Bivalvia - Knowledge

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obtained from cultured shells where an irritant substance has been purposefully introduced to induce the formation of a pearl. A "mabe" (irregular) pearl can be grown by the insertion of an implant, usually made of plastic, under a flap of the mantle and next to the mother-of-pearl interior of the shell. A more difficult procedure is the grafting of a piece of oyster mantle into the gonad of an adult specimen together with the insertion of a shell bead nucleus. This produces a superior, spherical pearl. The animal can be opened to extract the pearl after about two years and reseeded so that it produces another pearl. Pearl oyster farming and pearl culture is an important industry in Japan and many other countries bordering the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

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general strategy is to extend their siphons to the surface for feeding and respiration during high tide, but to descend to greater depths or keep their shell tightly shut when the tide goes out. They use their muscular foot to dig into the substrate. To do this, the animal relaxes its adductor muscles and opens its shell wide to anchor itself in position while it extends its foot downwards into the substrate. Then it dilates the tip of its foot, retracts the adductor muscles to close the shell, shortens its foot and draws itself downwards. This series of actions is repeated to dig deeper.

2902: 1118:" projected into the stomach from an associated sac. Cilia in the sac cause the style to rotate, winding in a stream of food-containing mucus from the mouth, and churning the stomach contents. This constant motion propels food particles into a sorting region at the rear of the stomach, which distributes smaller particles into the digestive glands, and heavier particles into the intestine. Waste material is consolidated in the rectum and voided as pellets into the exhalent water stream through an anal pore. Feeding and digestion are synchronized with diurnal and tidal cycles. 2658: 3658: 2646: 686: 2790:) is one of the main predators feeding on bivalves in Arctic waters. Shellfish have formed part of the human diet since prehistoric times, a fact evidenced by the remains of mollusc shells found in ancient middens. Examinations of these deposits in Peru has provided a means of dating long past El Niño events because of the disruption these caused to bivalve shell growth. Further changes in shell development due to environmental stress has also been suggested to cause increased mortality in oysters due to reduced shell strength. 1295: 3631: 152: 2517: 942: 675: 3086:(FAO) started making such information available, world trade in bivalve molluscs was 1,007,419 tons. By 2010, world trade in bivalves had risen to 14,616,172 tons, up from 10,293,607 tons a decade earlier. The figures included 5,554,348 (3,152,826) tons of clams, cockles and ark shells, 1,901,314 (1,568,417) tons of mussels, 4,592,529 (3,858,911) tons of oysters and 2,567,981 (1,713,453) tons of scallops. China increased its consumption 400-fold during the period 1970 to 1997. 124: 9387:

Hylleberg, J.; Jiang, B.; Johnston, P.; Kirkendale, L.; Kleemann, K.; Koppka, J.; Kříž, J.; Machado, D.; Malchus, N.; Márquez-Aliaga, A.; Masse, J-P.; McRoberts, C. A.; Middelfart, P. U.; Mitchell, S.; Nevesskaja, L. A.; Özer, S.; Pojeta, J. Jr.; Polubotko, I. V.; Pons, J. M.; Popov, S.; Sánchez, T.; Sartori, A. F.; Scott, R. W.; Sey, I. I.; Signorelli, J. H.; Silantiev, V. V.; Skelton, P. W.; Steuber, T.; Waterhouse, J. B.; Wingard, G. L.; Yancey, T. (2011).

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onto necklaces or made into other forms of jewellery. Shells have had various uses in the past as body decorations, utensils, scrapers and cutting implements. Carefully cut and shaped shell tools dating back 32,000 years have been found in a cave in Indonesia. In this region, shell technology may have been developed in preference to the use of stone or bone implements, perhaps because of the scarcity of suitable rock materials.

3045: 8230: 3372: 1436: 733:(when present) and foot are located, and the posterior of the shell is where the siphons are located. With the hinge uppermost and with the anterior edge of the animal towards the viewer's left, the valve facing the viewer is the left valve and the opposing valve the right. Many bivalves such as clams, which appear upright, are evolutionarily lying on their side. 874:. The cerebral ganglia control the sensory organs, while the pleural ganglia supply nerves to the mantle cavity. The pedal ganglia, which control the foot, are at its base, and the visceral ganglia, which can be quite large in swimming bivalves, are under the posterior adductor muscle. These ganglia are both connected to the cerebropleural ganglia by 1253:, commonly known as pocketbook mussels, have evolved an unusual reproductive strategy. The female's mantle protrudes from the shell and develops into an imitation small fish, complete with fish-like markings and false eyes. This decoy moves in the current and attracts the attention of real fish. Some fish see the decoy as prey, while others see a 2965:

transferred to transitional, nursery beds before being moved to their final rearing quarters. Culture there takes place on the bottom, in plastic trays, in mesh bags, on rafts or on long lines, either in shallow water or in the intertidal zone. The oysters are ready for harvesting in 18 to 30 months depending on the size required.

2928:) were first farmed by the Romans in shallow ponds and similar techniques are still in use. Seed oysters are either raised in a hatchery or harvested from the wild. Hatchery production provides some control of the broodstock but remains problematic because disease-resistant strains of this oyster have not yet been developed. Wild 2802:

they could manipulate the shells and open them more easily when they could tackle them from different angles. Octopuses either pull bivalves apart by force, or they bore a hole into the shell and insert a digestive fluid before sucking out the liquified contents. Certain carnivorous gastropod snails such as whelks (

265: 917:, the inhalant siphon is surrounded by vibration-sensitive tentacles for detecting prey. Many bivalves have no eyes, but a few members of the Arcoidea, Limopsoidea, Mytiloidea, Anomioidea, Ostreoidea, and Limoidea have simple eyes on the margin of the mantle. These consist of a pit of photosensory cells and a 3701:, which employed a classification system based on general shell shape, microstructures and hinge configuration. Because features such as hinge morphology, dentition, mineralogy, shell morphology and shell composition change slowly over time, these characteristics can be used to define major taxonomic groups. 1221:) produces few, high-energy eggs. The larvae hatching out of these rely on the energy reserves and do not feed. After about four days, they become D-stage larvae, when they first develop hinged, D-shaped valves. These larvae have a relatively small dispersal potential before settling out. The common mussel ( 3234:, long-term neurological problems or death. In an outbreak in the western United States in 1993, finfish were also implicated as vectors, and seabirds and mammals suffered neurological symptoms. In the United States and Canada, a regulatory limit of 20 μg/g of domoic acid in shellfish meat is set. 3382:

is the scientific study of mollusc shells, but the term conchologist is also sometimes used to describe a collector of shells. Many people pick up shells on the beach or purchase them and display them in their homes. There are many private and public collections of mollusc shells, but the largest one

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in 1894. As sewage treatment programmes became more prevalent in the late 19th century, more outbreaks took place. This may have been because sewage was released through outlets into the sea providing more food for bivalves in estuaries and coastal habitats. A causal link between the bivalves and the

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them later, a process that starts when the cells close to the damaged site become activated and remodel the tissue back to its pre-existing form and size. In some other cases, it does not snap off. If the siphon is exposed, it is the key for a predatory fish to obtain the entire body. This tactic has

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Bivalves filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter a resting state, even when they are permanently submerged. In oysters, for example, their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to

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from the many classifications developed. In earlier taxonomic systems, experts used a single characteristic feature for their classifications, choosing among shell morphology, hinge type or gill type. Conflicting naming schemes proliferated due to these taxonomies based on single organ systems. One

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that sometimes contaminates coastal waters. As filter feeders, bivalves pass large quantities of water through their gills, filtering out the organic particles, including the microbial pathogens. These are retained in the animals' tissues and become concentrated in their liver-like digestive glands.

