Variable renewable energy

527: 54: 1076: 763: 944: 299: 684: 1061: 700: 397: 4570: 344:, less than about 1000 km long, the size of an average country, have mostly the same weather and thus around the same wind power, unless local conditions favor special winds. Some studies show that wind farms spread over a geographically diverse area will as a whole rarely stop producing power altogether. This is rarely the case for smaller areas with uniform geography such as Ireland, Scotland and Denmark which have several days per year with little wind power. 5149: 310: 283: 409: 1098: 31: 450: 493: 420:, as the production of renewable electricity from solar sources depends on the amount of sunlight at a given place and time. Solar output varies throughout the day and through the seasons, and is affected by dust, fog, cloud cover, frost or snow. Many of the seasonal factors are fairly predictable, and some solar thermal systems make use of heat storage to produce grid power for a full day. 1006:

at low output - spinning reserve. Contrary to statements that all wind must be backed by an equal amount of "back-up capacity", intermittent generators contribute to base capacity "as long as there is some probability of output during peak periods". Back-up capacity is not attributed to individual generators, as back-up or operating reserve "only have meaning at the system level".

118:, improved interconnection between different variable sources to smooth out supply, using dispatchable energy sources such as hydroelectricity and having overcapacity, so that sufficient energy is produced even when weather is less favourable. More connections between the energy sector and the building, transport and industrial sectors may also help. 378:

whereas an equivalent-sized power station can fail totally instantaneously and without warning. The total shutdown of wind turbines is predictable via weather forecasting. The average availability of a wind turbine is 98%, and when a turbine fails or is shut down for maintenance it only affects a small percentage of the output of a large wind farm.

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The grid connected photovoltaic (PV) power plants (PVPPs) are booming nowadays. The main problem facing the PV power plants deployment is the intermittency which leads to instability of the grid. This paper investigating the usage of a customized load - cryptocurrency mining rig - to create an added

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In responding to these pressures and events, some miners are providing services and innovations that may help the viability of clean energy infrastructures for energy providers and beyond, including the data and computing industry. The paper finds that if Bitcoin loses legitimacy as a store of value,

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Steerable flexibility in electricity production is essential to back up variable energy sources. The German example shows that pumped hydro storage, gas plants and hard coal jump in fast. Lignite varies on a daily basis. Nuclear power and biomass can theoretically adjust to a certain extent. However,

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In many countries for many types of variable renewable energy, from time to time the government invites companies to tender sealed bids to construct a certain capacity of solar power to connect to certain electricity substations. By accepting the lowest bid the government commits to buy at that price

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refers to incentives to adjust use of electricity, such as higher rates during peak hours. Real-time variable electricity pricing can encourage users to adjust usage to take advantage of periods when power is cheaply available and avoid periods when it is more scarce and expensive. Some loads such as

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Some gas, or hydro power plants are partially loaded and then controlled to change as demand changes or to replace rapidly lost generation. The ability to change as demand changes is termed "response". The ability to quickly replace lost generation, typically within timescales of 30 seconds to

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To gain applicable knowledge, this paper evaluates the developed model by means of two use-cases with real-world data, namely AWS computing instances for training Machine Learning algorithms and Bitcoin mining as relevant DC applications. The results illustrate that for both cases the NPV of the IES

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have some advantages over chemical batteries. Along with substantial durability which allows them to be cycled frequently without noticeable life reduction, they also have very fast response and ramp rates. They can go from full discharge to full charge within a few seconds. They can be manufactured

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power. Any power generated in excess of demand can displace heating fuels, be converted to storage or sold to another grid. Biofuels and conventional hydro can be saved for later when intermittents are not generating power. Some forecast that “near-firm” renewables (batteries with solar and/or wind)

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The enormous energy demand from Bitcoin mining is a considerable burden to achieve the climate agenda and the energy cost is the major operation cost. On the other side, with high penetration of renewable resources, the grid makes curtailment for reliability reasons, which reduces both economic and

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Windfarms can hedge electricity price risk by investing in Bitcoin mining. These findings, which can also be applied to other renewable energy sources, may be of interest to both the energy generator as well as the system regulator as it creates an incentive for early investment in sustainable and

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Additional operating reserve: if additional wind and solar does not correspond to demand patterns, additional operating reserve may be required compared to other generating types, however this does not result in higher capital costs for additional plants since this is merely existing plants running

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There is no generally accepted maximum level of penetration, as each system's capacity to compensate for intermittency differs, and the systems themselves will change over time. Discussion of acceptable or unacceptable penetration figures should be treated and used with caution, as the relevance or

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between the output of each turbine is imperfect, and the correlations are always imperfect due to the distance between each turbine. Similarly, geographically distant wind turbines or wind farms have lower correlations, reducing overall variability. Since wind power is dependent on weather systems,

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Currently, projects are under development, but the issue of overgenerated wind continues to exist. By harnessing the overgenerated wind for Bitcoin mining, Wyoming has the opportunity to redistribute the global hashrate, incentivize Bitcoin miners to move their operations to Wyoming, and stimulate

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In countries with a considerable amount of renewable energy, solar energy causes price drops around noon every day. PV production follows the higher demand during these hours. The images below show two weeks in 2022 in Germany, where renewable energy has a share of over 40%. Prices also drop every

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The capacity of power transmission infrastructure may have to be substantially upgraded to support export/import plans. Some energy is lost in transmission. The economic value of exporting variable power depends in part on the ability of the exporting grid to provide the importing grid with useful

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Maximum penetration of combined wind and solar is estimated at around 70% to 90% without regional aggregation, demand management or storage; and up to 94% with 12 hours of storage. Economic efficiency and cost considerations are more likely to dominate as critical factors; technical solutions may

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Demand and generation can be better matched when sectors such as mobility, heat and gas are coupled with the power system. The electric vehicle market is for instance expected to become the largest source of storage capacity. This may be a more expensive option appropriate for high penetration of

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The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low: global electricity generation in 2021 was 7% wind and 4% solar. However, in 2021 Denmark, Luxembourg and Uruguay generated over 40% of their electricity from wind and solar. Characteristics of variable renewables include their

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Electricity produced from solar energy tends to counterbalance the fluctuating supplies generated from wind. Normally it is windiest at night and during cloudy or stormy weather, and there is more sunshine on clear days with less wind. Besides, wind energy has often a peak in the winter season,

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In practice, as the power output from wind varies, partially loaded conventional plants, which are already present to provide response and reserve, adjust their output to compensate. While low penetrations of intermittent power may use existing levels of response and spinning reserve, the larger

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Waves are primarily created by wind, so the power available from waves tends to follow that available from wind, but due to the mass of the water is less variable than wind power. Wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, while wave power is proportional to the square of the wave

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A wind farm has high technical reliability when the wind blows. That is, the output at any given time will only vary gradually due to falling wind speeds or storms, the latter necessitating shut downs. A typical wind farm is unlikely to have to shut down in less than half an hour at the extreme,

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Matching power demand to supply is not a problem specific to intermittent power sources. Existing power grids already contain elements of uncertainty including sudden and large changes in demand and unforeseen power plant failures. Though power grids are already designed to have some capacity in

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Mining and transacting cryptocurrencies, such as bitcoin, do present energy and emissions challenges, but new research shows that there are possible pathways to mitigate some of these issues if cryptocurrency miners are willing to operate in a way to compliment the deployment of more low-carbon

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Transmission capacity: transmission capacity may be more expensive than for nuclear and coal generating capacity due to lower load factors. Transmission capacity will generally be sized to projected peak output, but average capacity for wind will be significantly lower, raising cost per unit of

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At times of low load where non-dispatchable output from wind and solar may be high, grid stability requires lowering the output of various dispatchable generating sources or even increasing controllable loads, possibly by using energy storage to time-shift output to times of higher demand. Such

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Grid modernization reduces medium- to long-term curtailment, stagnation of large-scale renewable energy deployment, reduces long-term costs, and enables new business models, such as electric vehicles (EVs), aggregation, demand-side management, and distributed energy resources. It also promotes

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Electricity market in Germany over two weeks in 2022. With the integration of solar PV, prices drop around noon every day in spite of a higher demand. Prices also drop every night and weekend due to low demand. A high availability of wind power causes the low prices on the right half. In hours

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electricity, and if it is too high the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.

