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island, and in every part of Europe, and even beyond its limits, was a most extraordinary appearance, unlike anything known within the memory of man. By my journal I find that I had noticed this strange occurrence from June 23 to July 20 inclusive, during which period the wind varied to every quarter without making any alteration in the air. The sun, at noon, looked as blank as a clouded moon, and shed a rust-coloured ferruginous light on the ground, and floors of rooms; but was particularly lurid and blood-coloured at rising and setting. All the time the heat was so intense that butchers' meat could hardly be eaten on the day after it was killed; and the flies swarmed so in the lanes and hedges that they rendered the horses half frantic, and riding irksome. The country people began to look, with a superstitious awe, at the red, louring aspect of the sun; ...
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of the sun seemed to have little effect towards dissipating it, as they easily do a moist fog, arising from water. They were indeed rendered so faint in passing through it, that when collected in the focus of a burning glass they would scarce kindle brown paper. Of course, their summer effect in heating the Earth was exceedingly diminished. Hence the surface was early frozen. Hence the first snows remained on it unmelted, and received continual additions. Hence the air was more chilled, and the winds more severely cold. Hence perhaps the winter of 1783–84 was more severe than any that had happened for many years.
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943:... about six o'clock, that morning, I observed the air very much condensed in my chamber-window; and, upon getting up, was informed by a tenant that finding himself cold in bed, about three o'clock in the morning, he looked out at his window, and to his great surprise saw the ground covered with a white frost: and I was assured that two men at Barton, about three miles (five kilometres) off, saw in some shallow tubs, ice of the thickness of a
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608:, all of it mixed with sand. The snouts, nostrils, and feet of livestock grazing or walking on the grass turned bright yellow and raw. All water went tepid and light blue in color and gravel slides turned grey. All the earth's plants burned, withered and turned grey, one after another, as the fire increased and neared the settlements.
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The summer of the year 1783 was an amazing and portentous one, and full of horrible phaenomena; for besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunder-storms that affrighted and distressed the different counties of this kingdom, the peculiar haze, or smokey fog, that prevailed for many weeks in this
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The eruption continued until 7 February 1784, but most of the lava was ejected in the first five months. One study states that the event "occurred as ten pulses of activity, each starting with a short-lived explosive phase followed by a long-lived period of fire-fountaining". Grímsvötn volcano, from
900:
During several of the summer months of the year 1783, when the effect of the sun's rays to heat the earth in these northern regions should have been greater, there existed a constant fog over all Europe, and a great part of North
America. This fog was of a permanent nature; it was dry, and the rays
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hardships), were disastrous. An estimated 20–25% of the population died in the famine after the fissure eruptions ensued. (Some sources specify a death toll of between 9,000 to 9,500 people.) Approximately 80% of sheep (190,500 head), 50% of cattle (11,500 head) and 50% of horses (28,000 head) died
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in Europe. In France, the sequence of extreme weather events included a failed harvest in 1785 that caused poverty for rural workers, as well as droughts, bad winters and summers. These events contributed significantly to an increase in poverty and famine that may have contributed to the
963:, which was coming into ear, became brown and withered at their extremities, as did the leaves of the oats; the rye had the appearance of being mildewed; so that the farmers were alarmed for those crops. The wheat was not much affected. The
912:
According to contemporary records, Hekla did not erupt in 1783; its previous eruption was in 1766. The Laki fissure eruption was 70 km (45 mi) east and the Grímsvötn volcano was erupting about 120 km (75 mi) northeast.
869:, an important church farm in South Iceland, was the home of the Rev. Jón Steingrímsson (1728–1791), who left contemporary eyewitness accounts of the effects of the eruption and its aftermath. Today, Kirkjubæjarkaustur is a small village.
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was endangered by a branch of the lava flow that halted not far from the farm while the Rev. Jón and his parishioners were worshipping in the church. The spot at which the lava diverted away from the church became known thereafter as
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Brayshay, M and
Grattan, J. "Environmental and social responses in Europe to the 1783 eruption of the Laki fissure volcano in Iceland: a consideration of contemporary documentary evidence" in Firth, C. R. and McGuire, W. J. (eds)
708:. This outpouring of sulfur dioxide during unusual weather conditions caused a thick haze to spread across western Europe, resulting in many thousands of deaths throughout the remainder of 1783 and the winter of 1784.
