashes. With helicopters at close range, it is possible to have a more or less continuous light. The flashes shown greatly exaggerate the duration of a laser flash and use green rather than less visible red light. With a plane traveling hundreds of miles per hour and a laser beam size of only a meter or so, flash durations would be measured in thousandths of a second.
723:(SAE) G-10T, Laser Safety Hazards Subcommittee. It consists of laser safety experts and researchers, pilots and other interested parties representing military, commercial and private aviation, and laser users. Their recommendations have formed the basis of the FAA laser and bright light regulations and forms, as well as standards adopted in other countries and by the
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policies and procedures were developed, such as the FAA 7400.2 Chapter 29, and
Advisory Circular 70-1. Although incidents continued to occur (from January 1996 to July 1999, the FAA's Western-Pacific Region identified more than 150 incidents in which low-flying aircraft were illuminated by lasers), the situation seemed under control.
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general, the eyes of pilots in an illuminated nighttime cockpit are most sensitive to greenish-yellow light (of wavelength around 500–600 nanometers, peaking at 555 nm). A blue or red laser will appear much dimmer—and thus less distracting—than a green or yellow laser of equal power. For example, a 10-watt continuous-wave
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be used to watch for aircraft, and turn off the laser if a potential conflict is sighted. The FAA does not approve or disapprove requests, as it does not have the regulatory authority for this, but rather indicates whether it objects or does not object. If the laser use is for a show or display, approval from the
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showed only one or two incidents per year. The SAE G-10T subcommittee began meeting around 1993 as the number of incidents grew. Almost all of the incidents were known or suspected to be due to outdoor laser displays. Almost all of the concern was over potential eye damage; at the time visual effects
219:
Lasers are even used, or proposed for use, with aircraft. Pilots straying into unauthorized airspace over
Washington, D.C. can be warned to turn back by shining eye-safe low-power red and green lasers at them. At least one system has been tested that would use lasers on final approach to help line up
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In the U.S., operators of outdoor lasers are requested to file reports with the FAA at least 30 days in advance, detailing their location and laser power. It is permitted to use lasers whose output exceeds the limits of these zones, if other control measures are in place. For example, spotters could
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Laser safety goggles: laboratory-type laser safety goggles are not well suited for pilot operation, due to their low transmission and optical quality. Also, there may be a variety of laser wavelengths that may need to be defended against. If all wavelengths are protected, the goggles are essentially
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For non-visible lasers (infrared and ultraviolet), the irradiance at the aircraft must be eye-safe—below the
Maximum Permissible Exposure level for that wavelength. For pulsed visible lasers, the irradiance at the aircraft must be both eye-safe and must be at or below any applicable FAA laser zone.
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FAA AC-70-1, Table 5, shows these calculations, which are summarized here using the exact Visual
Correction Factor for the wavelengths under consideration (FAA only gives ranges). Light at 555 nm appears brightest to the eye, so it has a VCF of 100% (1.0). Since light at 532 nm appears only 88% as
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Within the SAE G-10T subcommittee, there was some consideration about cutting back or banning laser shows. However, it became apparent that there were a large number of non-entertainment laser users as well. The focus shifted to control of known laser users, whether shows or industry/research. New
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In late 1995, a number of illumination incidents occurred in Las Vegas due to new outdoor laser displays. Although the displays had been approved by the FDA as eye-safe for their airport proximity, no one had realized that the glare and distraction hazard would adversely affect pilots. In
December
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In the UK, restrictions are in place in a zone that includes a circle 3 nmi (5.6 km) in radius around an airport, plus extensions from each end of each runway. The runway zones are rectangles 20 nmi (37 km) in total length and 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) wide, centered about each
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Some measures have been proposed to protect aircrews including goggles and windscreen filters. These may work in theory (especially against known wavelengths) and may be useful in some situations such as military operations. However, these measures may not be suitable, practical or recommended for
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There are some subjects which aviation safety experts agree pose no real hazard. These include passenger exposure to laser light, pilot distraction during cruising or other non-critical phases of flight, and laser damage to the aircraft. The main concerns of safety experts are focused on laser and