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is the ratio of actual electrical generation over a given period of time, usually a year, to actual generation in that time period. Basically, it is the ratio between the how much electricity a plant produced and how much electricity a plant would have produced if were running at its nameplate

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is a change in consumption of energy to better align with supply. It can take the form of switching off loads, or absorb additional energy to correct supply/demand imbalances. Incentives have been widely created in the American, British and French systems for the use of these systems, such as

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Estimates of the cost of wind and solar energy may include estimates of the "external" costs of wind and solar variability, or be limited to the cost of production. All electrical plant has costs that are separate from the cost of production, including, for example, the cost of any necessary

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All managed grids already have existing operational and "spinning" reserve to compensate for existing uncertainties in the power grid. The addition of intermittent resources such as wind does not require 100% "back-up" because operating reserves and balancing requirements are calculated on a

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Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics, among other factors. If wind speed is too low then the wind turbines will not be able to make

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It is often feasible to export energy to neighboring grids at times of surplus, and import energy when needed. This practice is common in Europe and between the US and Canada. Integration with other grids can lower the effective concentration of variable power: for instance, Denmark's high

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All sources of electrical power have some degree of variability, as do demand patterns which routinely drive large swings in the amount of electricity that suppliers feed into the grid. Wherever possible, grid operations procedure are designed to match supply with demand at high levels of

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is the largest hydropower producer in the world. The U.S. Pacific Northwest has been identified as another region where wind energy is complemented well by existing hydropower. Storage capacity in hydropower facilities will be limited by size of reservoir, and environmental and other

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Renewable and conventional energy production in Germany over two weeks in 2022. In hours with low wind and PV production, hard coal and gas fill the gap. Nuclear and biomass show almost no flexibility. PV follows the increased consumption during daytime hours but varies

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Energy from sunlight or other renewable energy is converted to potential energy for storage in devices such as electric batteries. The stored potential energy is later converted to electricity that is added to the power grid, even when the original energy source is not

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per kWh for a fixed number of years, or up to a certain total amount of power. This provides certainty for investors against highly volatile wholesale electricity prices. However they may still risk exchange rate volatility if they borrowed in foreign currency.

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Relatively small electric power systems without strong interconnection (such as remote islands) may retain some existing diesel generators but consuming less fuel, for flexibility until cleaner energy sources or storage such as pumped hydro or batteries become

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without PV and wind power, the most expensive substitute set the price. The extreme levels for natural gas in 2022 were caused by Russian's invasion in Ukraine. The low availability of French nuclear power during these months increased the demand for exports.

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Certain types of load control allow the power company to turn loads off remotely if insufficient power is available. In France large users such as CERN cut power usage as required by the System Operator - EDF under the encouragement of the EJP tariff.

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is the ability of a given power source to increase and decrease output quickly on demand. The concept is distinct from intermittency; dispatchability is one of several ways system operators match supply (generator's output) to system demand (technical

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One way to invest in Bitcoin that has a positive effect on renewable energy is to encourage mining operations near wind or solar sites. This provides a customer for power that might otherwise need to be transmitted or stored, saving money as well as

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night and weekend due to low demand. In hours without PV and wind power, electricity prices rise. This can lead to demand side adjustments. While industry is dependent on the hourly prices, most private households still pay a fixed tariff. With

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The allowable penetration may be increased with further investment in standby generation. For instance some days could produce 80% intermittent wind and on the many windless days substitute 80% dispatchable power like natural gas, biomass and

2594:"Savenkov, M 2009 'On the Truncated Weibull Distribution and its Usefulness in Evaluating the Theoretical Capacity Factor of Potential Wind (or Wave) Energy Sites', University Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 21-25" 668:

Instantaneous demand reduction. Most large systems also have a category of loads which instantly disconnect when there is a generation shortage, under some mutually beneficial contract. This can give instant load reductions or increases.

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is the most prevalent existing technology used, and can substantially improve the economics of wind power. The availability of hydropower sites suitable for storage will vary from grid to grid. Typical round trip efficiency is 80%.

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with some degree of confidence using weather forecasts, especially from large numbers of turbines/farms. The ability to predict wind output is expected to increase over time as data is collected, especially from newer facilities.

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Grid operators use day ahead forecasting to determine which of the available power sources to use the next day, and weather forecasting is used to predict the likely wind power and solar power output available. Although

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reliability, and the tools to influence supply and demand are well-developed. The introduction of large amounts of highly variable power generation may require changes to existing procedures and additional investments.

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can improve the match between solar supply and local consumption. The improved capacity factor using thermal storage represents a decrease in maximum capacity, and extends the total time the system generates power.

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stores heat. Stored heat can be used directly for heating needs or converted into electricity. In the context of a CHP plant a heat storage can serve as a functional electricity storage at comparably low costs.

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Although wind is variable, it is also predictable in the short term. There is an 80% chance that wind output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will change 10% or more in 5 hours.

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Several key terms are useful for understanding the issue of intermittent power sources. These terms are not standardized, and variations may be used. Most of these terms also apply to traditional power plants.

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Balancing costs: to maintain grid stability, some additional costs may be incurred for balancing of load with demand. Although improvements to grid balancing can be costly, they can lead to long term savings.

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In the early 2020s wind and solar produce 10% of the world's electricity, but supply in the 40-55% penetration range has already been implemented in several systems, with over 65% planned for the UK by 2030.

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In some locations, electricity demand may have a high correlation with wind output, particularly in locations where cold temperatures drive electric consumption, as cold air is denser and carries more energy.

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The displaced dispatchable generation could be coal, natural gas, biomass, nuclear, geothermal or storage hydro. Rather than starting and stopping nuclear or geothermal, it is cheaper to use them as constant

619:, which provide immediately available power for an hour or so, which gives time for other generators to be started up in the event of a failure, and greatly reduces the amount of spinning reserve required. 3720: 3642: 631:

favorable rates or capital cost assistance, encouraging consumers with large loads to take them offline whenever there is a shortage of capacity, or conversely to increase load when there is a surplus.