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Production of bivalve molluscs by mariculture in 2010 was 12,913,199 tons, up from 8,320,724 tons in 2000. Culture of clams, cockles and ark shells more than doubled over this time period from 2,354,730 to 4,885,179 tons. Culture of mussels over the same period grew from 1,307,243 to 1,812,371 tons,

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are harvested either by broadcasting empty mussel shells on the seabed or by the use of long, small-mesh nets filled with mussel shells supported on steel frames. The oyster larvae preferentially settle out on the mussel shells. Juvenile oysters are then grown on in nursery trays and are transferred

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Both groups have a shell consisting of two valves, but the organization of the shell is quite different in the two groups. In brachiopods, the two valves are positioned on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, the valves are on the left and right sides of the body, and are,

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on the gills, which originally served to remove unwanted sediment, have become adapted to capture food particles, and transport them in a steady stream of mucus to the mouth. The filaments of the gills are also much longer than those in more primitive bivalves, and are folded over to create a groove

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Prionodesmacea have a prismatic and nacreous shell structure, separated mantle lobes, poorly developed siphons, and hinge teeth that are lacking or unspecialized. Gills range from protobranch to eulamellibranch. Teleodesmacea on the other hand have a porcelanous and partly nacreous shell structure;

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it was found that the level of pollutants in the bivalve tissues did not always reflect the high levels in the surrounding sediment in such places as harbours. The reason for this was thought to be that the bivalves in these locations did not need to filter so much water as elsewhere because of the

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in their tissues. This is because they ingest the chemicals as they feed but their enzyme systems are not capable of metabolising them and as a result, the levels build up. This may be a health hazard for the molluscs themselves, and is one for humans who eat them. It also has certain advantages in

2916:, clams, scallops and other bivalve species are grown with food materials that occur naturally in their culture environment in the sea and lagoons. One-third of the world's farmed food fish harvested in 2010 was achieved without the use of feed, through the production of bivalves and filter-feeding 2801:

to force the valves apart and then insert part of their stomach between the valves to digest the bivalve's body. It has been found experimentally that both crabs and starfish preferred molluscs that are attached by byssus threads to ones that are cemented to the substrate. This was probably because

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The shell grows larger when more material is secreted by the mantle edge, and the valves themselves thicken as more material is secreted from the general mantle surface. Calcareous matter comes from both its diet and the surrounding seawater. Concentric rings on the exterior of a valve are commonly

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provided by marine bivalves in relation to nutrient extraction from the coastal environment have gained increased attention to mitigate adverse effects of excess nutrient loading from human activities, such as agriculture and sewage discharge. These activities damage coastal ecosystems and require

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Many juveniles are further reared off the seabed in suspended rafts, on floating trays or cemented to ropes. Here they are largely free from bottom-dwelling predators such as starfish and crabs but more labour is required to tend them. They can be harvested by hand when they reach a suitable size.

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where the sediment remains damp even when the tide is out. When buried in the sediment, burrowing bivalves are protected from the pounding of waves, desiccation, and overheating during low tide, and variations in salinity caused by rainwater. They are also out of the reach of many predators. Their

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Shells are used decoratively in many ways. They can be pressed into concrete or plaster to make decorative paths, steps or walls and can be used to embellish picture frames, mirrors or other craft items. They can be stacked up and glued together to make ornaments. They can be pierced and threaded

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than the tiny microalgae consumed by other bivalves. Muscles draw water in through the inhalant siphon which is modified into a cowl-shaped organ, sucking in prey. The siphon can be retracted quickly and inverted, bringing the prey within reach of the mouth. The gut is modified so that large food

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Carter, J. G.; Altaba, C. R.; Anderson, L. C.; Araujo, R.; Biakov, A. S.; Bogan, A. E.; Campbell, D. C.; Campbell, M.; Chen, J.; Cope, J. C. W.; Delvene. G.; Dijkstra, H. H.; Fang, Z.; Gardner, R. N.; Gavrilova, V. A.; Goncharova, I. A.; Harries, P. J.; Hartman, J. H.; Hautmann, M.; Hoeh, W. R.;

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may take place continually or be triggered by environmental factors such as day length, water temperature, or the presence of sperm in the water. Some species are "dribble spawners", releasing gametes during protracted period that can extend for weeks. Others are mass spawners and release their

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feed in a different way, scraping detritus from the seabed, and this may be the original mode of feeding used by all bivalves before the gills became adapted for filter feeding. These primitive bivalves hold on to the bottom with a pair of tentacles at the edge of the mouth, each of which has a

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In sedentary or recumbent bivalves that lie on one valve, such as the oysters and scallops, the anterior adductor muscle has been lost and the posterior muscle is positioned centrally. In species that can swim by flapping their valves, a single, central adductor muscle occurs. These muscles are

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are the main source of commercially available pearls because the calcareous concretions produced by most other species have no lustre. Finding pearls inside oysters is a very chancy business as hundreds of shells may need to be pried open before a single pearl can be found. Most pearls are now

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can swim by opening and closing their valves rapidly; water is ejected on either side of the hinge area and they move with the flapping valves in front. Scallops have simple eyes around the margin of the mantle and can clap their valves shut to move sharply, hinge first, to escape from danger.

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in later ages. These two taxa appeared in textbooks as an example of replacement by competition. Evidence given for this included the fact that bivalves needed less food to subsist because of their energetically efficient ligament-muscle system for opening and closing valves. All this has been

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and diatoms and grow fast. At metamorphosis the juveniles may be allowed to settle on PVC sheets or pipes, or crushed shell. In some cases, they continue their development in "upwelling culture" in large tanks of moving water rather than being allowed to settle on the bottom. They then may be

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surface of the animal, passes upwards through the gills, and doubles back to be expelled just above the intake. There may be two elongated, retractable siphons reaching up to the seabed, one each for the inhalant and exhalant streams of water. The gills of filter-feeding bivalves are known as

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An alternative systematic scheme exists using gill morphology. This distinguishes between Protobranchia, Filibranchia and Eulamellibranchia. The first corresponds to Newell's Palaeotaxodonta and Cryptodonta, the second to his Pteriomorphia, with the last corresponding to all other groups. In

2960:. Breeding programmes have produced improved stock that is available from hatcheries. A single female oyster can produce 50–80 million eggs in a batch so the selection of broodstock is of great importance. The larvae are grown on in tanks of static or moving water. They are fed high quality 3586:

depicting her as arriving in a scallop shell. The Romans revered her and erected shrines in her honour in their gardens, praying to her to provide water and verdant growth. From this, the scallop and other bivalve shells came to be used as a symbol for fertility. Its depiction is used in

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their pottery vessels. They used them as scrapers for removing flesh from hides and for separating the scalps of their victims. They used shells as scoops for gouging out fired logs when building canoes and they drilled holes in them and fitted wooden handles for tilling the ground.