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The graphic (right) illustrates laser safety concepts. For example, it shows that the areas of most concern—eye damage, flash blindness and glare—occur relatively close to the aircraft. The distraction risk covers the longest hazard distance, but also presents the least concern. The photos in the
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Direction relative to the aircraft and cockpit. A beam aimed directly at an incoming aircraft gives the greatest risk to pilots. One aimed across the aircraft's travel gives less risk, partially because the light enters through the side windows, and partially because it is harder to keep the beam
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Wavelength of the beam: an infrared or ultraviolet laser beam does not present any visual effect risk to pilots, as they cannot see it. However, at high powers it can present an eye damage risk. In some cases, this hazard may be greater since a pilot would not know they were being illuminated. In
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introduced H.R. 1400, the "Securing
Airplane Cockpits Against Lasers Act of 2005." The bill was passed by the U.S. House and Senate, but did not go to conference and thus did not become law. In 2007, Keller re-introduced the bill as H.R. 1615. Although passed by the House in May 2007, it was not
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The optional
Sensitive Flight Zone is designated by the FAA, military or other aviation authorities where light intensity must be less than 100 μW/cm. This might be done for example around a busy flight path or where military operations are taking place. This was identified as the limiting level
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The photos at right flash because most incidents are of flashes and not of steady illumination. In accidental illuminations there may be just one or a few flashes. Even in deliberate illuminations, it is difficult to keep a hand-held laser focused on a moving target, so there will be a series of
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Glare and disruption: as the light brightness increases, it starts to interfere with vision. Veiling glare would make it difficult to see out the windscreen. Night vision starts to deteriorate. Laser light is highly directional, so pilots may act to exclude the source from their direct field of
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Then in late 2004 and early 2005 came a significant increase in reported incidents linked to laser pointers. The wave of incidents may have been triggered in part by "copycats" who read press accounts of laser pointer incidents. In one case, David Banach of New Jersey was charged under federal
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Education and training. The SAE G-10T Laser
Hazards Subcommittee is working on Aerospace Recommended Practice document 5598, "Laser Visual Interference - Pilot Operational Procedures." This will provide information for pilots on recognizing and recovering from a laser or bright light incident.
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Restricting the sale or use of laser devices. This is done in some jurisdictions. For example, in April 2008 New South Wales, Australia banned laser pointer possession, except by special permit, in an effort to reduce the number of laser illuminations of aircraft. In
October 1997 in the United
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The three visual effects above are the primary concern for aviation experts. This is because they could happen with lower-powered lasers that are commonly available. The fourth concern, eye damage, is much less likely: it would require specialized equipment not readily available to the general
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These recommendations were adopted by the U.S. FAA, and are incorporated into FAA Order JO 7400.2, Chapter 29 "Outdoor Laser
Operations". See for example the FAA's "Laser Free", "Critical", "Sensitive" and "Normal Flight Zone" power levels (FAA Order JO 7400.2, Para. 29-1-5). The SAE G-10T
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The Laser Free Zone extends immediately around and above runways, as depicted at right. Light irradiance within the zone must be less than 50 nanowatts per square centimeter (0.05 microwatts per square centimeter). This was set at "a level that would not cause any visual
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from observatories) may be marked on aeronautical charts so pilots are aware of potential beams along their flight path. Temporary uses (laser shows) may be described in pre-flight information. For example, in the U.S., laser uses submitted to the FAA are often listed in
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The U.S. FAA Critical Flight Zone extends horizontally 10 nmi (19 km) around the airport, and extends vertically to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above ground level. The optional Sensitive Flight Zone is designated around special airspace needing bright-light
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For any given laser, the relative distances shown here may change. For example, an infrared laser can be an eye hazard for hundreds of feet, but presents no flash blindness, glare or distraction hazard. Because of this, each laser must be analyzed individually.