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The system erupted violently over an eight-month period between June 1783 and
February 1784 from the Laki fissure and the adjoining volcano Grímsvötn. It poured out an estimated 42 billion tonnes or 14 km
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was up by 5% during August and
September, with more than 40 dead. In Great Britain, the east of England was most affected. The records show that the additional deaths were among outdoor workers; the death rate in
240:
1906:; Seager, Richard; Smerdon, Jason E.; LeGrande, Allegra N.; Cook, Edward R. (16 March 2011). "The anomalous winter of 1783–1784: Was the Laki eruption or an analog of the 2009–2010 winter to blame?".
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from the 8 million tons of fluorine that were released. The livestock deaths were primarily caused by eating the contaminated grass, while humans deaths were mostly from the subsequent famine.
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were estimated to have reached heights of 800 to 1,400 m (2,600 to 4,600 ft). The gases were carried by the convective eruption column to altitudes of about 15 km (50,000 ft).
2069:"Modelling the distal impacts of past volcanic gas emissions. Evidence of Europe-wide environmental impacts from gases emitted during the eruption of Italian and Icelandic volcanoes in 1783"
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Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Thórdís Högnadóttir (January 2007). "Volcanic systems and calderas in the Vatnajökull region, central
Iceland: Constraints on crustal structure from gravity data".
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was emitted, about three times the total annual
European industrial output in 2006 (but delivered to higher altitudes, hence its persistence), and equivalent to six times the total
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in
Iceland, and that other volcano which arose out of the sea near that island, which smoke might be spread by various winds, over the northern part of the world, is yet uncertain.
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compounds that contaminated the soil, leading to the death of over 50% of
Iceland's livestock population, and the destruction of the vast majority of all crops. This led to a
279:. The fissure is properly referred to as Lakagígar, while Laki is a mountain that the fissure bisects. Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system centered on the volcano
2105:
Grattan, John; Brayshay, Mark (1995). "An
Amazing and Portentous Summer: Environmental and Social Responses in Britain to the 1783 Eruption of an Iceland Volcano".
778:, reported 28 days of continuous frost. The extreme winter is estimated to have caused 8,000 additional deaths in the UK. During the spring thaw, Germany and
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The summer of 1783 was the hottest on record and a rare high-pressure zone over
Iceland caused the winds to blow to the south-east. The poisonous cloud drifted to
931:, England, recorded his observations on 23 June 1783 (the same date on which Gilbert White noted the onset of the unusual atmospheric phenomena), in a letter to
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by 22 June, and Great Britain by 23 June. The fog was so thick that ships stayed in port, unable to navigate, and the sun was described as "blood coloured".
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The cause of this universal fog is not yet ascertained ... or whether it was the vast quantity of smoke, long continuing, to issue during the summer from
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which the Laki fissure extends, also erupted at the time, from 1783 until 1785. The outpouring of gases, including an estimated 8 million tonnes of
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Inhaling sulfur dioxide gas causes victims to choke as their internal soft tissues swell – the gas reacts with the moisture in the lungs and produces
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The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London – Abridged with notes and biographical illustrations – Volume 15 – from 1781 to 1785
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Grattan, D., Schütenhelm, R. and Brayshay, M. "Volcanic gases, environmental crises and social response" in Grattan, J. and Torrence, R. (eds)
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In North America, the winter of 1784 was the longest and one of the coldest on record. It was the longest period of below-zero temperatures in
751:, and the east coast was perhaps two or three times the normal rate. It has been estimated that 23,000 British people died from the poisoning.
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The Laki eruption and its aftermath caused a drop in global temperatures, as 120 million tonnes of sulfur dioxide was spewed into the
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Geological features near the Grímsvötn fissure swarm (red outline). The Laki surface lava flows are shaded violet. Shading also shows:
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1670:[Famine in Edo and the shadow of a huge eruption: Falling temperatures led to crop failures and man-made disasters].
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circulations, leading to between 1 and 3 millimetres (0.04 and 0.12 in) less daily precipitation than normal over the
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917:, only 50 km (31 mi) southeast, was still renowned after its spectacular eruption 28 years earlier in 1755.