1549:, Markus Huber gives the total number of living bivalve species as about 9,200 combined in 106 families. Huber states that the number of 20,000 living species, often encountered in literature, could not be verified and presents the following table to illustrate the known diversity: 1090:. It has mantle folds that completely surround its small valves. When the sea cucumber sucks in sediment, the bivalve allows the water to pass over its gills and extracts fine organic particles. To prevent itself from being swept away, it attaches itself with byssal threads to the 1257:. They approach for a closer look and the mussel releases huge numbers of larvae from its gills, dousing the inquisitive fish with its tiny, parasitic young. These glochidia larvae are drawn into the fish's gills, where they attach and trigger a tissue response that forms a small 3712:

have resulted in the drawing up of what experts believe is a more accurate phylogeny of the Bivalvia. Based upon these studies, a new proposed classification system for the Bivalvia was published in 2010 by Bieler, Carter & Coan. In 2012, this new system was adopted by the

1196:, females draw water containing sperm in through their inhalant siphons and fertilization takes place inside the female. These species then brood the young inside their mantle cavity, eventually releasing them into the water column as veliger larvae or as crawl-away juveniles. 589:, meaning 'leaves of a door'. ("Leaf" is an older word for the main, movable part of a door. We normally consider this the door itself.) Paired shells have evolved independently several times among animals that are not bivalves; other animals with paired valves include certain 1309:

are shelled marine organisms that superficially resemble bivalves in that they are of similar size and have a hinged shell in two parts. However, brachiopods evolved from a very different ancestral line, and the resemblance to bivalves only arose because they occupy similar

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area of China. An estimated 290,000 people were infected and there were 47 deaths. In the United States and the European Union, since the early 1990s regulations have been in place that are designed to prevent shellfish from contaminated waters entering restaurants.

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lifestyle, often spending their whole lives in the area in which they first settled as juveniles. The majority of bivalves are infaunal, living under the seabed, buried in soft substrates such as sand, silt, mud, gravel, or coral fragments. Many of these live in the

3445:) were used to make white and purple traditional patterns. The shells were cut, rolled, polished and drilled before being strung together and woven into belts. These were used for personal, social and ceremonial purposes and also, at a later date, for currency. The 3336:, most nearly reflected in its tissues the level of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, and Ag) in its environment. In this species there was a linear relationship between the sedimentary levels and the tissue concentration of all the metals except zinc. In the 3449:

from Wisconsin had numerous uses for freshwater mussels including using them as spoons, cups, ladles and utensils. They notched them to provide knives, graters and saws. They carved them into fish hooks and lures. They incorporated powdered shell into clay to

1482:. The ability of some bivalves to burrow and thus avoid predators may have been a major factor in their success. Other new adaptations within various families allowed species to occupy previously unused evolutionary niches. These included increasing relative 838:, which is an extension of the periostracum. The ligament is responsible for opening the shell, and works against the adductor muscles when the animal opens and closes. Retractor muscles connect the mantle to the edge of the shell, along a line known as the 2713:, cement themselves to stones, rock or larger dead shells. In oysters, the lower valve may be almost flat while the upper valve develops layer upon layer of thin horny material reinforced with calcium carbonate. Oysters sometimes occur in dense beds in the 4164:

information. In this classification 324 families are recognized as valid, 214 of which are known exclusively from fossils and 110 of which occur in the recent past, with or without a fossil record. This classification has since been adopted by WoRMS.

779:. The periostracum is secreted by the outer mantle and is easily abraded. The outer surface of the valves is often sculpted, with clams often having concentric striations, scallops having radial ribs and oysters a latticework of irregular markings. 2550:

Bivalves inhabit the tropics, as well as temperate and boreal waters. A number of species can survive and even flourish in extreme conditions. They are abundant in the Arctic, about 140 species being known from that zone. The Antarctic scallop,

3322:. The level of pollutants found in the tissues varies with species, age, size, time of year and other factors. The quantities of pollutants in the water may vary and the molluscs may reflect past rather than present values. In a study near 981:, and then to the rest of the body. Some bivalves have a single aorta, but most also have a second, usually smaller, aorta serving the hind parts of the animal. The hemolymph usually lacks any respiratory pigment. In the carnivorous genus 1215:. The longer the period is before the larva first feeds, the larger the egg and yolk need to be. The reproductive cost of producing these energy-rich eggs is high and they are usually smaller in number. For example, the Baltic tellin ( 3513:

into furniture and boxes, particularly in China. It has been used to decorate musical instruments, watches, pistols, fans and other products. The import and export of goods made with nacre are controlled in many countries under the

3353:, crushed shells will remove cadmium, lead and other heavy metals from contaminated waters by swapping the calcium in their constituent aragonite for the heavy metal, and retaining these pollutants in a solid form. The rock oyster ( 3196:

is the most virulent of these. In mild cases, PSP causes tingling, numbness, sickness and diarrhoea. In more severe cases, the muscles of the chest wall may be affected leading to paralysis and even death. In 1937, researchers in

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in proximity to dense bivalve aggregations, leading to loss of nitrogen to the atmosphere. Active use of marine bivalves for nutrient extraction may include a number of secondary effects on the ecosystem, such as filtration of

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has more recently become an important source of bivalves for food. Modern knowledge of molluscan reproductive cycles has led to the development of hatcheries and new culture techniques. A better understanding of the potential

3717:(WoRMS) for the classification of the Bivalvia. Some experts still maintain that Anomalodesmacea should be considered a separate subclass, whereas the new system treats it as the order Anomalodesmata, within the subclass 4160:. In compiling this, the authors used a variety of phylogenetic information including molecular analysis, anatomical analysis, shell morphology and shell microstructure as well as bio-geographic, paleobiogeographic and 3089:

It has been known for more than a century that consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked shellfish can be associated with infectious diseases. These are caused either by bacteria naturally present in the sea such as

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around each larva. The larvae then feed by breaking down and digesting the tissue of the fish within the cysts. After a few weeks they release themselves from the cysts and fall to the stream bed as juvenile molluscs.