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This calculation is based upon determining when the irradiance of the laser just falls below the light levels of the ANSI nominal ocular hazard (eye hazard), the FAA Sensitive Flight Zone (flash blindness), Critical Flight Zone (glare) and Laser Free Zone
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Laser event detectors and recorders that can sense a laser illumination and record information about the wavelength and power. This does not provide protection but does give information about an illumination which may be useful for later analysis or legal
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graphic also give an idea of what the visual effect looks like to the pilot, at various distances. While the distances given are exact, the laser's brightness is in fact falling off slowly and so effects diminish continuously with increasing distance.
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Location of the beam relative to airports: the FAA has established safety zones around airports, which are described in the "Regulation" section below. It is possible to use beams within the zones, if the beam power is below the FAA limit for the
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Beam movement: if the beam is moving around such as in a laser show, it covers a greater area of the sky and thus has a greater chance to illuminate an aircraft. However, if it did scan across a cockpit, in general the exposure duration would be
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Distraction and startle: an unexpected laser or bright light could distract the pilot during a nighttime landing or takeoff. A pilot might not know what was happening at first. They may be worried that a brighter light or other threat would be
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Active "smart" goggles which can detect laser light and then activate a blocking or dimming process based on the power and wavelength. It is not known if these are in production or use; if so, it is likely that these are used only in military
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The laser effects and ranges shown in the graphic are based on consensus developed by the aviation advisory group SAE G-10T Laser Safety Hazards Subcommittee as published in SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice document 5293 (ARP5293)
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Kingdom, administrative steps were taken to restrict the sale of laser pointers > 1 milliwatt output, for similar reasons (although the purchase, importation and use of such pointers in the UK remains lawful). In the U.S., the
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The U.S. FAA has studied some of these factors. They conducted research using pilots in flight simulators to determine the effects of laser exposure on pilot performance; results were released in August 2003 and June 2004.
620:(3,700 m) from the centerline of all runways (two dark lines in this diagram) with additional 3 NM (5,560 m) extensions at each end of a runway. Vertically, the LFZ extends to 2,000 feet (610 m) above ground level.
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Pulsing: some laser beams emit their energy in pulses. A pulsed laser presents a greater eye damage risk than a continuous laser of equal average power. This is because the power is packed into shorter but more intense
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Z136.6 standard is the "American National Standard for Safe Use of Lasers Outdoors." The Z136.6 committee has worked closely with SAE G-10T and others, to develop recommended safety procedures for outdoor laser use.
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Amending existing laws, or enacting new ones, to try to discourage irresponsible laser use. One U.S. federal effort in this direction is the "Securing Airplane Cockpits Against Lasers Act of 2005", discussed in the
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notes that a ban could "pose significant challenges because these devices are widely available at low cost and are used in a variety of applications such as laser pointers, laser levels and laser gun sights."
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Terminating beams on buildings, dense trees, etc. to prevent laser light from entering protected airspace. This is a common protection measure for outdoor laser shows, if there are structures available for
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where the image takes from a few seconds to a few minutes to fade away, depending on how much light entered the eye. Light level 50 μW/cm; for example, a legal 5 mW laser pointer at 350 feet (110 m).
799:. As a result of this attack plus others, a law was proposed in mid-April 2008 in New South Wales to ban possession of handheld lasers, including low-power classroom pointers. The Australian state of
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The Critical Flight Zone covers 10 nautical miles (NM) around the airport; the light limit is 5 microwatts per square centimeter (μW/cm), determined to be the level at which glare becomes significant.
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There are four primary areas of concern. The first three are visual effects that temporarily distract or block pilots' vision. These effects are only of concern when the laser emits visible light.
1208:
CRS Report for Congress - Lasers Aimed at Aircraft Cockpits:Background and Possible Options to Address the Threat to Aviation Safety and Security - Bart Elias (January 26, 2005)Order Code:RS22033
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Day vs. night: almost all concern is over nighttime illumination. The three visual effects listed above (distraction, glare and flash blindness) are minimized during the day since the eye is not
228:(FAA) has tested laser-projected lines on airport runways, to increase visibility of "hold short" markings. Because of these varied uses, it is not practical to ban lasers from airspace.