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is the extent to which a power source fluctuates. This has two aspects: a predictable variability, such as the day-night cycle, and an unpredictable part (imperfect local weather forecasting). The term

3880: 578:, which may be used to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands. Additionally, the storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power supply. 1673: 770:

The variability of production from a single wind turbine can be high. Combining any additional number of turbines, for example, in a wind farm, results in lower statistical variation, as long as the

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variable renewables, compared to other sources of flexibility. The International Energy Agency says that sector coupling is needed to compensate for the mismatch between seasonal demand and supply.

1239: 245:: the amount of conventional (dispatchable) generation power that can be potentially removed from the system while keeping the reliability, usually expressed as a percentage of the nominal power. 3074:

value for the owner of the plant and increase the ROI of the project. The developed strategy is able to keep the profitability as high as possible during the fluctuation of the mining network.

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Ice can be stored inter seasonally and can be used as a source of air-conditioning during periods of high demand. Present systems only need to store ice for a few hours but are well developed.

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Dammed hydroelectricity, biomass and geothermal are dispatchable as each has a store of potential energy; wind and solar without storage can be decreased (curtailed) but are not dispatchable.

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Storage of electrical energy results in some lost energy because storage and retrieval are not perfectly efficient. Storage also requires capital investment and space for storage facilities.

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At low levels of penetration, the capacity credit of wind is about the same as the capacity factor. As the concentration of wind power on the grid rises, the capacity credit percentage drops.

431:, solar does not produce power at night, little in bad weather and varies between seasons. In many countries, solar produces most energy in seasons with low wind availability and vice versa. 388:

Because wind power is generated by large numbers of small generators, individual failures do not have large impacts on power grids. This feature of wind has been referred to as resiliency.

875:(PE) source in an electric power system, expressed as a percentage. There are several methods of calculation yielding different penetrations. The penetration can be calculated either as: 503:

is the most predictable of all the variable renewable energy sources. The tides reverse twice a day, but they are never intermittent, on the contrary they are completely reliable.

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are somewhat matched to summer peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as the south-western United States. Thermal energy storage systems like the small Spanish

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varies with the tides but is completely foreseeable because the orbit of the moon can be predicted exactly, and improved weather forecasts can make wind power more predictable.

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with which it has interconnections, is considerably lower as a proportion of the total system. Hydroelectricity that compensates for variability can be used across countries.

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The magnitude of the economic impacts is debated and will vary by location, but is expected to rise with higher penetration levels. At low penetration levels, costs such as

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The impact of intermittency of solar-generated electricity will depend on the correlation of generation with demand. For example, solar thermal power plants such as

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by 2033. The company, National Grid Electricity System Operator, states that new products and services will help reduce the overall cost of operating the system.

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that is left in the ground. Highly integrated grids favor flexibility and performance over cost, resulting in more plants that operate for fewer hours and lower

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Multiple wind farms spread over a wide geographic area and gridded together produce power more constantly and with less variability than smaller installations.

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Institute for Electrical Engineering – Efficient Energy Conversion University of Kassel, Germany and Risø National Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark

642:

desalination plants, electric boilers and industrial refrigeration units, are able to store their output (water and heat). Several papers also concluded that

437:

Standard photovoltaic solar has an annual average capacity factor of 10-20%, but panels that move and track the sun have a capacity factor up to 30%. Thermal

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transmission capacity or reserve capacity in case of loss of generating capacity. Many types of generation, particularly fossil fuel derived, will have cost

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Intermittency may introduce additional costs that are distinct from or of a different magnitude than for traditional generation types. These may include:

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is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38 percent of its rated capacity over the course of a year.

206:, such as wind and solar, nameplate power is the source's output under ideal conditions, such as maximum usable wind or high sun on a clear summer day. 151:

excess of projected peak demand to deal with these problems, significant upgrades may be required to accommodate large amounts of intermittent power.

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or other peaking power plants such as natural gas-fired power plants are capable of accommodating fluctuations from intermittent power more easily.

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regional market coordination and power system integration which can unlock billions of dollars in electricity revenue through cross-border trade.

4015:

http://www.claverton-energy.com/what-is-the-cost-per-kwh-of-bulk-transmission-national-grid-in-the-uk-note-this-excludes-distribution-costs.html

4421: 3695: 2123: 4390: 2795:"Not All Doom and Gloom: How Energy-Intensive and Temporally Flexible Data Center Applications May Actually Promote Renewable Energy Sources" 612:. Hydroelectric facilities with storage capacity, such as the traditional dam configuration, may be operated as base load or peaking plants. 2649: 5094: 4337: 295:

have been used operationally for decades, as of 2019 the IEA is organizing international collaboration to further improve their accuracy.

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whereas solar energy has a peak in the summer season; the combination of wind and solar reduces the need for dispatchable backup power.

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environment benefits from renewable energy. Deploying the Bitcoin mining machines at renewable power plants can mitigate both problems.

2248: 1048:, private consomers can also be motivated i.e. to load an electric car when enough renewable energy is available and prices are cheap. 4256: 4207: 2857: 3250: 2885: 2038: 49:. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even after sunset. 17: 4313: 2768: 2361: 2014: 885:

the electrical energy generated by a PE source in a given period, divided by the demand of the electric power system in this period.

2721:"How CERN is encouraged to not do atom or quark smashing, during periods of high demand and low power station availablity [ 1211: 1121: 2385: 840: 691:

so that output can be provided after the sun goes down, and output can be scheduled to meet demand requirements. The 280 MW

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have continued to be built. The absence of a reservoir results in both seasonal and annual variations in electricity generated.

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Electric vehicles can be charged during periods of low demand and high production, and in some places send power back from the

57:

Grids with high penetration of renewable energy sources generally need more flexible generation rather than baseload generation

3616: 3397:"Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in the variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US" 2160:"Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in the variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US" 4371: 4232: 3762: 3655: 3017:

Eid, Bilal; Islam, Md Rabiul; Shah, Rakibuzzaman; Nahid, Abdullah-Al; Kouzani, Abbas Z.; Mahmud, M. A. Parvez (2021-11-01).

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operations. Using larger amounts of intermittent power may require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure.

5178: 5152: 4569: 2304:"A review on the complementarity of renewable energy sources: Concept, metrics, application and future research directions" 3262: 2752: 4991: 1131: 1111: 918:

significance will be highly dependent on local factors, grid structure and management, and existing generation capacity.

4017:

Electric power transmission costs per kWh transmission / National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs)

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For most systems worldwide, existing penetration levels are significantly lower than practical or theoretical maximums.

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Tong, Dan; Farnham, David J.; Duan, Lei; Zhang, Qiang; Lewis, Nathan S.; Caldeira, Ken; Davis, Steven J. (2021-10-22).

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power will be cheaper than existing nuclear by the late 2020s: therefore they say base load power will not be needed.

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International Energy Agency Wind Task Force, "Design and Operation of Power Systems with Large Amounts of Wind Power"

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Site dependent. Sea breezes are much more constant than land breezes. Seasonal variability may reduce output by 50%.

882:

the nominal capacity (installed power) of a PE source divided by the total capacity of the electric power system; or

2406:"Executive Summary: Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology Cost and Performance Forecasts" 2087: 814:

all have high levels of hydroelectric generation, Quebec produces over 90% of its electricity from hydropower, and

3483:"Pieces of a puzzle: solar-wind power synergies on seasonal and diurnal timescales tend to be excellent worldwide" 2282: 879:

the nominal capacity (installed power) of a PE source divided by the peak load within an electric power system; or

582:

overall variations at higher penetrations levels will require additional reserves or other means of compensation.

4882: 4807: 4678: 714: 4026: 526: 2218: 930:

allow higher penetration levels to be considered in future, particularly if cost considerations are secondary.

1349: 1320: 955:. The reason given is: no info on costs of seasonal variability e.g. of solar and seasonal demand variability. 5054: 4986: 4976: 4852: 4752: 4407: 4047: 3804: 3457: 2569: 2234: 1116: 721:

Traditional lithium-ion is the most common type used for grid-scale battery storage as of 2020. Rechargeable

616: 591: 2478: 350:

Wind power typically has an annual capacity factor of 25–50%, with offshore wind outperforming onshore wind.

227: 4907: 4867: 4444: 1917:[Can the wind suffice instead of nuclear power in Poland?] (in Polish). atom.edu.pl. Archived from 748: 3748:

Gross, Robert; Heptonstall, Philip; Anderson, Dennis; Green, Tim; Leach, Matthew; Skea, Jim (March 2006).

1567:"Variability assessment and forecasting of renewables: A review for solar, wind, wave and tidal resources" 5134: 5129: 4847: 4822: 4812: 4788: 4783: 4489: 3367: 740:

using non-toxic and environmentally friendly materials, easily recyclable once the service life is over.

662: 658: 521: 464: 132: 35: 1431:"Challenges and solution technologies for the integration of variable renewable energy sources—a review" 453: 5173: 5049: 4767: 4737: 4514: 3902: 2730: 654: 341: 128: 4387: 3791: 3087: 3086:

Bastian-Pinto, Carlos L.; Araujo, Felipe V. de S.; Brandão, Luiz E.; Gomes, Leonardo L. (2021-03-01).

2984:

then it may result in lost opportunities to accelerate sustainable energy infrastructures and markets.

1899: 1566: 1430: 190:

is the amount of electricity generated from a particular source as a percentage of annual consumption.

5188: 5104: 4593: 3872:"Wind and solar produce record 10% of world's electricity, but faster change needed, scientists warn" 2625: 692: 647: 237:

is "guaranteed by the supplier to be available at all times during a period covered by a commitment".

203: 127:

unpredictability, variability, and low operating costs. These, along with renewables typically being

46: 3846: 3195: 3003: 2939: 1875: 889:

The level of penetration of intermittent variable sources is significant for the following reasons:

5079: 4887: 4827: 4484: 2134: 2122:

Nedic, Dusko; Anser Shakoor; Goran Strbac; Mary Black; Jim Watson; Catherine Mitchell (July 2005).

1832: 980: 638: 571: 3234: 2446: 5183: 5018: 5008: 4998: 3238: 1833:"The power of multiples: Connecting wind farms can make a more reliable and cheaper power source" 1285: 1126: 1002:

energy actually transmitted. However transmission costs are a low fraction of total energy costs.

736: 372: 179: 81: 4939: 4802: 4585: 4474: 1870: 1848:"Supplying Baseload Power and Reducing Transmission Requirements by Interconnecting Wind Farms" 779: 743: 688: 438: 292: 53: 3671: 3170: 2978: 1506: 5074: 4842: 4837: 4817: 3209: 3182: 3019:"Enhanced Profitability of Photovoltaic Plants By Utilizing Cryptocurrency-Based Mining Load" 2990: 2926: 1951: 1375: 1027:

The operator of the British electricity system has said that it will be capable of operating

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Because wind power is not by itself dispatchable wind farms are sometimes built with storage.

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compared to a stand-alone RES-plant increases, which may lead to a promotion of RES-plants.

2325: 2174: 1862: 1578: 1442: 1387: 1169: 1157: 2793:

Fridgen, Gilbert; Körner, Marc-Fabian; Walters, Steffen; Weibelzahl, Martin (2021-03-09).

1537: 8: 5039: 4872: 4772: 4747: 4700: 4509: 4499: 4464: 4314:"Zero carbon operation of Great Britain's electricity system by 2025 | National Grid ESO" 4071:

Morse, Richard; Salvatore, Sarah; Slusarewicz, Joanna H.; Cohan, Daniel S. (2022-03-14).

3536: 1847: 984: 678: 605: 314: 4282:"UK electricity grid's carbon emissions could turn negative by 2033, says National Grid" 4184:"Renewable Energy Auctions Toolkit | Energy | U.S. Agency for International Development" 4182:

ES, Tetra Tech; order, Inc under USAID’s Scaling Up Renewable Energy task (2021-07-28).

4088: 3967: 3721:"UK city of Nottingham uses vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and IoT to optimise EV fleet charging" 3567:"The European Super Grid : A solution to the EU's energy problems • Eyes on Europe" 3498: 3415: 3263:

Solana: 10 Facts You Didn't Know About the Concentrated Solar Power Plant Near Gila Bend

3103: 3034: 2772: 2329: 2178: 1866: 1582: 1446: 1391: 1173: 957:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

762: 4913: 4524: 4110: 3992: 3951: 3512: 3427: 3158: 3123: 3064: 2966: 2834: 2315: 2190: 1496:"Realisable Scenarios for a Future Electricity Supply based 100% on Renewable Energies" 1476: 1411: 1028: 198: 3644:

Power System Flexibility for the Energy Transition, Part 1: Overview for policy makers

2702:"UK battery storage market reaches 1GW landmark as new applications continues to grow" 2684:"UK battery storage capacity could reach 70% growth in 2019 as business models evolve" 2499: 2432: 2362:"Average annual capacity factors by technology, 2018 – Charts – Data & Statistics" 2015:"Average annual capacity factors by technology, 2018 – Charts – Data & Statistics" 1075: 412:

Seasonal variation of the output of the solar panels at AT&T park in San Francisco

5064: 4944: 4549: 4367: 4289: 4153: 4114: 4102: 3997: 3979: 3758: 3651: 3541: 3516: 3166: 3162: 3127: 3115: 3068: 3056: 2974: 2970: 2838: 2826: 2343: 1594: 1480: 1468: 1415: 1403: 1193: 1185: 991: 442: 3696:"Is Vehicle-to-Grid Technology the Key to Accelerating the Clean Energy Revolution?" 202:

is the theoretical output registered with authorities for classifying the unit. For

5013: 4954: 4658: 4653: 4630: 4539: 4479: 4092: 3987: 3971: 3502: 3431: 3419: 3275: 3274:

Benitez, Pablo C.; Lilianna E. Dragulescu; G. Cornelis Van Kooten (February 2006).

3273: 3150: 3107: 3046: 3038: 2958: 2816: 2806: 2333: 2194: 2182: 1996: 1880: 1763: 1690: 1614:"Energy Transition with Variable and Intermittent Renewable Electricity Generation" 1586: 1538:"Variability of Wind Power and other Renewables: Management Options and Strategies" 1458: 1450: 1395: 1177: 775:

there is a limit to the benefit of this geographic diversity for any power system.

567: 460: 269: 101: 93: 77: 39: 2513: 2338: 2303: 1613: 706:

of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.

5044: 5003: 4981: 4862: 4832: 4797: 4757: 4559: 4394: 4130:"5 New Reports Show Wind And Solar Power Can Cripple Putin, Secure Climate Goals" 4033: 3423: 2756: 2737: 2289: 2186: 1677: 1454: 1319:(Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4 April 2022. Archived from 1310:

IPCC: Climate Change 2022, Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers

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Death by 'capacity factor': Is this how wind and solar ultimately win the game?

2000: 1726: 1590: 1463: 872: 703: 552: 548: 136: 115: 4036:

The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency, UK Energy Research Council, March 2006

3952:"Geophysical constraints on the reliability of solar and wind power worldwide" 3042: 2405: 2209:

Graham Sinden (1 December 2005). "Characteristics of the UK wind resource" pg4

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Options to absorb large shares of variable energy into the grid include using

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http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,550/

3983: 3545: 3317: 3119: 3060: 3051: 2830: 2541: 2347: 1598: 1472: 1407: 1376:"Designing electricity markets for a high penetration of variable renewables" 1189: 1103: 799: 683: 147:. Smaller isolated grids may be less tolerant to high levels of penetration. 42: 3805:"DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY INSECURITY ON SMALL ISLANDS: THE CASE OF THE MALDIVES" 2914: 2302:

Jurasz, J.; Canales, F.A.; Kies, A.; Guezgouz, M.; Beluco, A. (2020-01-01).

2063:"51MWh vanadium flow battery system ordered for wind farm in northern Japan" 1212:"Flexible Power Plant Operation to Enable High Renewable Energy Penetration" 1060: 5109: 5084: 4949: 4918: 4732: 4534: 4001: 3235:

Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan

3147:"Bitcoin Mining to Reduce the Renewable Curtailment: A Case Study of Caiso" 3146: 2954: 1884: 1197: 1136: 802:

generation may ramp up or down to incorporate substantial amounts of wind.

730: 722: 476:

In many countries new large dams are no longer being built, because of the

417: 401: 2447:"A solar-powered economy: How solar thermal can replace coal, gas and oil" 2249:"renewable is doable A Smarter Energy Plan for Ontario (brochure version)" 396: 255:

is how accurately the operator can anticipate the generation: for example

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Suchet, Daniel; Jeantet, Adrien; Elghozi, Thomas; Jehl, Zacharie (2020).

1045: 976: 771: 500: 256: 89: 4183: 2821: 2663:"Solar and Energy Storage: A Perfect Match - Energy Storage to the Test" 2121: 2098: 4897: 4892: 4705: 4688: 4544: 4399: 4364:

Taming the Sun: Innovation to Harness Solar Energy and Power the Planet

1768: 894: 833: 322: 309: 233: 85: 3927:"UK Looks To Triple Solar And More Than Quadruple Offshore Wind Power" 3241:, October 2010, p. 33. Retrieved from BeyondZeroEmissions.org website. 757: 449: 408: 282: 135:, who must make sure supply and demand are matched. Solutions include 92:, as opposed to controllable renewable energy sources, such as dammed 4613: 4608: 4494: 4454: 3650:. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. pp. 25, 42. 1989:

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering

1429:

Sinsel, Simon R.; Riemke, Rhea L.; Hoffmann, Volker H. (2020-01-01).

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Power grids with significant amounts of dispatchable pumped storage,

597:

system-wide basis, and not dedicated to a specific generating plant.

537: 318: 97: 2157: 1900:"Sustainable Energy - without the hot air. Fluctuations and storage" 1808: 107:

The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on

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http://repa.econ.uvic.ca/publications/Working%20Paper%202006-02.pdf

2915:"Beyond Boom and Bust: An emerging clean energy economy in Wyoming" 2320: 1031:

by 2025, whenever there is enough renewable generation, and may be

811: 726: 30: 2729:- Extract from CERN newsletter indication when to switch of loads 1784:"Volatile but predictable: Forecasting renewable power generation" 4648: 4638: 2771:. California Energy Commission. November 21, 2005. Archived from 1097: 902: 665:. But others argue that Bitcoin mining can never be sustainable. 643: 4643: 3394: 3085: 807: 803: 4070: 4048:"Will war fast-track the energy transition? | DW | 04.03.2022" 3826:/publications/2019/Jan/Transforming-small-island-power-systems 3371: 2792: 2563:"Comparing the Variability of Wind Speed and Wave Height Data" 2500:"Project Description – Keeyask Hydropower Limited Partnership" 1987:

Sharman, Hugh (May 2005). "Why wind power works for Denmark".

725:

can serve as a large capacity, rapid-response storage medium.

4340:. Umweltbundesamt (German environmental agency). 11 June 2013 3747: 1275:"The Carbon Trust & DTI Renewables Network Impacts Study" 326: 3280:

Resource Economics and Policy Analysis (REPA) Research Group

1915:"Czy w Polsce wiatr wystarczy zamiast elektrowni atomowych?" 1845: 1752:"Defining and Quantifying Intermittency in the Power Sector" 492: 4598: 3210:"Can renewable energy make crypto mining greener? | Sifted" 829: 3088:"Hedging renewable energy investments with Bitcoin mining" 1247:

Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources

1234: 1232: 4233:"Government hits accelerator on low-cost renewable power" 2301: 4257:"Currency Risk Is the Hidden Solar Project Deal Breaker" 3481:

Nyenah, Emmanuel; Sterl, Sebastian; Thiery, Wim (2022).

2124:"Security assessment of future UK electricity scenarios" 1749: 766:

Five days of hourly output of five wind farms in Ontario

3301:"Grid-Scale Battery Storage Frequently Asked Questions" 2433:

Spain Pioneers Grid-Connected Solar-Tower Thermal Power

2039:"How Dispatchable Wind Is Becoming a Reality in the US" 1229: 1052:

in this case incentives still seem not be high enough.

839:

penetration of VRE, in the context of the German/Dutch/

687:

Construction of the Salt Tanks which provide efficient

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and balancing costs are believed to be insignificant.

3251:

Innovation in Concentrating Thermal Solar Power (CSP)

2444: 171:

can be used to refer to the unpredictable part, with

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Carbon Trust and UK Department of Trade and Industry

1093: 608:

will be less efficient than if they were running as

471: 3617:"How Norway became Europe's biggest power exporter" 987:, which are generally not directly accounted for. 758:

Geographic diversity and complementing technologies

3870: 933: 823: 515: 3480: 3445:Lovins, Amory; L. Hunter Lovins (November 1983). 3438: 3385: 3282:. Department of Economics, University of Victoria 3276:"The Economics of Wind Power with Energy Storage" 3267: 3016: 2391:(Report). World Energy Council. 2013. p. 21. 2158:Junling Huang; Xi Lu; Michael B. McElroy (2014). 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 5165: 2858:"Is Bitcoin Inherently Bad For The Environment?" 1912: 1637: 1633: 1631: 1611: 1249:. January 2008. pp. 3–5, 15. 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(2007). 1825: 570:supply, can be fulfilled by the use of 175:then referring to the predictable part. 14: 5166: 3751:The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency 3529: 2952: 2912: 2769:"2005 Integrated Energy Policy Report" 2623: 1707: 1017: 585: 4403: 3640: 3487:Environmental Research Communications 3145:Shan, Rui; Sun, Yaojin (2019-08-07). 1640:"renewable. rechargeable. remarkable" 305:monthly output over a two-year period 70:intermittent renewable energy sources 3803:Shumais, Mohamed; Mohamed, Ibrahim. 3564: 2413:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1638:Kuntz, Mark T.; Justin Dawe (2005). 1344: 1342: 1340: 937: 604:Generally thermal plants running as 223:capacity for the entire time period. 3900: 3847:"Shining a light on a smart island" 3253:, RenewableEnergyFocus.com website. 2095:The British Wind Energy Association 1716:"Wind Powers Has a Capacity Credit" 1132:List of energy storage power plants 1112:Combined cycle hydrogen power plant 798:Areas with existing high levels of 657:, stabilize the grid, increase the 551:may eventually make fossil fuels a 143:, availability of overcapacity and 131:generators, provide a challenge to 24: 5100:Renewable energy commercialization 4355: 4127: 4077:Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar 3447:"The Fragility of Domestic Energy" 2855: 2725:], by means of the EJP tarrif" 2435:p. 3. 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Archived from 1143: 1117:Cost of electricity by source 592:National Grid Reserve Service 506: 277: 5110:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 4908:Transmission system operator 4868:Mains electricity by country 4445:Automatic generation control 4366:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 3424:10.1016/j.renene.2013.07.022 2953:Rennie, Ellie (2021-11-07). 2477:. March 2008. 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RenewableEnergyWorld.com 2001:10.1680/cien.2005.158.2.66 1591:10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.019 1038: 925:Maximum penetration limits 827: 733:and stored for later use. 676: 672: 646:mining loads would reduce 589: 519: 441:with storage 56%. Thermal 267: 263: 204:intermittent power sources 122:Background and terminology 5143: 5118: 5105:Renewable Energy Payments 5028: 4965: 4927: 4781: 4718: 4629: 4594:Fossil fuel power station 4584: 4577: 4566: 4437: 3133:renewable energy sources. 3043:10.1109/TASC.2021.3096503 2755:December 8, 2008, at the 951:This section needs to be 715:Pumped storage hydropower 693:Solana Generating Station 482:Run of the river projects 62:Variable renewable energy 18:Intermittent power source 4888:Single-wire earth return 4828:Electrical busbar system 4485:Energy demand management 3725:Traffic Technology Today 3508:10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fb 3368:"Kinetic energy storage" 2451:RenewableEnergyWorld.com 2386:World Energy Perspective 2088:"Blowing Away the Myths" 1723:Risø National Laboratory 1620:. CESifo Working Paper. 1158:"Saving for a Rainy Day" 711:mechanisms can include: 639:Energy demand management 5019:Residual-current device 5009:Power system protection 4999:Generator interlock kit 4362:Sivaram, Varun (2018). 4318:www.nationalgrideso.com 3565:JUNE, WE (2022-01-27). 3239:University of Melbourne 2920:job growth as a result. 2292:Spanish 26 October 2011 1941:"The Base-Load Fallacy" 1240:"All Island Grid Study" 1127:Ground source heat pump 981:greenhouse gas emission 729:can be created through 615:Grids can contract for 545:Alternatives to burning 216:average capacity factor 4803:Distributed generation 4475:Electric power quality 4261:www.greentechmedia.com 3190:Cite journal requires 2998:Cite journal requires 2934:Cite journal requires 2043:www.greentechmedia.com 1913:Andrzej Strupczewski. 1885:10.1175/2007JAMC1538.1 767: 744:Thermal energy storage 707: 696: 689:thermal energy storage 655:electricity price risk 532: 497: 456: 439:solar parabolic trough 413: 405: 400:Daily solar output at 329: 306: 287: 58: 50: 5075:Fossil fuel phase-out 4843:Electricity retailing 4838:Electrical substation 4818:Electric power system 3956:Nature Communications 3877:www.independent.co.uk 2890:news.bloomberglaw.com 2518:www.darvill.clara.net 765: 702: 686: 529: 495: 452: 429:energy storage system 427:In the absence of an 411: 399: 340:Regions smaller than 312: 303:Erie Shores Wind Farm 301: 285: 80:sources that are not 56: 33: 4431:Electricity delivery 3851:MAN Energy Solutions 3155:10.2139/ssrn.3436872 2963:10.2139/ssrn.3961105 2648:Michael G. Richard: 1813:iea wind forecasting 293:wind power forecasts 5040:Availability factor 4992:Sulfur hexafluoride 4873:Overhead power line 4773:Virtual power plant 4748:Induction generator 4701:Sustainable biofuel 4510:Home energy storage 4500:Grid energy storage 4465:Droop speed control 4089:2022RWWS....9....1M 3968:2021NatCo..12.6146T 3537:The Washington Post 3499:2022ERCom...4e5011N 3416:2014REne...62..331H 3104:2021RSERv.13810520B 3035:2021ITAS...3196503E 2502:. 10 February 2011. 2471:"Solar Air Cooling" 2330:2020SoEn..195..703J 2179:2014REne...62..331H 2140:on January 11, 2007 2067:Energy Storage News 1867:2007JApMC..46.1701A 1583:2015RSERv..44..356W 1464:20.500.11850/373407 1447:2020REne..145.2271S 1392:2015WIREE...4..279R 1174:2011Sci...334..922C 1018:Examples by country 985:habitat destruction 979:such as pollution, 679:Grid energy storage 617:grid battery plants 586:Operational reserve 4914:Transmission tower 4525:Nameplate capacity 4393:2012-05-10 at the 4032:2007-07-06 at the 3879:. 13 August 2020. 2736:2008-04-04 at the 2706:Solar Power Portal 2688:Solar Power Portal 2288:2013-02-06 at the 1809:"IEA wind task 36" 1769:10.3390/en13133366 1676:2007-10-25 at the 841:Scandinavian grids 768: 708: 697: 533: 498: 457: 414: 406: 330: 307: 288: 199:nameplate capacity 59: 51: 5174:Power engineering 5161: 5160: 5065:Environmental tax 4945:Cascading failure 4714: 4713: 4550:Utility frequency 4373:978-0-262-03768-6 3828:. 27 January 2019 3764:978-1-903144-04-6 3657:978-92-9260-089-1 3149:. Rochester, NY. 3052:20.500.11782/2513 2957:. Rochester, NY. 2256:PEMBINA Institute 1898:David JC MacKay. 1861:(11): 1701–1717. 1788:Clean Energy Wire 1644:VRB Power Systems 1168:(6058): 922–924. 992:operating reserve 972: 971: 445:with storage 73%. 443:solar power tower 16:(Redirected from 5196: 5189:Renewable energy 5151: 5150: 5060:Energy subsidies 5014:Protective relay 4955:Rolling blackout 4582: 4581: 4572: 4540:Power-flow study 4480:Electrical fault 4424: 4417: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4377: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4324: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4300: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4267: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4212:Development Asia 4204: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4141: 4140: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4100: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4043: 4037: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4005: 3995: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3937: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3913: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3888: 3874: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3857: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3834: 3833: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3800: 3794: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3779: 3773: 3767:. 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Archived from 2538:"Wind and Waves" 2534: 2528: 2527: 2525: 2524: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2487: 2486: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2458: 2457: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2423: 2421: 2420: 2410: 2402: 2393: 2392: 2390: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2373: 2372: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2341: 2323: 2299: 2293: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2271: 2270: 2264: 2253: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2233:. Archived from 2227: 2221: 2216: 2210: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2167:Renewable Energy 2164: 2155: 2149: 2148: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2133:. Archived from 2128: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2110: 2109: 2103: 2092: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2075: 2074: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2050: 2049: 2035: 2029: 2028: 2026: 2025: 2011: 2005: 2004: 1984: 1978: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1963: 1962: 1956: 1945: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1926: 1910: 1904: 1903: 1895: 1889: 1888: 1878: 1852: 1843: 1837: 1836: 1829: 1823: 1822: 1820: 1819: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1780: 1774: 1773: 1771: 1747: 1741: 1740: 1738: 1737: 1731: 1725:. Archived from 1720: 1714:Giebel, Gregor. 1711: 1705: 1704: 1702: 1701: 1687: 1681: 1668: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1655: 1635: 1626: 1625: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1552: 1542: 1534: 1521: 1520: 1518: 1517: 1511: 1505:. Archived from 1500: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1466: 1435:Renewable Energy 1426: 1420: 1419: 1400:10.1002/wene.137 1371: 1365: 1364: 1362: 1361: 1346: 1335: 1334: 1332: 1331: 1325: 1314: 1306: 1300: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1290: 1279: 1271: 1265: 1264: 1262: 1261: 1255: 1244: 1236: 1227: 1226: 1224: 1223: 1208: 1202: 1201: 1153: 1106: 1101: 1100: 1078: 1063: 967: 964: 958: 946: 945: 938: 557:capacity factors 549:greenhouse gases 461:Nevada Solar One 404:in San Francisco 360:Capacity credit: 354:Dispatchability: 348:Capacity factor: 270:Renewable energy 94:hydroelectricity 78:renewable energy 45:power plant, in 40:parabolic trough 38:is a commercial 21: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5198: 5197: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5164: 5163: 5162: 5157: 5139: 5123: 5121: 5114: 5045:Capacity factor 5033: 5031: 5024: 5004:Numerical relay 4982:Circuit breaker 4970: 4968: 4961: 4923: 4863:Load management 4833:Electrical grid 4798:Demand response 4791: 4786: 4777: 4758:Microgeneration 4710: 4625: 4573: 4564: 4560:Vehicle-to-grid 4433: 4428: 4395:Wayback Machine 4384: 4374: 4358: 4356:Further reading 4353: 4343: 4341: 4336: 4335: 4331: 4322: 4320: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4298: 4296: 4278: 4274: 4265: 4263: 4255: 4254: 4250: 4241: 4239: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4217: 4215: 4206: 4205: 4201: 4192: 4190: 4180: 4176: 4163: 4161: 4152: 4151: 4147: 4138: 4136: 4128:Vetter, David. 4126: 4122: 4069: 4065: 4056: 4054: 4044: 4040: 4034:Wayback Machine 4025: 4021: 4013: 4009: 3948: 3944: 3935: 3933: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3911: 3909: 3899: 3895: 3886: 3884: 3869: 3868: 3864: 3855: 3853: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3831: 3829: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3786: 3777: 3775: 3771: 3765: 3754: 3746: 3739: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3705: 3703: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3680: 3678: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3647: 3639: 3635: 3626: 3624: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3601: 3599: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3576: 3574: 3563: 3559: 3550: 3548: 3528: 3524: 3479: 3475: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3449: 3443: 3439: 3399: 3393: 3386: 3377: 3375: 3366: 3365: 3361: 3352: 3350: 3341: 3340: 3336: 3327: 3325: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3285: 3283: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3232: 3228: 3219: 3217: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3191: 3189: 3180: 3179: 3143: 3139: 3084: 3080: 3015: 3011: 2999: 2997: 2988: 2987: 2951: 2947: 2935: 2933: 2924: 2923: 2911: 2907: 2894: 2892: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2866: 2864: 2854: 2850: 2791: 2787: 2778: 2776: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2757:Wayback Machine 2747: 2743: 2738:Wayback Machine 2717: 2713: 2708:. 2 April 2020. 2700: 2699: 2695: 2690:. 13 June 2019. 2682: 2681: 2677: 2668: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2656: 2647: 2643: 2634: 2632: 2622: 2618: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2596: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2578: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2547: 2545: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2520: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2484: 2482: 2469: 2468: 2464: 2455: 2453: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2418: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2403: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2370: 2368: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2300: 2296: 2290:Wayback Machine 2281: 2277: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2237:on 7 June 2012. 2229: 2228: 2224: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2202: 2162: 2156: 2152: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2126: 2120: 2116: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2072: 2070: 2061: 2060: 2056: 2047: 2045: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2023: 2021: 2013: 2012: 2008: 1985: 1981: 1973: 1969: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1943: 1937: 1933: 1924: 1922: 1911: 1907: 1896: 1892: 1876:10.1.1.475.4620 1850: 1844: 1840: 1831: 1830: 1826: 1817: 1815: 1807: 1806: 1802: 1793: 1791: 1782: 1781: 1777: 1748: 1744: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1718: 1712: 1708: 1699: 1697: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1678:Wayback Machine 1669: 1662: 1653: 1651: 1636: 1629: 1610: 1606: 1563: 1559: 1550: 1548: 1540: 1536: 1535: 1524: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1498: 1492: 1488: 1427: 1423: 1372: 1368: 1359: 1357: 1348: 1347: 1338: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1277: 1273: 1272: 1268: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1242: 1238: 1237: 1230: 1221: 1219: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1102: 1095: 1092: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1064: 1041: 1033:carbon negative 1025: 1020: 968: 962: 959: 956: 947: 943: 936: 927: 909:cost-effective. 869: 861:vehicle-to-grid 853: 851:Sector coupling 836: 826: 819:considerations. 760: 681: 675: 628:Demand response 625: 623:Demand response 594: 588: 568:renewable power 524: 518: 509: 490: 474: 435:Capacity factor 394: 382:Predictability: 280: 272: 266: 242:Capacity credit 211:Capacity factor 180:Dispatchability 145:sector coupling 141:demand response 124: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5202: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5184:Energy storage 5181: 5176: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5155: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5137: 5132: 5126: 5124: 5120:Statistics and 5119: 5116: 5115: 5113: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5070:Feed-in tariff 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5036: 5034: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5022: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4979: 4973: 4971: 4966: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4858:Interconnector 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4808:Dynamic demand 4805: 4800: 4794: 4792: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4738:Combined cycle 4735: 4730: 4724: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4635: 4633: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4590: 4588: 4579: 4575: 4574: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4515:Load-following 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4470:Electric power 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4434: 4427: 4426: 4419: 4412: 4404: 4398: 4397: 4383: 4382:External links 4380: 4379: 4378: 4372: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4329: 4305: 4272: 4248: 4224: 4199: 4174: 4145: 4120: 4063: 4038: 4019: 4007: 3942: 3918: 3893: 3862: 3838: 3813: 3795: 3784: 3763: 3737: 3712: 3700:POWER Magazine 3687: 3663: 3656: 3641:IRENA (2018). 3633: 3608: 3583: 3571:Eyes on Europe 3557: 3522: 3473: 3437: 3384: 3359: 3334: 3309: 3292: 3266: 3255: 3243: 3226: 3216:. 16 June 2022 3201: 3192:|journal= 3137: 3078: 3009: 3000:|journal= 2945: 2936:|journal= 2905: 2877: 2848: 2805:(3): 243–256. 2785: 2760: 2741: 2711: 2693: 2675: 2654: 2641: 2616: 2585: 2554: 2529: 2505: 2491: 2462: 2437: 2425: 2415:. October 2003 2394: 2377: 2353: 2294: 2275: 2240: 2222: 2211: 2200: 2150: 2114: 2079: 2069:. 20 July 2020 2054: 2030: 2006: 1979: 1967: 1931: 1905: 1890: 1838: 1824: 1800: 1775: 1742: 1706: 1695:www.ecowho.com 1682: 1660: 1627: 1604: 1557: 1522: 1486: 1421: 1386:(3): 279–289. 1366: 1336: 1301: 1266: 1228: 1203: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1108: 1107: 1091: 1088: 1080: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1065: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1040: 1037: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1011: 1010: 1007: 1003: 970: 969: 963:September 2019 950: 948: 941: 935: 932: 926: 923: 911: 910: 906: 887: 886: 883: 880: 873:primary energy 868: 865: 852: 849: 825: 822: 821: 820: 796: 792: 759: 756: 723:flow batteries 704:Learning curve 677:Main article: 674: 671: 624: 621: 606:peaking plants 587: 584: 553:stranded asset 517: 514: 508: 505: 489: 486: 473: 470: 447: 446: 432: 393: 390: 386: 385: 379: 369: 363: 357: 351: 345: 342:synoptic scale 338:Intermittence: 279: 276: 265: 262: 261: 260: 253:predictability 249:Foreseeability 246: 238: 224: 207: 191: 185: 176: 137:energy storage 133:grid operators 123: 120: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5201: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5171: 5169: 5154: 5146: 5145: 5142: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5117: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5090:Pigouvian tax 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5027: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4987:Earth-leakage 4985: 4984: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4964: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4928:Failure modes 4926: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4878:Power station 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4763:Rankine cycle 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4743:Cooling tower 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4717: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4586:Non-renewable 4583: 4580: 4576: 4571: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4505:Grid strength 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4460:Demand factor 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4420: 4418: 4413: 4411: 4406: 4405: 4402: 4396: 4392: 4389: 4386: 4385: 4375: 4369: 4365: 4360: 4359: 4339: 4333: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4262: 4258: 4252: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4213: 4209: 4203: 4189: 4188:www.usaid.gov 4185: 4178: 4171: 4159: 4158:www.usaid.gov 4155: 4149: 4135: 4131: 4124: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4053: 4049: 4042: 4035: 4031: 4028: 4023: 4016: 4011: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3946: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3866: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3827: 3823: 3817: 3806: 3799: 3793: 3788: 3774:on 2009-03-18 3770: 3766: 3760: 3753: 3752: 3744: 3742: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3701: 3697: 3691: 3677: 3673: 3667: 3659: 3653: 3646: 3645: 3637: 3622: 3618: 3612: 3597: 3593: 3587: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3538: 3533: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3493:(5): 055011. 3492: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3391: 3389: 3374:on 2022-02-19 3373: 3369: 3363: 3349:on 2022-02-19 3348: 3344: 3338: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3302: 3296: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3264: 3259: 3252: 3247: 3240: 3236: 3230: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3197: 3184: 3177: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3082: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3005: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2941: 2928: 2921: 2916: 2909: 2902: 2891: 2887: 2881: 2874: 2863: 2859: 2852: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2789: 2775:on 2019-06-01 2774: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2739: 2735: 2732: 2726: 2724: 2715: 2707: 2703: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2679: 2664: 2658: 2651: 2645: 2631: 2630:CleanTechnica 2627: 2620: 2606:on 2015-02-22 2602: 2595: 2589: 2575:on 2012-06-17 2571: 2564: 2558: 2544:on 2012-09-13 2543: 2539: 2533: 2519: 2515: 2509: 2501: 2495: 2481:on 2011-07-06 2480: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2434: 2429: 2414: 2407: 2401: 2399: 2387: 2381: 2367: 2363: 2357: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2298: 2291: 2287: 2284: 2279: 2265:on 2008-08-27 2261: 2257: 2250: 2244: 2236: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2215: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2154: 2136: 2132: 2125: 2118: 2104:on 2007-07-10 2100: 2096: 2089: 2083: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2020: 2016: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1976: 1971: 1957:on 2008-07-08 1953: 1949: 1942: 1935: 1921:on 2011-09-04 1920: 1916: 1909: 1901: 1894: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1842: 1835:. 2007-11-21. 1834: 1828: 1814: 1810: 1804: 1789: 1785: 1779: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1746: 1732:on 2009-03-18 1728: 1724: 1717: 1710: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1667: 1665: 1650:on 2009-01-15 1649: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1632: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1608: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1561: 1546: 1539: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1512:on 2014-07-01 1508: 1504: 1497: 1490: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1441:: 2271–2285. 1440: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1370: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1326:on 2022-08-07 1322: 1318: 1311: 1305: 1291:on 2010-09-19 1287: 1283: 1276: 1270: 1256:on 2009-03-18 1252: 1248: 1241: 1235: 1233: 1217: 1213: 1207: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1152: 1148: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1105: 1104:Energy portal 1099: 1094: 1077: 1062: 1053: 1049: 1047: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1023:Great Britain 1015: 1008: 1004: 1000: 999: 998: 995: 993: 988: 986: 982: 978: 977:externalities 966: 954: 949: 940: 939: 931: 922: 919: 915: 907: 904: 900: 896: 892: 891: 890: 884: 881: 878: 877: 876: 874: 864: 862: 857: 848: 844: 842: 835: 831: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 800:hydroelectric 797: 793: 790: 789: 788: 784: 781: 776: 773: 764: 755: 752: 750: 745: 741: 738: 734: 732: 728: 724: 719: 716: 712: 705: 701: 694: 690: 685: 680: 670: 666: 664: 660: 656: 653: 649: 645: 640: 636: 632: 629: 620: 618: 613: 611: 607: 602: 598: 593: 583: 579: 577: 573: 569: 564: 560: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 539: 528: 523: 513: 504: 502: 496:Types of tide 494: 485: 483: 479: 469: 466: 462: 455: 454:Dish Stirling 451: 444: 440: 436: 433: 430: 426: 423: 422: 421: 419: 410: 403: 402:AT&T Park 398: 389: 383: 380: 376: 374: 370: 367: 364: 361: 358: 355: 352: 349: 346: 343: 339: 336: 335: 334: 328: 324: 320: 316: 311: 304: 300: 296: 294: 284: 275: 271: 258: 254: 250: 247: 244: 243: 239: 236: 235: 230: 229: 228:Firm capacity 225: 221: 217: 213: 212: 208: 205: 201: 200: 195: 194:Nominal power 192: 189: 186: 182: 181: 177: 174: 170: 165: 161: 160:Intermittency 158: 157: 156: 152: 148: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 119: 117: 112: 110: 105: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 55: 48: 44: 43:solar thermal 41: 37: 32: 19: 5085:Net metering 5032:and policies 4950:Power outage 4919:Utility pole 4883:Pumped hydro 4789:distribution 4784:Transmission 4733:Cogeneration 4554: 4535:Power factor 4363: 4342:. 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