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Poutiers, J.-M.; Bernard, F. R. (1995). "Carnivorous bivalve molluscs (Anomalodesmata) from the tropical western Pacific Ocean, with a proposed classification and a catalogue of recent species". In Bouchet, P. (ed.).

2952:) is cultivated by similar methods but in larger volumes and in many more regions of the world. This oyster originated in Japan where it has been cultivated for many centuries. It is an estuarine species and prefers 2536:

zones of the oceans. A sandy sea beach may superficially appear to be devoid of life, but often a very large number of bivalves and other invertebrates are living beneath the surface of the sand. On a large beach in

998:. The respiratory demands of bivalves are low, due to their relative inactivity. Some freshwater species, when exposed to the air, can gape the shell slightly and gas exchange can take place. Oysters, including the 2876:

can produce a noxious secretion when stressed. It has numerous tentacles which fringe its mantle and protrude some distance from the shell when it is feeding. If attacked, it sheds tentacles in a process known as

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in Arkansas and Oklahoma, and like several other freshwater mussel species from the southeastern US, it is in danger of extinction. In contrast, a few species of freshwater bivalves, including the golden mussel

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composed of two types of muscle fibres, striated muscle bundles for fast actions and smooth muscle bundles for maintaining a steady pull. Paired pedal protractor and retractor muscles operate the animal's foot.

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Mother-of-pearl or nacre is the naturally occurring lustrous layer that lines some mollusc shells. It is used to make pearl buttons and in artisan craftwork to make organic jewellery. It has traditionally been

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to store urine. They also have pericardial glands either line the auricles of the heart or attach to the pericardium, and serve as extra filtration organs. Metabolic waste is voided from the bladders through a

1040:, which traps the food, and cilia, which transport the particles back to the palps. These then sort the particles, rejecting those that are unsuitable or too large to digest, and conveying others to the mouth. 821:

have greatly elongated bodies, but their shell valves are much reduced and restricted to the anterior end of the body, where they function as scraping organs that permit the animal to dig tunnels through wood.

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established the connection between blooms of these phytoplankton and PSP. The biotoxin remains potent even when the shellfish are well-cooked. In the United States, there is a regulatory limit of 80

3736:, gives a practical and useful classification of pelecypods (Bivalvia) even if somewhat antiquated, based on shell structure, gill type, and hinge teeth configuration. Subclasses and orders given are: 7081:

Tran, D.; Nadau, A.; Durrieu, G.; Ciret, P.; Parisot, J-P.; Massabuau, J-C. (2011). "Field chronobiology of a molluscan bivalve: how the moon and sun cycles interact to drive oyster activity rhythms".

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Crushed shells are added as a calcareous supplement to the diet of laying poultry. Oyster shell and cockle shell are often used for this purpose and are obtained as a by-product from other industries.

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and cadmium in contaminated waters in the Persian Gulf. The live animals acted as biofilters, selectively removing these metals, and the dead shells also had the ability to reduce their concentration.

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Taylor, John D.; Glover, Emily A.; Williams, Suzanne T. (2009). "Phylogenetic position of the bivalve family Cyrenoididae – removal from (and further dismantling of) the superfamily Lucinoidea".

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Cockles can use their foot to move across the seabed or leap away from threats. The foot is first extended before being contracted suddenly when it acts like a spring, projecting the animal forwards.

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Bivalve fossils can be formed when the sediment in which the shells are buried hardens into rock. Often, the impression made by the valves remains as the fossil rather than the valves. During the

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Taylor, J. D.; Williams, S. T.; Glover, E. A.; Dyal, P. (November 2007). "A molecular phylogeny of heterodont bivalves (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Heterodonta): New analyses of 18S and 28S rRNA genes".

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Crushed shells, available as a by-product of the seafood canning industry, can be used to remove pollutants from water. It has been found that, as long as the water is maintained at an alkaline

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Rollins, H. B.; Sandweiss, D. H.; Brand, U.; Rollins, J. C. (1987). "Growth increment and stable isotope analysis of marine bivalves: implications for the geoarchaeological record of El Niño".

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that covers the animal's body and extends out from it in flaps or lobes. In bivalves, the mantle lobes secrete the valves, and the mantle crest secretes the whole hinge mechanism consisting of

3192:(PSP) is primarily caused by the consumption of bivalves that have accumulated toxins by feeding on toxic dinoflagellates, single-celled protists found naturally in the sea and inland waters. 1366:

diverged and these included the first creatures with mineralized skeletons. Brachiopods and bivalves made their appearance at this time, and left their fossilized remains behind in the rocks.

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Kauffman, E. G.; Harries, P. J.; Meyer, C.; Villamil, T.; Arango, C.; Jaecks, G. (2007). "Paleoecology of giant Inoceramidae (Platyceramus) on a Santonian (Cretaceous) seafloor in Colorado".

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in Galicia. The shell became associated with the pilgrimage and came to be used as a symbol showing hostelries along the route and later as a sign of hospitality, food and lodging elsewhere.

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Burns, K. A.; Smith, J. L. (1981). "Biological monitoring of ambient water quality: the case for using bivalves as sentinel organisms for monitoring petroleum pollution in coastal waters".

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The thick shell and rounded shape of bivalves make them awkward for potential predators to tackle. Nevertheless, a number of different creatures include them in their diet. Many species of

2633:) originated in southeastern Russia, and has been accidentally introduced to inland waterways in North America and Europe, where the species damages water installations and disrupts local 8048:

Murphy A. M.; Grohmann G. S.; Christopher P. J.; Lopez W. A.; Davey G. R.; Millsom R. H. (1979). "An Australia-wide outbreak of gastroenteritis from oysters caused by Norwalk virus".

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used to age bivalves. For some groups, a more precise method for determining the age of a shell is by cutting a cross section through it and examining the incremental growth bands.

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Bivalves have been an important source of food for humans at least since Roman times and empty shells found in middens at archaeological sites are evidence of earlier consumption.

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from the coastal environment takes place through two different pathways: (i) harvest/removal of the bivalves – thereby returning nutrients back to land; or (ii) through increased

1227:) produces 10 times as many eggs that hatch into larvae and soon need to feed to survive and grow. They can disperse more widely as they remain planktonic for a much longer time. 2937:

Other juveniles are laid directly on the seabed at the rate of 50 to 100 kilograms (110 to 220 lb) per hectare. They grow on for about two years before being harvested by

6811: 6529: 5458:"The functional morphology of Atlantic deep water species of the families Cuspidariidae and Poromyidae (Bivalvia): an analysis of the evolution of the septibranch condition" 3291:

material. This leads to partial transformation of particulate-bound nutrients into dissolved nutrients via bivalve excretion or enhanced mineralization of faecal material.