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The U.S. FAA has established airspace zones. These protect the area around airports and other sensitive airspace from the hazards of safe-but-too-bright visible laser light exposure:
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Z136.6 document gives guidance for the safe use of outdoor lasers. While this document is copyrighted by ANSI and is relatively costly, a flavor of its recommendations can be seen in
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works exactly like a bright camera flash: there is no injury, but night vision is temporarily disrupted. There may be afterimages, like a bright camera flash leaving temporary spots.
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issued a study on the laser "threat to aviation safety and security." Because there was no federal law specifically banning deliberate laser illumination of aircraft, Congressman
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are under development by armed forces, these are so specialized, expensive and controlled that it is improbable for non-military lasers to cause structural damage to an aircraft.
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Pilot awareness and response: a pilot can make the situation worse if they overreact, stare at the light to try to locate its source, or carry out unnecessary evasive maneuvers.
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Increasing the beam divergence. The beam spreads out faster, so at any given distance, the amount of light entering the eye or a cockpit windscreen will be less (e.g., lower
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Also, the weaker effects are part of any stronger effect. Even if a laser does not cause eye damage at 25 feet, it can still cause flash blindness, glare and a distraction.
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aimed exactly at the cockpit area. A beam aimed straight up gives the least risk, although it is still possible for the beam to illuminate the cockpit during a banking turn.
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is required. A prerequisite for this approval is a letter of non-objection from the FAA. Laser activity in a given area is communicated to pilots before their flight via a
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vision. Pointer lasers have an illuminance of about 1 lumen/m2, whereas during the day the pilots have to deal with sunlight which is one hundred thousand times stronger.
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The Normal Flight Zone covers all other airspace. The light intensity must be less than 2.5 milliwatts per square centimeter (2500 μW/cm). This is about half of the
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Using spotters to watch for aircraft. This is commonly done for laser shows which tend to be short-duration (around an hour) and infrequent (nightly shows are rare).
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where the light does not obscure vision but can distract the pilot. Light intensity 0.5 μW/cm; for example, a legal 5 mW laser pointer at 3,700 feet (1,100 m).
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Following a series of accidents caused by lasers, Arizona state passed Bill 2164 (2014) that making it a Class One misdemeanor to point a laser at an aircraft.
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Pointing a laser at an aircraft can be hazardous to pilots, and has resulted in arrests, trials and jail sentences. It also results in calls to license or ban
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where it is hard to see through the light to the background scene. Light level 5.0 μW/cm; for example, a legal 5 mW laser pointer at 1,200 feet (370 m).
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August 2003 FAA study: "The Effects of Laser Illumination on Operational and Visual Performance of Pilots Conducting Terminal Operations", DOT/FAA/AM-03/12.
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In December 2021 a Mississippi man is facing federal charges including 5 years in prison and $ 25,000 in fines for months of targeting aircraft flying into
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June 2004 FAA follow-up study: "The Effects of Laser Illumination on Operational and Visual Performance of Pilots During Final Approach", DOT/FAA/AM-04/9.
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Using automated detection systems such as radar or sky cameras. These are used for long-duration (all night) and frequent (nightly) applications, such as
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461:/2.5 km), causes veiling glare to about 36,800 feet (7 mi; 11 km), and is a distraction to about 368,000 feet (70 mi; 110 km).
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To give another example, of a more powerful laser—the type that might be used in an outdoor laser show: a 6-watt green (532 nm) laser with a 1.1
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Flight phase. The risk is greatest when the exposure comes during a time of high workload: takeoffs, critical or emergency maneuvers, and landings.
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Order JO 7400.2, Chapter 29 "Outdoor Laser Operations", and bright light airspace guidelines are in Chapter 30 "High Intensity Light Operations".
