238:
367:
383:
45:
351:
1439:
337:'s description of the heathen: "filled with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness". He criticized their brigandage, feuds, lying and divorce and claimed that "the state of society was a perfect hell upon earth". Lyde's account has been described as "colourful" but "unreliable" in certain respects.
325:
in order to use them as part of their local administrative control and tax collection structure. The
Kalbiyya's emergence as a recognised group may therefore be linked to this Ottoman policy. Nevertheless, there were a number of Kalbiyya rebellions during the 16th century, and by the beginning of the
276:
The
Kalbiyya consists of five branches: Rashawneh, Junaydi, al-Nawasireh, al-Jurud, and al-Qarahilah. Each branch of an Alawite tribe has its own hereditary chief, a structure which leads to frequent internal disputes within Alawite society. The Junayd family typically provide the leadership of the
418:
state. The
Kalbiyya leadership was similarly divided and through the 1920s and 1930s individual chiefs shifted between separatism and the nationalist/unionist position depending on prevailing opinions within the tribe. Nevertheless, in the negotiations leading to the Alawite State joining the
463:
points out, in practice "active participation" in the Assad regime was limited to the
Kalbiyya. Additionally, there is evidence that the Kalbiyya areas received much greater infrastructure investment and other economic benefits compared to other Alawite areas.
459:, part of his strategy was to concentrate control in the hands of members of his own Kalbiyya tribe. In 1970, the Kalbiyya numbered 108,800 compared to a total Syrian population of 6,305,000. Although Alawites in general dominated the government, as historian
333:, an English missionary, lived among the Kalbiyya and built a mission and school in the Kalbiyya village of Bhamra. He subsequently published a negative but influential account of his time there, in which he wrote that he was convinced that they were like
252:
The
Kalbiyya were estimated in 2011 to number approximately 480,000 out of a population of 3 million Alawites in Syria. At that time the total Syrian population was around 22 million. The main areas of Kalbiyya settlement are the districts of
229:. Historically, the Alawites lived in about eighty villages in the region. The Kalbiyya are one of the four tribes, or tribal confederations, into which the Alawite community is divided, the others being the Matawira, Haddadin, and Khayyatin.
314:, notes that, despite this, they may have existed as a grouping before the 16th century (but without any "special role" among the Alawites). He also speculates that their name "may originally have invoked a link" with the medieval
1418:
413:
The
Alawite community was divided between "separatists" who supported the maintenance of a separate Alawite state and "nationalists" or "unionists", who advocated integration into a wider Syrian or even
475:, there was even greater focus on this policy. In 2012–2013, some 90% of regime army generals, according to sources close to the government, were not only Alawite but from the Kalbiyya tribe.
1297:
1301:
298:
There are no known references to the
Kalbiyya in medieval sources. They are not, for instance, mentioned among the tribes led by the 13th century Alawite paramount leader
285:. Traditionally, Alawite society is divided into three classes: religious leaders, landowners and peasants, with religious leadership, like chieftaincy, being hereditary.
273:
in north west Syria. They are the most geographically compact of the
Alawite tribes, the others being more dispersed in non-contiguous areas across the coastal region.
172:. Assad ruled Syria as dictator for 30 years and ensured that power was concentrated in the hands of members of the Kalbiyya tribe, a policy which his son,
1460:
471:. The latter continued to rule through the same power structures as his father, with the Kalbiyya playing a central role. With the advent of the
1395:
435:, later president of Syria. It should, however, be noted that historian Stefan Winter has questioned the authenticity of these letters.
1148:
1018:
1062:
1235:
1023:
Handbook of
Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change
326:
19th century, the
Kalbiyya had a reputation for lawlessness and were in constant and open conflict with the Ottoman authorities.
1277:
1213:
303:
1495:
1472:
1449:
1428:
1407:
1384:
1365:
1342:
1321:
1287:
1266:
1247:
1202:
1181:
1158:
1137:
1114:
1093:
1072:
1051:
1030:
455:
and Hafez Al-Assad. Assad was from the Kalbiyya tribe, Umran from the Khayyatin, and Jadid from the Haddadin. Following
423:
in 1936, even nationalist Kalbiyya chiefs signed letters asking for separation from Syria to be maintained for fear of
1125:
403:
1483:
1041:
1307:. UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names – via www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-factfiles.
1529:
443:
Syria became independent in 1946 but suffered from political instability in its first years and, in 1963, the
1169:
70:
1192:
444:
1519:
456:
169:
1396:"The Simultaneity of the Unsimultaneous: Old Tribes and Imposed Nation-States in the Modern Middle East"
1534:
1524:
420:
307:
237:
321:
There is evidence that, following the conquest, the Kalbiyya were among the tribes favoured by the
410:. By 1930, Syria as a whole had an Alawite population of 213,870, of which 50,700 were Kalbiyya.