3162:, was high at 50%. In 1978, an oyster-associated gastrointestinal infection affecting more than 2,000 people occurred in Australia. The causative agent was found to be the 1314:. The differences between the two groups are due to their separate ancestral origins. Different initial structures have been adapted to solve the same problems, a case of 8208:

Petersen, J.K., Holmer, M., Termansen, M. and Hasler, B. (2019) "Nutrient extraction through bivalves". In: Smaal A., Ferreira J., Grant J., Petersen J., Strand Ø. (eds)

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Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata

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Freshwater bivalves have different lifecycle. Sperm is drawn into a female's gills with the inhalant water and internal fertilization takes place. The eggs hatch into

7026: 3135:

illness was not easy to demonstrate because the illness might come on days or even weeks after the ingestion of the contaminated shellfish. One viral pathogen is the

771:, alternate layers of calcite and aragonite are laid down. The ligament and byssus, if calcified, are composed of aragonite. The outermost layer of the shell is the 5400: 2820:

assisted by a shell-dissolving secretion. The dog whelk then inserts its extendible proboscis and sucks out the body contents of the victim, which is typically a

2858:, they can be retracted back into the safety of the shell. If the siphons inadvertently get attacked by a predator, in some cases, they snap off. The animal can 462:. Adult shell sizes of bivalves vary from fractions of a millimetre to over a metre in length, but the majority of species do not exceed 10 cm (4 in). 8506: 7562: 6420: 1166:

either open into the nephridia or through a separate pore into a chamber over the gills. The ripe gonads of males and females release sperm and eggs into the

8319:

Klumpp, D. W.; Burdon-Jones, C. (1982). "Investigations of the potential of bivalve molluscs as indicators of heavy metal levels in tropical marine waters".

1053:

through which food can be transported. The structure of the gills varies considerably, and can serve as a useful means for classifying bivalves into groups.

7629: 494:. The shells of bivalves are used in craftwork, and the manufacture of jewellery and buttons. Bivalves have also been used in the biocontrol of pollution. 6838: 6590: 1326:, a coiled, rigid cartilaginous internal apparatus adapted for filter feeding, a feature shared with two other major groups of marine invertebrates, the 8483: 4482: 4182: 3114:. Large areas of a sea or lake may change colour as a result of the proliferation of millions of single-cell algae, and this condition is known as a 2109: 2782:

feed on a variety of bivalve species and have been observed to use stones balanced on their chests as anvils on which to crack open the shells. The

5382: 5243: 4977: 4875: 4630: 4064: 4053: 3741: 2216: 1981: 1655: 8677: 1466:, around 400 Mya, the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter feeders in the ocean, and over 12,000 fossil species are recognized. By the 9785: 7202: 4133: 3958: 3796: 1745: 1114:. Protobranch stomachs have a mere sac attached to them while filter-feeding bivalves have elongated rod of solidified mucus referred to as the " 2881:. The toxin released by this is distasteful and the detached tentacles continue to writhe which may also serve to distract potential predators. 2557:, lives under the sea ice at the other end of the globe, where the subzero temperatures mean that growth rates are very slow. The giant mussel, 8408: 3465:. At first they were used decoratively rather than as fasteners and the earliest known example dates back five thousand years and was found at 2234: 2073: 2017: 7531: 2728:

are exceptional in that these small clams climb about quite nimbly on weeds using their long and flexible foot. The European fingernail clam (

9811: 6563: 4039: 3761: 3749: 2270: 1963: 1945: 1601: 1432:

periods, siphons first appeared, which, with the newly developed muscular foot, allowed the animals to bury themselves deep in the sediment.

1006:), are recognized as having varying metabolic responses to environmental stress, with changes in respiration rate being frequently observed. 7487: 3525:

is created in the mantle of a mollusk when an irritant particle is surrounded by layers of nacre. Although most bivalves can create pearls,

4084: 3828: 3824: 3814: 2091: 1999: 1909: 1819: 1709: 1498:

broadly disproven, though; rather, the prominence of modern bivalves over brachiopods seems due to chance disparities in their response to

3721:. Molecular phylogenetic work continues, further clarifying which Bivalvia are most closely related and thus refining the classification. 7434: 3785: 2528:

and live buried in sediment on the seabed, or in the sediment in freshwater habitats. A large number of bivalve species are found in the

834:

adductor muscles. These muscles connect the two valves and contract to close the shell. The valves are also joined dorsally by the hinge

9916: 6707: 3854:

introduced a mollusc taxonomy based upon the 1909 work by Cossmann and Peyrot. Thiele's system divided the bivalves into three orders.

3773: 2350: 1420:, a great increase in the diversity of bivalve species occurred, and the dysodont, heterodont, and taxodont dentitions evolved. By the 5720:"How the Pacific Oyster Responds to Ocean Acidification: Development and Application of a Meta-Analysis Based Adverse Outcome Pathway" 4922: 1389:

are perceived to be (earlier) close relatives of these taxa. Only five genera of supposed Cambrian "bivalves" exist, the others being

8704: 6447: 6657:

Compendium of Bivalves. A Full-color Guide to 3,300 of the World's Marine Bivalves. A Status on Bivalvia after 250 Years of Research

3838:

Mantle lobes that are generally connected, well developed siphons, and specialized hinge teeth. In most, gills are eulamellibranch.

9759: 2623:), are dramatically increasing their ranges. The golden mussel has spread from Southeast Asia to Argentina, where it has become an 8093:"A serologically confirmed, case-control study, of a large outbreak of hepatitis A in China, associated with consumption of clams" 2721:

the relative positions of the moon and sun. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during spring tides.

1532:, which can grow to a length of 1,200 mm (47 in) and a weight of more than 200 kg (441 lb). The largest known 9798: 6742: 3166:

virus and the epidemic caused major economic difficulties to the oyster farming industry in the country. In 1988, an outbreak of

1486:

in soft sediments by developing spines on the shell, gaining the ability to swim, and in a few cases, adopting predatory habits.

7735:

Fleming, P. A.; Muller, D.; Bateman, P. W. (2007). "Leave it all behind: a taxonomic perspective of autotomy in invertebrates".

4793: 3141:

virus. This is resistant to treatment with chlorine-containing chemicals and may be present in the marine environment even when

6815: 6541: 5645: 7124:

Bishop, M. J.; Garis, H. (1976). "A note on population densities of mollusca in the River Great Ouse at Ely, Cambridgeshire".

9472: 9264: 8898: 8870: 8824: 8624: 8593: 8545: 7703: 6978: 6953: 6664: 6302: 6277: 6249: 6216: 6017: 5875: 5779: 5588: 5366: 5227: 5073: 4961: 4902: 4859: 3697: 1467: 8562: 5095: 4136:

from his eulamellibranchs because of the morphological differences between them. The septibranchs belong to the superfamily

1526:, an elongated, burrowing shipworm. However, the species generally regarded as the largest living bivalve is the giant clam 949:) a) part of four filaments showing ciliated interfilamentar junctions (cj) b) diagram of a single filament showing the two 9926: 9803: 8919:"On bivalve phylogeny: a high-level analysis of the Bivalvia (Mollusca) based on combined morphology and DNA sequence data" 8347: 8249: 7041: 6911: 1242:

or fins of a fish host. After several weeks they drop off their host, undergo metamorphosis and develop into adults on the

8778: 7896: 7335:

Fukuyamaa, A. K.; Olivera, J. S. (1985). "Sea star and walrus predation on bivalves in Norton Sound, Bering Sea, Alaska".