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1181:"Safety Recommendations of Laser Pointers", by Rockwell Laser Industries and the (U.S.) National Institutes of Occupational Safety & Health
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Articles in aviation publications also have provided helpful information, such as "Laser Illuminations: The Last Line of Defense - The Pilot!".
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There are a number of ways that laser users, regulators and pilots reduce the potential hazard from outdoor laser use. These measures include:
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Motion and speed of the aircraft. A slow aircraft is at greater risk than a fast one (relative to travel across the viewer's line of sight).
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bright light effects on pilots, especially when they are in a critical phase of flight: takeoff, approach, landing, and emergency maneuvers.
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Distance to the aircraft. A low-flying aircraft is at greater risk. Again, helicopters are vulnerable due to their close ground proximity.
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151:. It is far less likely, though still possible, that a visible or invisible beam could cause permanent harm to a pilot's eyes. Although
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139:) directed at aircraft can be a hazard. The most likely scenario is when a bright visible laser light causes distraction or temporary
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in Egypt and later celebration of his removal, thousands of protesters and revelers aimed laser pointers at government helicopters.
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U.S. Congressman Ric Keller: 8th District Of Florida:Committee Passes Keller Pilot Protection Bill (Washington, September 29, 2005)
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In the United Kingdom, CAP 736 is the "Guide for the Operation of Lasers, Searchlights and Fireworks in United Kingdom Airspace."
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opaque. There are also issues with the discomfort of wearing goggles routinely, given that laser incidents are relatively rare.
1301:"Aircrew laser eye protection visors", Opt. Eng. Vol. 44, 084303, August 29, 2005, referenced from SPIE Digital Library online
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Projector and laser stability: if a projector slips, or safety software fails, the beam could enter unsafe areas of airspace.
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810:. An FAA spokeswoman said there were 148 laser attacks on aircraft in the U.S. from January 1, 2009 to February 23, 2009.
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1105:. The photographs in the graphic are from the FAA and demonstrate visual effects of laser light in an aircraft simulator.
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beam divergence is an eye hazard to about 1,600 feet (490 meters), can cause flash blindness to about 8,200 feet (1.5
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On March 28, 2008, a coordinated attack took place using four green laser pointers aimed at six aircraft landing at
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CAP736: Guide for the Operation of Lasers,Searchlights and Fireworks in the United Kingdom Airspace (www.caa.co.uk)
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astronomy. Lasers and searchlights are used in entertainment; for example, in outdoor shows such as the nightly
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Backlash over ban on laser pointers - National - smh.com.au (Jordan Baker Chief Police Reporter April 22, 2008)
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are used by the general public; sometimes they will be accidentally or deliberately aimed at or near aircraft.
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has had a similar ban since 1998, but press reports state that it is easy to buy lasers without a permit.
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Australia Takes On Laser Lunatics(April 21, 2008, 10:52 am By Mike Nizza)- The Lede - New York Times Blog
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UK laser operators report outdoor laser, searchlight or firework operations at least 28 days in advance.
346:: a low-divergence "tight" beam will be a hazard at greater distances than one which spreads out rapidly.
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Graphic illustrating how laser pointer hazards are most serious when the laser is close to the aircraft
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laser that outputs 10 watts of 514 nm (green-blue) light plus 8 watts of 488 nm (blue) light.
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SAE Standards for Works in Progress, ARP5598, Laser Visual Interference - Pilot Operational Procedures
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1055:"Laser Pointers: Their Potential Affects[sic] on Vision and Aviation Safety DOT/FAA/AM-01/7"
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Police have begun using helicopters to patrol and seek out people using lasers to disrupt aviation.
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pilots were targeted with laser points in multiple regions, but particularly in the Middle East.
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laser at 532 nanometers (green) can appear brighter to the eye than an 18-watt continuous-wave
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It is extremely unlikely that any of the four elements above would cause loss of the aircraft.