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resulted in one of the most important climatic and socially significant natural events of the last millennium.
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was erupting from 1783 to 1785, and there may have been an unusually strong El Niño effect from 1789 to 1793.
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which then killed at least a fifth of the island's human population, although some have claimed a quarter.
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The natural history of Selborne: with observations on various parts of nature and the Naturalist's calendar
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Island on Fire: The Extraordinary Story of Laki, the Volcano That Turned Eighteenth-Century Europe Dark.
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This past week, and the two prior to it, more poison fell from the sky than words can describe: ash,
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seismically active areas. Clicking on the image enables full window and mouse-over with more detail.
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766:, until the haze dissipated in the autumn. The winter of 1783–1784 was very severe; the naturalist
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Wood, C. A. (1992). "The climatic effects of the 1783 Laki eruption". In Harrington, C. R. (ed.).
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in 1784 cost it roughly one-sixth of its population. The eruption was also found to have affected
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2209:"Atmospheric and environmental effects of the 1783–1784 Laki eruption: A review and reassessment"
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1156:"Atmospheric and environmental effects of the 1783–1784 Laki eruption: A review and reassessment"
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1691:"Hydroclimatic anomalies in China during the post-Laki years and the role of concurring El Niño"
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Oman, Luke; Robock, Alan; Stenchikov, Georgiy L.; Thordarson, Thorvaldur (September 30, 2006).
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NPR Throughline: 40 minute audio piece about the 1783 eruption of Laki and worldwide effects
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The meteorological impact of Laki continued, contributing significantly to several years of
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A Sulphurous Stench: Illness and Death in Europe Following the Eruption of the Laki Fissure
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A Mist Connection: An Environmental History of the Laki Eruption of 1783 and Its Legacy,
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1535:"High-latitude eruptions cast shadow over the African monsoon and the flow of the Nile"
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The Dry Fog of 1783: Environmental Impact and Human Reaction to the Lakagígar Eruption
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1634:"Facing natural extremes: The catastrophe of the Laki eruption in Iceland, 1783–1784"
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Sir John goes on to describe the effect of this "frost" on trees and crops:
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727:(now the Czech Republic) by 17 June, Berlin by 18 June, Paris by 20 June,
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in 1789. Laki was only one factor in a decade of climatic disruption, as
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1262:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 229.
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Thoroddsen, Thorvaldur; Powell, Frederick Y.; Blöndal, Sigfús (1911). "
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A Very Present Help in Trouble: The Autobiography of the Fire-priest.
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2042:. Geological Society, London, Special Publication 161, 173–187, 1999
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of Africa, resulting in, among other effects, low flow in the River
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Grove, Richard H. (1998). "Global impact of the 1789–93 El Niño".
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
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explosions because of the groundwater interacting with the rising
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9500 human, 190,500 sheep, 11,500 cattle and 28,000 horse deaths.
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1608:"Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows"
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1998:
Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester
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may have been worsened by the Laki eruption. In the same year,
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Note: Volcanoes listed here have "central volcanoes" unless a
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Dr John Grattan at International Volcanic Heath Hazard Network
1814:"Volcano Seasons: Weather reports from northern Britain, 1784"
1787:"Volcano Seasons: Weather reports from northern Britain, 1783"
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684:). The eruption may have affected a drought in eastern China.
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reported severe flood damage. This is considered part of a
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subglacial terrain above 1,100 m (3,600 ft), and
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Stothers, Richard B. (1996). "The great dry fog of 1783".
1974:
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580:") that he delivered on 20 July 1783. The church farm of
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recorded his observations in America in a 1784 lecture:
1689:
Gao, Chao-Chao; Yang, Lin-Shan; Liu, Fei (April 2021).
1638:
1700-tal: Nordic Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies
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438:. Over a few days the eruptions became less explosive,
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2066:
2014:
2012:
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Brayshay and Grattan, 1999; Demarée and Ogilvie, 2001
565:, Jón Steingrímsson (1728–1791), grew famous for the
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Grattan, John; Brayshay, Mark; Sadler, John (1998).
1849:. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature. pp. 58–77.
2562:is place after name, in that case the volcano is a
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2009:
1374:. UK Research and Innovation. 2013. Archived from
625:There is evidence that the Laki eruption weakened
620:
2242:20.500.11820/17d8aae9-d2bf-4120-b61a-31c6966a7e24
2159:Translated by Michael Fell. New York: Lang, 2002.
2018:
1504:
1413:
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1200:20.500.11820/17d8aae9-d2bf-4120-b61a-31c6966a7e24
419:On 8 June 1783, a 25 km-long (15.5 mi)
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2019:Hutton, C.; Shaw, G.; Pearson, R., eds. (1809).
1507:Fires of the earth: the Laki eruption, 1783–1784
805:
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2049:Iceland: Modern Processes And Past Environments
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586:
566:
535:
462:
1479:. Vol. 306, no. 5700. p. 1278.
1408:
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64:Varies: canyon to 1,725 m (5,659 ft)
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2311:Official Website of Vatnajökull National Park
1994:"Meteorological imaginations and conjectures"
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1470:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1448:
1446:
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1442:
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1160:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
754:The weather became very hot, causing severe
663:
522:and an estimated 120 million tonnes of
1632:Gunnarsdóttir, Margrét (29 December 2022).
1604:Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey
1473:"Volcanology: Iceland's Doomsday Scenario?"
1390:"The eruption that changed Iceland forever"
814:, with the largest accumulation of snow in
534:The consequences for Iceland, known as the
454:, but the eight-month emission of sulfuric
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1505:Steingrímsson, Jón; Kunz, Keneva (1998).
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876:recorded his perceptions of the event at
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2162:
1991:
1723:
1007:List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
975:, had the tips of their leaves withered.
861:
691:
611:
2277:Information about the volcanism at Laki
1952:. lave club-internet fr. Archived from
271:, not far from the volcanic fissure of
14:
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1528:
1526:
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446:in character, with high rates of lava
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2095:Natural Disasters and Cultural Change
1859:
1032:List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland
591:
571:
540:
477:
467:
250:
232:
1975:Gilbert White; Edward Jesse (1870).
1844:
1336:
482:produced an estimated 14 km (18
317:lava as well as clouds of poisonous
1695:Advances in Climate Change Research
1523:
1471:Richard Stone (November 19, 2004).
1360:
1266:
818:, and the longest freezing over of
700:An estimated 120,000,000 tonnes of
561:The parish minister and provost of
24:
2249:Witze, Alexandra and Jeff Kanipe.
2031:
1420:"Volcano 'drove up UK death toll'"
1052:
762:that were reported to have killed
450:. This event is rated as 4 on the
25:
2670:
2287:A meditation on Jón Steingrímsson
2265:
1761:"When a killer cloud hit Britain"
1154:Thordarson, T.; Self, S. (2003).
1981:. Bell & Daldy. p. 300.
1731:"Acid Rain Effects on Buildings"
1674:. April 30, 2022. Archived from
1235:
461:The eruption, also known as the
351:
340:and may have caused droughts in
125:
118:
45:
2213:Journal of Geophysical Research
2207:Thordarson, Thorvaldur (2003).
1985:
1968:
1942:
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1853:
1806:
1779:
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1625:
1509:. University of Iceland Press.
1498:
1464:
1382:
621:Consequences in monsoon regions
336:. This caused crop failures in
2614:Events that forced the climate
1950:"Volcanoes from Iceland: Laki"
1327:
1303:"Grimsvotn – Eruptive History"
1210:
1105:
1091:"Iceland : Katla Volcano"
1083:
1022:Timeline of volcanism on Earth
496:lava, and the total volume of
13:
1:
2649:Volcanic eruptions in Iceland
2609:East Volcanic Zone of Iceland
2006:; see especially pp. 359–360.
1485:10.1126/science.306.5700.1278
1045:
1012:List of waterfalls of Iceland
806:Consequences in North America
500:emitted was 0.91 km (1.2
2634:Natural disasters in Iceland
2599:18th-century volcanic events
2510:Snæfellsjökull Volcanic Zone
1908:Geophysical Research Letters
1542:Geophysical Research Letters
1418:Rincon, Paul (25 May 2004).
1037:List of volcanoes in Iceland
834:. A huge snowstorm hit the
706:1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption
593:[ˈɛltˌmɛsːʏˌtʰauɲcɪ]
469:[ˈskaftˌauːrˌɛltar̥]
126:
7:
2199:"The Summer of Acid Rain",
2147:(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2023)
2040:Volcanoes in the Quaternary
1992:Franklin, Benjamin (1785).
1716:10.1016/j.accre.2021.03.006
1460:. 19 January 2007. BBC Two.
1002:List of glaciers of Iceland
992:Glacial lake outburst flood
979:
830:, which formally ended the
542:[ˈmouːðʏˌharðɪntɪn]
34:Volcanic fissure in Iceland
10:
2675:
1847:The Year Without a Summer?
846:and there were reports of
832:American Revolutionary War
738:. The local death rate in
616:Center of the Laki fissure
604:, rain full of sulfur and
452:Volcanic Explosivity Index
283:and including the volcano
26:
2556:
2536:Öræfajökull Volcanic Zone
2535:
2509:
2486:
2438:
2414:
2365:
2321:Old maps of the Laki area
1372:British Geological Survey
1277:"The Summer of acid rain"
1134:10.1016/j.jog.2006.09.015
664:Consequences in East Asia
409:
399:
379:
371:
363:
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275:and the small village of
265:Vatnajökull National Park
177:
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155:
150:
112:
107:
68:
58:
53:
44:
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2107:The Geographical Journal
2046:Chris Caseldine (2005).
1822:Quotes reports from the
1795:Quotes reports from the
1667:江戸の飢饉に巨大噴火の影 気温低下で凶作、人災も
1666:
1368:"Laki eruption, Iceland"
1349:Global Volcanism Program
1308:Global Volcanism Program
1216:Gunnar Karlsson (2000),
1065:Global Volcanism Program
935:, then President of the
656:and the already ongoing
252:[ˈlaːkaˌciːɣar̥]
230:Icelandic pronunciation:
2594:18th century in Iceland
2440:Reykjanes Volcanic Belt
2086:10.3406/quate.1998.2103
1354:Smithsonian Institution
1313:Smithsonian Institution
1259:Encyclopædia Britannica
1070:Smithsonian Institution
858:Contemporaneous reports
563:Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla
530:Consequences in Iceland
479:[ˈsiːðʏˌɛltʏr̥]
263:in the western part of
2589:1783 natural disasters
2416:Northern Volcanic Zone
2272:Photos and information
2101:, London 87–106. 2002.
1114:Journal of Geodynamics
977:
949:
910:
891:
870:
697:
688:Consequences in Europe
617:
610:
587:
567:
536:
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287:. It lies between the
2488:Western Volcanic Zone
2367:Eastern Volcanic Zone
2253:Profile Books, 2014.
1606:(November 22, 2006).
953:
941:
898:
886:
865:
695:
615:
598:
596:("Fire Mass Point").
492: cu yd) of
476:fires") or Síðueldur
359:1783 eruption of Laki
313: cu yd) of
92:64.06472°N 18.22611°W
29:Laki (disambiguation)
2659:Volcanoes of Iceland
2629:Mountains of Iceland
2359:volcanoes of Iceland
2233:10.1029/2001JD002042
2203:, December 19, 2007.
2155:Steingrímsson, Jón.
1928:10.1029/2011GL046696
1572:10.1029/2006GL027665
1218:Iceland's 1100 Years
1191:10.1029/2001JD002042
1093:. Iceland on the web
1027:Volcanism of Iceland
987:Geography of Iceland
867:Kirkjubaejarklaustur
573:[ˈɛltˌmɛsːa]
27:For other uses, see
2225:2003JGRD..108.4011T
2177:1996ClCh...32...79S
2119:1995GeogJ.161..125G
2023:. pp. 604–605.
1920:2011GeoRL..38.5706D
1874:1998Natur.393..318G
1707:2021ACCR...12..187G
1554:2006GeoRL..3318711O
1283:. December 19, 2007
1182:2003JGRD..108.4011T
1126:2007JGeo...43..153G
824:Annapolis, Maryland
670:Great Tenmei famine
582:Kirkjubæjarklaustur
510: cu yd).
334:Northern Hemisphere
277:Kirkjubæjarklaustur
195:central volcanoes,
97:64.06472; -18.22611
88: /
2471:Eldvörp–Svartsengi
2185:10.1007/BF00141279
2149:online book review
2143:Kleemann, Katrin.
1828:Cumberland Pacquet
1818:PastPresented.info
1801:Cumberland Pacquet
1791:PastPresented.info
1206:on April 24, 2012.
871:
725:Kingdom of Bohemia
698:
680:erupted in Japan (
618:
556:skeletal fluorosis
54:Highest point
2571:
2570:
2453:Brennisteinsfjöll
2059:978-0-444-50652-8
1904:D'Arrigo, Rosanne
1868:(6683): 318–319.
1824:Newcastle Courant
1797:Newcastle Courant
1741:on March 11, 2015
1516:978-9979-54-244-5
894:Benjamin Franklin
840:Mississippi River
796:French Revolution
719:, then spread to
696:Laki in July 2012
417:
416:
319:hydrofluoric acid
223:
222:
16:(Redirected from
2666:
2654:Volcanic winters
2604:Active volcanoes
2380:Eyjafjallajökull
2351:
2344:
2337:
2328:
2327:
2291:Anglicans Online
2246:
2244:
2196:
2138:
2090:
2088:
2063:
2025:
2024:
2016:
2007:
2005:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1956:on March 5, 2012
1946:
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1900:
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1804:
1794:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1737:. Archived from
1735:Elmhurst College
1727:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1653:
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1403:
1401:
1396:. April 16, 2010
1386:
1380:
1379:
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1288:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1232:
1221:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1202:. Archived from
1193:
1175:
1173:astro-ph/0309423
1151:
1138:
1137:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1056:
933:Sir Joseph Banks
672:of 1782–1788 in
644:. The resulting
595:
590:
575:
570:
552:dental fluorosis
544:
539:
506:
505:
488:
487:
481:
471:
466:
423:of at least 130
356:
355:
309:
308:
261:volcanic fissure
254:
244:
243:
242:
236:
234:[ˈlaːcɪ]
231:
215:
213:
208:
206:
202:fissure swarms,
201:
199:
194:
192:
188:calderas, other
187:
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129:
128:
122:
103:
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84:
81:
49:
37:
36:
21:
2674:
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2669:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2644:VEI-4 volcanoes
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2552:
2531:
2505:
2482:
2434:
2410:
2361:
2355:
2268:
2165:Climatic Change
2127:10.2307/3059970
2060:
2034:
2032:Further reading
2029:
2028:
2017:
2010:
1990:
1986:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1901:
1897:
1858:
1854:
1843:
1834:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1770:
1768:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1687:
1683:
1678:on May 5, 2022.
1668:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1630:
1626:
1616:
1614:
1601:
1594:
1584:
1582:
1563:10.1.1.695.8121
1548:(L18711): n/a.
1537:
1531:
1524:
1517:
1503:
1499:
1489:
1487:
1469:
1465:
1452:
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1057:
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1048:
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1017:Plate tectonics
997:Iceland hotspot
982:
925:Bury St Edmunds
921:Sir John Cullum
860:
828:Treaty of Paris
808:
791:extreme weather
784:volcanic winter
690:
682:Tenmei eruption
666:
648:that afflicted
623:
532:
503:
501:
485:
483:
429:phreatomagmatic
386:Phreatomagmatic
375:7 February 1784
354:
306:
304:
257:Craters of Laki
238:
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96:
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35:
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23:
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15:
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11:
5:
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2596:
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2584:1783 in Europe
2569:
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2551:
2550:
2545:
2539:
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2533:
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2524:
2519:
2517:Snæfellsjökull
2513:
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2506:
2504:
2503:
2498:
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2483:
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2465:Fagradalsfjall
2462:
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2323:, Harvard Maps
2318:
2313:
2308:
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2298:
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2284:
2279:
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2267:
2266:External links
2264:
2263:
2262:
2247:
2204:
2197:
2160:
2152:
2151:
2140:
2139:
2113:(2): 125–134.
2102:
2091:
2064:
2058:
2043:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2008:
2000:. 1st series.
1984:
1967:
1941:
1895:
1852:
1832:
1805:
1778:
1767:. January 2007
1752:
1722:
1701:(2): 187–198.
1681:
1657:
1651:10.7557/4.6611
1624:
1592:
1522:
1515:
1497:
1463:
1454:"Killer Cloud"
1436:
1407:
1381:
1378:on 2020-06-27.
1359:
1335:
1326:
1294:
1265:
1254:Chisholm, Hugh
1222:
1209:
1139:
1120:(1): 153–169.
1104:
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983:
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978:
859:
856:
852:Gulf of Mexico
820:Chesapeake Bay
807:
804:
780:Central Europe
736:sulfurous acid
717:Denmark–Norway
702:sulfur dioxide
689:
686:
665:
662:
658:Chalisa famine
622:
619:
602:volcanic hairs
531:
528:
524:sulfur dioxide
512:Lava fountains
415:
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2619:Fissure vents
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2259:9781781250044
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2015:
2013:
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1999:
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1937:
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1612:Science Daily
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1281:The Economist
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1244:public domain
1231:
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969:Weymouth pine
966:
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938:
937:Royal Society
934:
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926:
922:
918:
916:
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907:
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895:
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883:
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875:
874:Gilbert White
868:
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849:
845:
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837:
833:
829:
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821:
817:
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803:
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797:
792:
787:
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777:
773:
769:
768:Gilbert White
765:
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756:thunderstorms
752:
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588:Eldmessutangi
583:
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543:
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537:Móðuharðindin
527:
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349:
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293:Mýrdalsjökull
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169:Last eruption
166:
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162:Fissure vents
160:
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157:Mountain type
154:
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121:
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106:
101:
73:
71:
67:
63:
61:
57:
52:
48:
43:
38:
30:
19:
2559:
2496:Prestahnúkur
2399:
2250:
2219:(D1): 4011.
2216:
2212:
2200:
2171:(1): 79–89.
2168:
2164:
2156:
2144:
2110:
2106:
2094:
2079:(1): 25–35.
2076:
2072:
2052:. Elsevier.
2048:
2039:
2020:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1977:
1970:
1958:. Retrieved
1954:the original
1944:
1911:
1907:
1898:
1865:
1861:
1855:
1846:
1827:
1823:
1817:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1781:
1769:. Retrieved
1764:
1755:
1743:. Retrieved
1739:the original
1725:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1676:the original
1671:
1660:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1615:. Retrieved
1583:. Retrieved
1545:
1541:
1506:
1500:
1488:. Retrieved
1476:
1466:
1457:
1427:. Retrieved
1423:
1398:. Retrieved
1393:
1384:
1376:the original
1371:
1362:
1347:
1338:
1329:
1317:. Retrieved
1315:. 8 May 2017
1306:
1297:
1285:. Retrieved
1280:
1257:
1217:
1212:
1204:the original
1166:(D1): 4011.
1163:
1159:
1117:
1113:
1107:
1095:. Retrieved
1085:
1073:. Retrieved
1063:
1054:
971:, and hardy
954:
950:
942:
919:
911:
903:
899:
892:
887:
872:
809:
788:
753:
749:Lincolnshire
745:Bedfordshire
733:
710:
699:
667:
654:South Arabia
624:
599:
560:
533:
516:
507:
489:
464:Skaftáreldar
460:
442:, and later
427:opened with
418:
342:North Africa
331:
310:
301:
256:
246:
225:
224:
2639:Smog events
2543:Öræfajökull
2501:Hveravellir
2375:Bárðarbunga
2073:Quaternaire
1830:newspapers.
1803:newspapers.
1429:13 November
1344:"Grímsvötn"
1287:October 21,
945:crown-piece
884:, England:
844:New Orleans
812:New England
758:with large
678:Mount Asama
550:because of
440:Strombolian
390:Strombolian
367:8 June 1783
297:Vatnajökull
285:Þórðarhyrna
95: /
70:Coordinates
2578:Categories
2527:Ljósufjöll
2522:Helgrindur
2357:Monitored
2004:: 357–361.
1914:(5): n/a.
1046:References
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