5532:

Colicchia, G.; Waltner, C.; Hopf, M.; Wiesner, H. (2009). "The scallop's eye—a concave mirror in the context of biology".

8284:

Shulkin, V. M.; Kavun, V. I. A. (1995). "The use of marine bivalves in heavy metal monitoring near Vladivostok, Russia".

5408: 902:

is a patch of sensory cells located below the posterior adductor muscle that may serve to taste the water or measure its

831: 5668: 415:. Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces. Some bivalves, such as scallops and 8641: 3858:

consisted of forms that had taxodont dentition, with a series of small parallel teeth perpendicular to the hinge line.

3422: 2724:

Although many non-sessile bivalves use their muscular foot to move around, or to dig, members of the freshwater family

953:

connected at intervals by interlamellar junctions (ilj) and the position of the ciliated interfilamentar junctions (cp)

5948: 4123:

of the subclass Anomalodesmata is disputed. The standard view now is that it resides within the subclass Heterodonta.

3330:

A study of nine different bivalves with widespread distributions in tropical marine waters concluded that the mussel,

3226:. Bivalves can become toxic when they filter these microalgae out of the water. Domoic acid is a low-molecular weight 9503: 8514: 8225: 7003: 6360: 5979: 5804: 5699: 5613: 5341: 5316: 5291: 5266: 5176: 5151: 5126: 5046: 4994:

Kennedy, W. J.; Taylor, J. D.; Hall, A. (1969). "Environmental and biological controls on bivalve shell mineralogy".

3083: 2524:

The bivalves are a highly successful class of invertebrates found in aquatic habitats throughout the world. Most are

490:(the common name of two very different families in salt water and fresh water) are the most common source of natural 454:. This arrangement allows the shell to be opened and closed without the two halves detaching. The shell is typically 8439: 5892: 4172:(under the redaction of Rüdiger Bieler, Joseph G. Carter and Eugene V. Coan) (all taxa marked † are extinct) : 1121:

Carnivorous bivalves generally have reduced crystalline styles and the stomach has thick, muscular walls, extensive

9883: 9738: 9365: 7570: 6424: 4594:

Jell, Peter A. (1980). "Earliest known pelecypod on Earth — a new Early Cambrian genus from South Australia".

3714: 517:

species) represent about 8,000 species, combined in four subclasses and 99 families with 1,100 genera. The largest

7592:

Hodgson, A. N. (1981). "Studies on wound healing, and an estimation of the rate of regeneration, of the siphon of

3390: 9816: 9751: 8156: 2993: 1178:

Fertilization is usually external. Typically, a short stage lasts a few hours or days before the eggs hatch into

802:, through one of which water is inhaled, and the other expelled. The siphons retract into a cavity, known as the 729:

and the lower, curved margin is the ventral or underside region. The anterior or front of the shell is where the

554: 202: 3862:

consisted of forms that had either a single adductor muscle or one adductor muscle much smaller than the other.

1346:, whereas bivalve shells are always composed entirely of calcium carbonate, often in the form of the biomineral 9437: 9233: 7267: 6598: 1362:

took place around 540 to 520 million years ago (Mya). In this geologically brief period, all the major animal

6633: 6106:Ó Foighil, D. (1989). "Planktotrophic larval development is associated with a restricted geographic range in 3299: 3189: 3082:

are the most commonly consumed kinds of bivalve, and are eaten cooked or raw. In 1950, the year in which the

1474:

of diversity. The bivalves were hard hit by this event, but re-established themselves and thrived during the

17: 9388: 9178:"Molecular phylogeny and classification of the chemosymbiotic bivalve family Lucinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia)" 6320:"Shell microstructure of the early bivalve Pojetaia and the independent origin of nacre within the mollusca" 6034: 2793:

Invertebrate predators include crustaceans, starfish and octopuses. Crustaceans crack the shells with their

7022: 3662: 886:

The sensory organs of bivalves are largely located on the posterior mantle margins. The organs are usually

533:, each with over 500 species. The freshwater bivalves include seven families, the largest of which are the 404:

that live in saltwater, as well as a number of families that live in freshwater. Majority of the class are

7464: 3866:

consisted of forms with ctenidial gills. The Eulamellibranchiata was further divided into four suborders:

3262:

action from local, regional, and national environmental management. Marine bivalves filter particles like

509:

is about 9,200. These species are placed within 1,260 genera and 106 families. Marine bivalves (including

455: 9681: 9668: 7874: 3851: 3213: 6369:

Barrande, 1881 from the Middle East (Taurus Mountains, Turkey) and critical review of Cambrian bivalves"

4654: 442:. These valves are for feeding and for disposal of waste. These are joined together along one edge (the 9176:

Taylor, John D.; Glover, Emily A.; Smith, Lisa; Dyal, Patricia; Williams, Suzanne T. (September 2011).

8681: 7638: 3267: 2559: 994:

The paired gills are located posteriorly and consist of hollow tube-like filaments with thin walls for

9865: 9826: 9686: 8758:(in French). Fulcanelli, La rue de l'alchimie à travers l'architecture, les livres et les alchimistes 6772:

Krylova, Elena M.; Kamenev, Gennady M.; Vladychenskaya, Irina P.; Petrov, Nikolai B. (January 2015).

3294:

When they live in polluted waters, bivalve molluscs have a tendency to accumulate substances such as

2968:

Similar techniques are used in different parts of the world to cultivate other species including the

2738:

at the edges of lakes and ponds; this enables the clam to find the best position for filter feeding.

1048:

ctenidia and have become highly modified to increase their ability to capture food. For example, the

151: 9076:

Bouchet, Philippe; Rocroi, Jean-Pierre; Bieler, Rüdiger; Carter, Joseph G.; Coan, Eugene V. (2010).

8416: 3242: 3130:

linked to the consumption of raw oysters. The first report of this kind in the United States was in

9921: 7539: 4823:

Webb, J. (1979). "A reappraisal of the palaeoecology of conchostracans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda)".

4680: 2758:), which is being used in the upper Mississippi River to try to control the invasive zebra mussel ( 2606:

Some freshwater bivalves have very restricted ranges. For example, the Ouachita creekshell mussel,

1489:

For a long time, bivalves were thought to be better adapted to aquatic life than brachiopods were,

31: 9888: 9357: 7826: 6774:"Vesicomyinae (Bivalvia: Vesicomyidae) of the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench and adjacent abyssal regions" 6567: 7502: 6773: 3709: 3384: 3295: 3025: 3009: 2839: 2581:, and the molluscs absorb nutrients synthesized by these bacteria. Some species are found in the 1078: 714: 626: 6208: 6084: 3314:

Economic value of bivalve nutrient extraction, linking processes to services to economic values.