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Eastern Region FAA Safety Team Laser Warning System Video(Updated: 8:26 am ET October 5, 2007)
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1379:
A sampling of NASA ASRS laser incident reports can be done by searching for the term "laser".
1271:"Laser Illuminations: Last Line of Defense - The Pilot!" by Capt. C.W. "Bill" Connor, Ph.D.,
743:
Until the early 1990s, laser and bright light aviation incidents were sporadic. In the U.S.,
1728:, effective 2017-10-12 (with changes), accessed 2017-12-04 (quoted as "FAA JO Order 7400.2")
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1327:"Active laser protection system", U.S. Patent 7202852, retrieved from freepatentsonline.com
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was forced to turn back when a laser beam was shone into the cockpit. The incident led the
800:
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1338:"Stowable laser eye protection", U.S. Patent 7344260, retrieved from freepatentsonline.com
8:
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FAA press release: Laser Technology Will Make It Easier For Pilots To See Runway Markings
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are at greatest risk because they can hover, presenting a relatively stationary target.
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H.R. 1400 (109th): Securing Aircraft Cockpits Against Lasers Act of 2005 (GovTrack.us)
1219:
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FAA Order JO 7400.2, Chapter 29, Para. 29-4-1 "Issuance of Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)"
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Glare shields that can be pulled down over a windscreen to reduce all incoming light.
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Keeping beams away from areas with many aircraft, such as airports and flight paths.
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and spotlights can have the same dazzling, distracting, and flashblinding effects.
1486:"City's worst laser attacks on aircraft", Frank Walker, March 30, 2008, smh.com.au
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H.R. 1615: Securing Aircraft Cockpits Against Lasers Act of 2007 (GovTrack.us)
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On February 22, 2009, a dozen planes were targeted with green laser beams at
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Requiring review or approval of outdoor laser uses. This is discussed in the
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Developing and following policies for outdoor laser operations, such as the
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Laser 'cluster' attacks Sydney planes | Herald Sun (March 29, 2008 10:37pm)
1170:"Laser pointers banned after attacks", Reuters article dated April 21, 2008
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anti-terrorism laws, after he allegedly shone a laser pointer at aircraft.
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1995 the FDA issued an emergency order shutting down the Las Vegas shows.
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Power: the more light emitted, the brighter and more hazardous it will be.
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1312:"Military hazard software gauges human thresholds" by Hassaun Jones-Bey,
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The exact hazard in a specific situation depends on a number of factors.
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A key group inside the U.S. working on laser and aviation safety is the
1699:"Mississippi Man Faces Prison Time For Targeting Aircraft With A Laser"
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The Seattle Times - Someone shining laser at planes landing at Sea-Tac.
1392:"Laser Pointers: Their Potential Affects on Vision and Aviation Safety"
1098:"Safety Considerations for Lasers Projected in the Navigable Airspace."
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Helicopter Airborne Laser Positioning Systems (HALPS) (march 1990) NASA
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224:. NASA has tested a Helicopter Airborne Laser Positioning System. The
1618:"Virgin Atlantic flight back in UK after 'laser incident' - BBC News"
1596:"Egypt crisis: Why are Cairo protesters using laser pens? - BBC News"
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1571:"Euphoric Egyptians light up helicopter with laser beams - BBC News"
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Eye damage. Though it is unlikely, high power visible or invisible (
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have restricted laser pointers as a result of multiple incidents.
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by Charles Edward Stewart, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2006.
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Lasers are used in industry and research, such as in atmospheric
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CNN.com - Pilots landing at Seattle-Tacoma airport report lasers
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In the United States, laser airspace guidelines can be found in
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In addition to lasers, other bright directional lights such as
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FAA Order JO 7400.2L, Procedures for Handling Airspace Matters
1645:"Virgin Atlantic laser incident: pilots' union demands action"
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Laser pointers ban spread (April 22, 2008 12:00am) Herald Sun
981:"Laser Pointer Safety - NEVER aim laser pointers at aircraft"
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1673:"Laser Beam Attacks Bedevil U.S. Military Pilots in Mideast"
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beyond which flash blindness and afterimages could occur.
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During the July 2013 protests against the presidency of
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to a pilot, during a critical phase of flight such as
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The U.S. FAA Laser Free Zone extends horizontally 2
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ANSI Z136.6 Standard, "Safe Use of Lasers Outdoors"
48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1101:recommendations also were adopted by ANSI Z136.6,
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1288:Weapons of Mass Casualties and Terrorism Response
1286:Sample page provided by Google Book Search, from
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1425:"N.J. man charged with aiming laser at aircraft"
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486:Using the lowest power necessary for the task.
127:are one of the main threats of aviation safety
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582:Active hazard reduction (proposed measures)
540:
517:standard "Safe Use of Lasers Outdoors" or
232:Primary hazards of lasers and bright lights
173:
997:
702:Center for Devices and Radiological Health
135:light or other bright lights (spotlights,
1390:Van B. Nakagawara; Ronald W. Montgomery.
1266:
1264:
1262:
1196:
1129:
607:
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
1241:
1239:
623:
611:
433:
265:
250:
235:
119:
836:to call for lasers to be classified as
559:Pilot/aircrew hazard reduction measures
334:
326:
1734:
1696:
1670:
1643:Press Association (15 February 2016).
1259:
1155:NASA's "Use Policy for Outdoor Lasers"
1125:BBC: Police fight back on laser threat
464:
384:
366:
1422:
1236:
752:were felt to be a minor consequence.
472:
185:
808:Seattle-Tacoma International Airport
715:Regulatory and standards development
526:Regulatory hazard reduction measures
46:adding citations to reliable sources
17:
1026:"Luminous efficacy at HyperPhysics"
909:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
843:In the first seven months of 2018,
834:British Airline Pilots' Association
521:'s "Use Policy for Outdoor Lasers".
510:used at astronomical observatories.
13:
651:'s Use Policy for Outdoor Lasers.
14:
1758:
1719:
1671:Lubold, Gordon (17 August 2018).
771:Responding to the incidents, the
654:
587:widespread civil air operations.
430:Example laser safety calculations
258:flight simulator showing veiling
1053:Van B. Nakagawara (April 2001).
1032:from the original on 2002-08-24.
749:Aviation Safety Reporting System
564:Fixed laser installations (e.g.
22:
1690:
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1588:
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1423:Levin, Alan (January 4, 2005).
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721:Society of Automotive Engineers
635:Federal Aviation Administration
226:Federal Aviation Administration
33:needs additional citations for
1036:
1018:
952:
941:
923:
897:
886:
773:Congressional Research Service
534:Congressional Research Service
481:User hazard reduction measures
1:
1103:"Safe Use of Lasers Outdoors"
879:
852:Memphis International Airport
162:. Some jurisdictions such as
698:Food and Drug Administration
690:
548:
57:"Lasers and aviation safety"
7:
1697:Phelps, Mark (2021-12-22).
1366:September 26, 2006, at the
1316:magazine, September 1, 2000
1083:September 16, 2006, at the
857:
10:
1763:
1747:Laser safety and standards
845:United States Armed Forces
738:
131:Under certain conditions,
905:"NSW bans laser pointers"
643:For all laser users, the
413:Pilot and aircrew factors
272:temporary flash blindness
243:flight simulator showing
1451:August 30, 2006, at the
1012:October 1, 2006, at the
935:October 6, 2006, at the
893:Laser Safety in Aviation
352:yttrium aluminium garnet
220:the pilot on the proper
194:, and as guide stars in
174:Lasers and bright lights
1598:. Bbc.co.uk. 2013-07-04
964:April 13, 2009, at the
1435:on September 20, 2005.
784:and never became law.
630:
621:
608:Regulation and control
541:Regulation and control
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128:
1190:June 9, 2007, at the
627:
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830:New York JFK Airport
335:Bright light factors
327:Analyzing the hazard
42:improve this article
1677:Wall Street Journal
1348:FAA Order JO 7400.2
1275:, April 2005, p. 21
820:On February 2016 a
465:Reducing the hazard
385:Situational factors
367:Operational factors
1624:. 15 February 2016
1546:2009-04-30 at the
631:
622:
473:Police enforcement
440:
276:
264:
249:
186:Lasers in airspace
129:
1067:on June 26, 2013.
838:offensive weapons
566:laser guide stars
508:laser guide stars
206:Walt Disney World
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1397:. Archived from
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911:. 21 April 2008
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164:New South Wales
141:flash blindness
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98:November 2015
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59: –
58:
54:
53:Find sources:
47:
43:
37:
36:
31:This article
29:
25:
20:
19:
16:
1706:. Retrieved
1702:
1692:
1680:. Retrieved
1676:
1666:
1654:. Retrieved
1650:The Guardian
1648:
1638:
1626:. Retrieved
1621:
1612:
1600:. Retrieved
1590:
1578:. Retrieved
1574:
1565:
1554:
1536:
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1514:
1503:
1492:
1481:
1470:
1459:
1441:
1433:the original
1428:
1418:
1408:February 19,
1406:. Retrieved
1399:the original
1385:
1374:
1344:
1333:
1322:
1313:
1307:
1296:
1287:
1281:
1272:
1250:
1228:22 September
1226:. Retrieved
1214:
1185:the original
1176:
1165:
1159:the original
1120:
1110:
1091:
1073:
1062:the original
1048:
1038:
1020:
988:. Retrieved
984:
954:
943:
925:
915:17 September
913:. Retrieved
908:
899:
888:
869:Laser safety
849:
842:
824:flight from
819:
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805:
786:
770:
762:
758:
754:
742:
729:
718:
710:
694:
685:
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678:power level.
664:disruption."
658:
642:
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500:termination.
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392:dark adapted
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180:searchlights
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137:searchlights
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64:
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40:Please help
35:verification
32:
15:
1656:15 February
1628:15 February
1602:15 February
1580:15 February
791:airport in
766:Patriot Act
629:protection.
573:for pilots.
455:milliradian
399:Helicopters
317:ultraviolet
245:distraction
1736:Categories
1708:2021-12-22
990:2021-12-22
880:References
777:Ric Keller
491:irradiance
298:Temporary
222:glideslope
68:newspapers
1682:17 August
1429:USA Today
1220:"HB 2164"
797:Australia
691:Reporting
356:argon-ion
168:Australia
1622:BBC News
1575:BBC News
1544:Archived
1449:Archived
1364:Archived
1188:Archived
1081:Archived
1030:Archived
1010:Archived
962:Archived
933:Archived
858:See also
826:Heathrow
801:Victoria
687:runway.
676:Class 3R
373:shorter.
313:infrared
307:public.
204:show at
739:History
603:action.
549:History
362:pulses.
291:coming.
149:takeoff
145:landing
82:scholar
789:Sydney
700:(FDA)
571:NOTAMs
125:Lasers
84:
77:
70:
63:
55:
1703:AVweb
1402:(PDF)
1395:(PDF)
1223:(PDF)
1065:(PDF)
1058:(PDF)
706:NOTAM
377:zone.
260:glare
210:Epcot
133:laser
89:JSTOR
75:books
1684:2018
1658:2016
1630:2016
1604:2016
1582:2016
1410:2016
1230:2014
985:Home
917:2018
745:NASA
732:ANSI
730:The
725:ICAO
649:NASA
645:ANSI
519:NASA
515:ANSI
61:news
828:to
747:'s
256:FAA
241:FAA
208:'s
147:or
44:by
1738::
1701:.
1675:.
1647:.
1620:.
1573:.
1427:.
1353:^
1261:^
1238:^
1198:^
1147:^
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1028:.
999:^
983:.
972:^
907:.
854:.
840:.
795:,
727:.
708:.
618:NM
493:).
459:mi
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105:(
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96:(
86:·
79:·
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38:.
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