19:
This article is about the Alawite clan of modern Syria. For the early medieval Arabian tribe, see
1104:
519:, Head of Syrian Intelligence in Lebanon 1982-2002; Syrian Minister of the Interior 2004-2005.
164:. Appearing in historical sources from the 16th century, the Kalbiyya came to prominence when
1332:
1170:"The Attitude of the Druzes and 'Alawis vis-à-vis Islam and Nationalism in Syria and Lebanon"
484:
428:
356:
1043:
Non-Sunni Muslims in the Late Ottoman Empire: State and Missionary Perceptions of the Alawis
194:
The Kalbiyya are a tribe, or tribal confederation, of the Alawite community of northwestern
427:
domination. One of the Kalbiyya leaders whose signature appears on one of the letters was
176:, continued after he became president in 2000. The Kalbiyya population mainly live in the
8:
1218:
270:
177:
258:
1514:
1491:
1468:
1445:
1424:
1403:
1380:
1361:
1354:
1338:
1317:
1283:
1262:
1243:
1198:
1177:
1172:. In Kellner-Heikele, Barbara; Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina; Otter-Beaujean, Anke (eds.).
1154:
1133:
1110:
1089:
1068:
1047:
1026:
299:
242:
218:
1064:
Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics
472:
366:
262:
113:
306:
in the early 16th century that the Kalbiyya are mentioned in historical records.
1083:
524:
500:
468:
388:
254:
173:
141:
1420:
Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival
1488:
Middle Eastern Societies and the West: Accommodation or Clash of Civilizations?
492:
452:
432:
372:
322:
165:
402:
Following the end of Ottoman rule after World War I, Syria became part of the
1508:
532:
407:
311:
117:
516:
467:
Assad, following his death in 2000, was succeeded as president by his son,
382:
460:
448:
330:
278:
1279:
Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-Expression
1106:
Peace and War: The Arab-Israeli Military Balance Enters the 21st Century
350:
211:
44:
1441:
A History of the 'Alawis: From Medieval Aleppo to the Turkish Republic
508:
315:
203:
199:
20:
640:
1021:. In Goldstone, Jack A.; Grinin, Leonid; Korotayev, Andrey (eds.).
447:
overthrew the then government. The coup was led by three Alawites:
415:
189:
1461:"The 'Alawis, Lords of Syria: From Ethnic Minority to Ruling Sect"
754:
1128:. In Croissant, Aurel; Lawson, Fred H.; Albrecht, Holger (eds.).
334:
266:
246:
222:
207:
198:. Also known as Nusayris or Alawis, the Alawites are a prominent
157:
128:
282:
226:
406:, which was subdivided into separate territories including an
424:
195:
161:
911:
947:
60:
1240:
Religion and Contemporary Politics: A Global Encyclopedia
848:
826:
824:
822:
983:
971:
877:
875:
860:
717:
715:
618:
616:
556:
554:
552:
550:
548:
156:
is one of four tribes, or tribal confederations, of the
700:
676:
603:
601:
1233:
819:
732:
730:
646:
573:
571:
569:
487:, tribal leader and father of Hafez al-Assad, d.1963.
959:
872:
742:
712:
613:
588:
586:
545:
221:
coastal region, inland of the Mediterranean ports of
935:
807:
797:
795:
793:
778:
766:
628:
598:
1174:
Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East
995:
923:
899:
887:
836:
727:
664:
652:
566:
1353:
583:
1398:. In Khoury, Philip S.; Kostiner, Joseph (eds.).
1234:Menzies, James W.; Granados Palmer, Gina (2019).
790:
688:
1506:
1238:. In Shaw, Jeffrey M.; Demy, Timothy J. (eds.).
1194:Cycle of Fear: Syria's Alawites in War and Peace
293:
511:, Chief of Staff of the Syrian Army 1998-2002.
1463:. In Bengio, Offra; Ben-Dor, Gabriel (eds.).
1400:Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East
1377:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society
1123:
953:
438:
397:
1126:"The Syrian Military and the 2011 Uprising"
232:
1465:Minorities and the State in the Arab World
1130:Armies and Insurgencies in the Arab Spring
1314:Greater Syria: The History of an Ambition
1190:
1102:
989:
977:
917:
706:
560:
1416:
1016:
682:
622:
236:
1484:"Bashar Al-Asad: Between East and West"
1330:
1214:"Secretive sect of the rulers of Syria"
1081:
866:
634:
607:
170:seized power in Syria in a coup in 1970
168:, the son of a Kalbiyya tribal leader,
1507:
1481:
1458:
1437:
1356:Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East
1334:Lebanon: Current Issues and Background
1060:
965:
941:
929:
893:
881:
854:
760:
748:
721:
577:
535:, Syrian General under Hafez al-Assad.
473:2011 uprising and subsequent civil war
1374:
1351:
1311:
1275:
1256:
1211:
1167:
1146:
1039:
1001:
905:
842:
830:
813:
801:
784:
772:
736:
670:
658:
457:Assad's seizure of sole power in 1970
1393:
1296:
1259:Extremist Shi'ites: The Ghulat Sects
1212:Howse, Christopher (5 August 2011).
1132:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
694:
592:
478:
145:
38:Alawite Syrian tribal confederation
13:
1402:. University of California Press.
1360:. University of California Press.
647:Menzies & Granados Palmer 2019
503:, President of Syria 2000 to date.
14:
1546:
245:, homeland of the Kalbiyya, near
1423:. Vol. 1. Greenwood Press.
381:
365:
349:
43:
1124:Droz-Vincent, Philippe (2016).
1010:
495:, President of Syria 1971-2000.
310:, an historian specialising in
217:The Alawite homeland is in the
1444:. Princeton University Press.
1417:Williams, Victoria R. (2020).
1109:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
1103:Cordesman, Anthony H. (2002).
1085:Historical Dictionary of Syria
1067:. Princeton University Press.
1017:Akhmedov, Vladimir M. (2022).
318:bedouin tribal confederation.
1:
1490:. Syracuse University Press.
1261:. Syracuse University Press.
539:
183:
1467:. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
1153:. Harvard University Press.
763:, pp. 75, 83, 113, 115.
294:Emergence and Ottoman period
202:religious sect who follow a
7:
1316:. Oxford University Press.
1302:"Syria: Toponymic Factfile"
1282:(2nd ed.). McFarland.
1191:Goldsmith, Leon T. (2015).
10:
1551:
288:
277:Kalbiyya and was based at
187:
18:
1486:. In Litvak, Meir (ed.).
1331:Rolland, John C. (2003).
1276:Nisan, Mordechai (2015).
1242:. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO.
439:Since Syrian independence
421:Mandatory Syrian Republic
398:During the French mandate
304:Ottoman conquest of Syria
124:
109:
85:
77:
66:
56:
42:
37:
30:
233:Demographics and society
71:Nusayri mountains region
1438:Winter, Stefan (2016).
1352:Seale, Patrick (1990).
1168:Firro, Kais M. (1997).
1147:Field, Michael (1994).
1082:Commins, David (2004).
1019:"The Syrian Revolution"
302:. It is only after the
49:Kalbiyya tribal areas,
1312:Pipes, Daniel (1992).
1061:Batatu, Hanna (1999).
1040:Alkan, Necati (2022).
527:, Syrian poet, d.1981.
249:
16:Alawite tribe of Syria
1530:Shia Islamic branches
1482:Zisser, Eyal (2006).
1459:Zisser, Eyal (1999).
1394:Tibi, Bassam (1990).
1375:Tejel, Jordi (2008).
1257:Moosa, Matti (1987).
1150:Inside the Arab World
485:Ali Sulayman al-Assad
240:
180:in north west Syria.
1337:. Nova Publishers.
1088:. Scarecrow Press.
920:, pp. 109–110.
857:, pp. 260–261.
271:Latakia Governorate
178:Latakia Governorate
81:480,000 (est. 2011)
1520:Arab ethnic groups
250:
51:northwestern Syria
1535:Politics of Syria
1497:978-965-224-073-6
1474:978-1-55587-647-0
1451:978-0-691-17389-4
1430:978-1-4408-6117-8
1409:978-0-520-07080-6
1386:978-0-415-42440-0
1367:978-0-520-06976-3
1344:978-1-59033-871-1
1323:978-0-19-506022-5
1289:978-0-7864-5133-3
1268:978-0-8156-2411-0
1249:978-1-4408-3933-7
1204:978-1-84904-468-4
1183:978-90-04-10861-5
1160:978-0-674-45521-4
1139:978-0-8122-4854-8
1116:978-0-275-96939-4
1095:978-0-8108-4934-1
1074:978-0-691-00254-5
1053:978-0-7556-1684-8
1032:978-3-030-86467-5
954:Droz-Vincent 2016
869:, pp. 10–12.
833:, pp. 91–92.
300:Makzun al-Sinjari
243:Nusayri mountains
219:Nusayri mountains
134:
133:
1542:
1525:Shia communities
1501:
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581:
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564:
558:
479:Notable Kalbiyya
385:
369:
353:
343:The Assad family
265:and the town of
147:
114:Levantine Arabic
47:
28:
27:
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546:
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525:Badawi al-Jabal
501:Bashar al-Assad
481:
441:
400:
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394:
393:
392:
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389:Bashar Al-Assad
386:
377:
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359:
354:
345:
344:
296:
291:
235:
192:
186:
174:Bashar Al-Assad
118:Alawite dialect
52:
50:
32:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1548:
1538:
1537:
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1094:
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1052:
1046:. Bloomsbury.
1037:
1031:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1006:
994:
992:, p. 109.
990:Goldsmith 2015
982:
980:, p. 337.
978:Cordesman 2002
970:
968:, p. 129.
958:
956:, p. 176.
946:
934:
922:
918:Goldsmith 2015
910:
898:
886:
884:, p. 135.
871:
859:
847:
835:
818:
816:, p. 165.
806:
789:
787:, p. 277.
777:
775:, p. 276.
765:
753:
751:, p. 122.
741:
726:
724:, p. 377.
711:
707:Goldsmith 2015
699:
687:
685:, p. 708.
675:
673:, p. 117.
663:
661:, p. 101.
651:
649:, p. 694.
639:
627:
612:
597:
595:, p. 138.
582:
565:
561:Goldsmith 2015
543:
541:
538:
537:
536:
529:
528:
521:
520:
513:
512:
505:
504:
497:
496:
493:Hafez al-Assad
489:
488:
480:
477:
453:Muhammad Umran
445:Ba'athist coup
440:
437:
433:Hafez Al-Assad
404:French mandate
399:
396:
387:
380:
379:
378:
373:Hafez Al-Assad
371:
364:
363:
362:
355:
348:
347:
346:
342:
341:
340:
339:
329:In the 1850s,
295:
292:
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287:
234:
231:
188:Main article:
185:
182:
166:Hafez al-Assad
132:
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40:
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1401:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1379:. Routledge.
1378:
1373:
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1219:The Telegraph
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1055:
1049:
1045:
1044:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1014:
1004:, p. 19.
1003:
998:
991:
986:
979:
974:
967:
962:
955:
950:
944:, p. 65.
943:
938:
931:
926:
919:
914:
908:, p. 58.
907:
902:
895:
890:
883:
878:
876:
868:
863:
856:
851:
845:, p. 20.
844:
839:
832:
827:
825:
823:
815:
810:
803:
798:
796:
794:
786:
781:
774:
769:
762:
757:
750:
745:
739:, p. 27.
738:
733:
731:
723:
718:
716:
709:, p. 25.
708:
703:
696:
691:
684:
683:Akhmedov 2022
679:
672:
667:
660:
655:
648:
643:
637:, p. 75.
636:
631:
625:, p. 59.
624:
623:Williams 2020
619:
617:
610:, p. 28.
609:
604:
602:
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966:Zisser 1999
942:Zisser 2006
930:Winter 2016
894:Batatu 1999
882:Zisser 1999
855:Winter 2016
761:Winter 2016
749:Winter 2016
722:Batatu 1999
578:Winter 2016
461:Jordi Tejel
449:Salah Jadid
331:Samuel Lyde
279:Tell Salhab
154:Kelbi tribe
1509:Categories
1236:"Alawites"
1002:Seale 1990
906:Tejel 2008
843:Seale 1990
831:Firro 1997
814:Pipes 1992
802:Howse 2011
785:Moosa 1987
773:Moosa 1987
737:Alkan 2022
671:Nisan 2015
659:Field 1994
540:References
212:Shia Islam
210:branch of
184:Background
78:Population
1225:4 January
1197:. Hurst.
1176:. Brill.
695:PCGN 2011
593:Tibi 1990
509:Ali Aslan
316:Banu Kalb
204:syncretic
91:Rashawneh
57:Ethnicity
31:Kalbiyya
21:Banu Kalb
1515:Alawites
1300:(2011).
416:pan-Arab
323:Ottomans
200:mystical
190:Alawites
138:Kalbiyya
125:Religion
110:Language
100:Al-Jurud
86:Branches
67:Location
335:St Paul
289:History
281:, near
267:Qardaha
263:Latakia
247:Qardaha
223:Latakia
208:Twelver
158:Alawite
146:الكلبية
129:Alawite
94:Junaydi
73:, Syria
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227:Tartus
148:), or
142:Arabic
1305:(PDF)
425:Sunni
259:Haffa
196:Syria
162:Syria
150:Kalbi
1492:ISBN
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1298:PCGN
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1227:2013
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