3310: 9852: 9608: 8734:

Training manual produced by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute at Tuticorin, India

5434: 3890:

The systematic layout presented here follows Newell's 1965 classification based on hinge tooth

3569: 3556: 3406: 2859: 2838:) is laid on the surface of the beach, it can bury itself completely in seven seconds and the 2763: 1471: 870:. In all but the most primitive bivalves, two cerebropleural ganglia are on either side of the 8616: 8610: 7797: 7442: 6866: 3582:, the goddess of love, was born in the sea and emerged accompanied by fish and dolphins, with 3156:

diseases have occurs throughout the world. The mortality rate of one disease causing bacteria

3036:

of oysters from 3,610,867 to 4,488,544 tons and of scallops from 1,047,884 to 1,727,105 tons.

9847: 9839: 9496: 7960:"Infectious outbreaks associated with bivalve shellfish consumption: a worldwide perspective" 7925: 7196: 5063: 3551: 3153: 2798: 2771: 2608: 2587: 2565: 1490: 1234:

larvae that develop within the female's shell. Later they are released and attach themselves

1208: 137: 9875: 6719: 247: 9790: 9707: 9655: 9425: 9221: 9130: 9119:"Molecular phylogeny of pearl oysters and their relatives (Mollusca, Bivalvia, Pterioidea)" 8293: 8258: 7374: 7300:

Hall, K. R. L.; Schaller, G. B. (1964). "Tool-using behavior of the California sea otter".

7176: 6875:: population densities and benthic community impacts of two invasive freshwater bivalves". 6785: 6493: 6383: 6331: 6173: 6119: 5541: 5469: 4930: 4726: 4603: 3891: 3708:

analyses of multiple organ systems, shell morphology (including fossil species) and modern

3355: 3001: 2985: 2629: 2577:

depths in the Pacific Ocean. They have chemosymbiotic bacteria in their gills that oxidise

1315: 345:(marine and freshwater) that have laterally compressed soft bodies enclosed by a calcified 8729: 7647: 7624: 7217: 6455: 2585:, like Vesicomya sergeevi, which occurs at depths of 7600–9530 meters. The saddle oyster, 721:. At the dorsal or back region of the shell is the hinge point or line, which contain the 8: 5821: 5193: 3017: 2896: 2669: 2619: 2553: 1243: 787: 479: 374: 9429: 9225: 9134: 8297: 8262: 8061: 7378: 7180: 6789: 6497: 6387: 6335: 6177: 6152: 6123: 5545: 5473: 4730: 4607: 2657: 621: 450:

that, usually in conjunction with interlocking "teeth" on each of the valves, forms the

9646: 9153: 9118: 9099: 9036: 8935: 8918: 8382: 8125: 8112: 8092: 8073: 7852: 7760: 7717: 7660: 7317: 7248: 7141: 7106: 6892: 6839:"Life History and Population Biology of the State Special Concern Ouachita Creekshell, 6637: 6511: 6399: 6241: 6201: 6135: 6009: 5867: 5771: 5557: 5514: 5376: 5237: 5019: 5007: 4971: 4869: 4750: 4742: 4646: 3258: 3172: 2969: 2957: 2831: 2613: 2543: 1516: 1443: 1359: 1211:, depending on nutrients stored in the yolk of the egg where the main energy source is 958: 930: 447: 146: 9314: 8270: 8047: 8025: 8000: 6750: 6185: 9911: 9834: 9694: 9468: 9441: 9298: 9281: 9260: 9237: 9194: 9177: 9158: 9032: 9001: 8984: 8968: 8951: 8894: 8866: 8820: 8788: 8620: 8589: 8541: 8458: 8374: 8305: 8221: 8130: 8065: 8030: 7981: 7752: 7748: 7721: 7709: 7699: 7652: 7609: 7364: 7188: 7098: 6999: 6974: 6949: 6660: 6641: 6477: 6344: 6319: 6298: 6273: 6245: 6212: 6154: 6139: 6013: 5975: 5871: 5800: 5775: 5741: 5695: 5609: 5584: 5561: 5553: 5362: 5337: 5312: 5287: 5262: 5223: 5172: 5147: 5122: 5069: 5042: 5011: 4957: 4898: 4855: 4836: 4801: 4754: 4354: 4032: 4012: 3588: 3579: 3458: 3332: 3158: 3142: 2901: 2730: 2595:. It lives above the high tide mark in the tropical Indo-Pacific on the underside of 2578: 2570: 2125: 1479: 1435: 1339: 1335: 983: 974: 950: 546: 435: 222: 9103: 9040: 8755: 8386: 8077: 7780: 7764: 7664: 7252: 7145: 7110: 6896: 6403: 6057: 5518: 5023: 4768: 2933:

to open waters when they reach 5 to 6 millimetres (0.20 to 0.24 in) in length.

9699: 9591: 9489: 9433: 9385: 9293: 9229: 9189: 9148: 9138: 9091: 9028: 8996: 8963: 8930: 8657: 8366: 8352:(pearl oyster): a bioindicator for metal pollution monitoring in the Qatari waters" 8328: 8301: 8266: 8213: 8120: 8104: 8057: 8020: 8012: 7971: 7744: 7691: 7642: 7605: 7413: 7382: 7348: 7344: 7309: 7282: 7240: 7184: 7133: 7090: 6884: 6793: 6629: 6501: 6391: 6339: 6181: 6127: 5927: 5840: 5731: 5549: 5506: 5477: 5003: 4832: 4734: 4611: 4232: 4093: 3692: 3647: 3538: 3451: 3342: 3222: 3146: 3079: 2872: 2855: 2650: 2624: 1801: 1499: 1494: 1421: 1417: 1311: 1192: 1057: 799: 783: 401: 389: 287: 9282:"Reconstructing the Anomalodesmata (Mollusca: Bivalvia): morphology and molecules" 9077: 6619: 3216:(ASP) was first reported in eastern Canada in 1987. It is caused by the substance 910:

within the organism help the bivalve to sense and correct its orientation. In the

9660: 9458:. Mémoires Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Vol. 167. pp. 107–188. 8217: 7094: 6694: 3912: 3905: 3900: 3675: 3657: 3575: 3565: 3561: 3430: 3283: 3231: 2929: 2674: 2645: 2592: 2529: 1673: 1217: 1171: 1159: 1137:. Each of these consists of a long, looped, glandular tube, which opens into the 1115: 911: 887: 564: 559: 439: 354: 335: 9673: 8985:"Phylogeny of Veneroidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia) based on morphology and molecules" 8390: 8178: 6919: 717:

and laterally flattened bodies, with a blade-shaped foot, vestigial head and no

9746: 9733: 9585: 9542: 8793: 8662: 8437: 8234: 7900: 6797: 4283: 4106: 3516:

International Convention of Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

3279: 3107: 2945: 2890: 2847: 2783: 2661: 1837: 1781: 1691: 1294: 1223: 1091: 999: 970: 918: 914: 855: 726: 722: 693: 510: 470: 459: 339: 8108: 7713: 6867:

Karatayev, A. Y.; Burlakova, L. E.; Karatayev, V. A.; Boltovskoy, D. (2010). "

6506: 6481: 6395: 6234: 6002: 5860: 5764: 5736: 5719: 5577: 4891: 4738: 4615: 2830:

can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape predation. When a

941: 9905: 9579: 9532: 9445: 9330: 9241: 9143: 8462: 8345: 7656: 5745: 4676: 4457: 4396: 4257: 4111: 3999: 3990: 3943: 3931: 3679: 3489:). It used to be produced in the Mediterranean region where these shells are 3485: 3304: 3271: 3263: 3137: 3110:. These microalgae are not associated with sewage but occur unpredictably as 3102:

Another possible source of contamination occurs when bivalves contain marine

3050: 2921: 2794: 2747: 2476: 2304: 2190: 1763: 1429: 1239: 1187: 1147: 1087: 1028: 1024: 1020: 891: 878:. Bivalves with long siphons may also have siphonal ganglia to control them. 803: 742: 550: 498: 487: 466: 408: 350: 232: 227: 198: 132: 81: 8863:

Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part N: Mollusca 6, Bivalvia (Vol. 3)

8438:

Azarbad, H.; Khoi, A. J.; Mirvaghefi, A.; Danekar, A.; Shapoori, M. (2010).

8154: 5932: 5915: 4140:

and are carnivorous, having a muscular septum instead of filamentous gills.

3126:

In 1816 in France, a physician, J. P. A. Pasquier, described an outbreak of

1199:

Most of the bivalve larvae that hatch from eggs in the water column feed on

1043:

In more advanced bivalves, water is drawn into the shell from the posterior

685: 9631: 9527: 9162: 9078:"Nomenclator of Bivalve Families with a Classification of Bivalve Families" 8538:

North American Indian Jewelry and Adornment: From Prehistory to the Present

7985: 7756: 7386: 7286: 7102: 6915: 6231: 5999: 5857: 5761: 5574: 5531: 5482: 5457: 4888: 4279: 4161: 4150:

Taxonomy of the Bivalvia (Bouchet, Rocroi, Bieler, Carter & Coan, 2010)

4058: 3526: 3470: 3466: 3337: 3319: 2714: 2710: 2574: 2154: 2055: 1855: 1538: 1511: 1167: 1083: 995: 839: 772: 610: 8817:

The Secret Language of Symbols: A Visual Key to Symbols and Their Meanings

8378: 8370: 8134: 8091:

Tang Y. W.; Wang J. X.; Xu Z. Y.; Guo Y. F.; Qian W. H.; Xu J. X. (1991).

8034: 7418: 7401: 5497:

Morton, B. (2008). "The evolution of eyes in the Bivalvia: new insights".

5015: 4631:"Anatomy, ecology and affinities of the Australian early Cambrian bivalve 9772: 9640: 9416:

Schneider, Jay A. (2001). "Bivalve systematics during the 20th century".

9212:

Schneider, Jay A. (2001). "Bivalve systematics during the 20th century".

9095: 9082: 8466: 8157:"The origin of the regulatory limits for PSP and ASP toxins in shellfish" 8069: 7244: 6888: 5510: 4224: 4207: 4156: 4154:

In May 2010, a new taxonomy of the Bivalvia was published in the journal

4137: 4097: 4047: 4022: 4017: 3925: 3804: 3718: 3494: 3323: 3288: 3247: 3217: 3167: 3131: 3111: 2827: 2821: 2751: 2725: 2600: 2538: 2533: 2440: 2288: 2037: 1572: 1403: 1254: 1179: 1138: 818: 795: 602: 474: 431: 366: 346: 269: 217: 56: 8016: 9562: 9552: 9547: 8889:

Newell, Norman D. (1969). "Bivalvia Systematics". In Moore, R.C (ed.).

8646:

L. in Malo and Veliko Jezero of the Mljet National Park (Adriatic Sea)"

8116: 7683: 7321: 7158: 7137: 6515: 6153:

Honkoop, P. J. C.; Van der Meer, J.; Beukema, J. J.; Kwast, D. (1999).

6131: 5844: 4746: 4650: 4404: 4362: 4190: 3935: 3729: 3705: 3630: 3583: 3411: 3379: 3227: 3198: 2961: 2803: 2778:) sometimes drops heavy shells onto rocks in order to crack them open. 2735: 2582: 2516: 2494: 2422: 2404: 2332: 2252: 2172: 1891: 1727: 1619: 1533: 1528: 1409: 1323: 1306: 1299: 1235: 1231: 1134: 988: 899: 871: 798:. The posterior mantle edge may have two elongated extensions known as 776: 748: 526: 443: 416: 252: 101: 66: 9481: 8705:"Contraband Chic: Mother-of-Pearl Items Sell With Export Restrictions" 8332: 7734: 3611: 411:

that bury themselves in sediment, where they are relatively safe from

9777: 9720: 8090: 8001:"Infectious diseases associated with molluscan shellfish consumption" 7687: 7080: 6203:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

4507: 4438: 4240: 4120: 4089: 4028: 4003: 3995: 3979: 3969: 3952: 3917: 3808: 3778: 3687: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3623: 3534: 3530: 3510: 3461:

have traditionally been made from a variety of freshwater and marine

3202: 3193: 2807: 2779: 2706: 2702: 2634: 2458: 2368: 1637: 1478:

period that followed. In contrast, the brachiopods lost 95% of their

1463: 1456: 1424:, the gills were becoming adapted for filter feeding, and during the 1391: 1347: 1250: 1204: 1111: 1103: 1069: 1065: 962: 907: 903: 863: 756: 679: 674: 606: 594: 590: 571:-foot" (based on the shape of the foot of the animal when extended). 534: 530: 522: 514: 483: 412: 163: 106: 9602: 7313: 4717:(Sacoglossa: Juliidae), a new fossil genus of bivalved gastropods". 2770:) have specially adapted beaks which can pry open their shells. The 1150:

near the front of the upper part of the mantle cavity and excreted.

854:

The sedentary habits of the bivalves have meant that in general the

264: 9764: 9725: 9625: 8983:

Mikkelsen, P. M.; Bieler, R.; Kappner, I.; Rawlings, T. A. (2006).

7976: 7959: 7695: 7027:"The role of predation in the evolution of cementation in bivalves" 6232: