Intellectual property

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they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation. The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.

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vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients' access to medicines, Internet users' access to information, farmers' access to seeds, programmers' access to source codes or students' access to scientific articles. However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.

1778: 1061:: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind, it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas. Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production. 366: 1718:

first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.

1595: 1815:(MPAA). In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property. These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority. 927:

property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions". This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the

1384: 613:, in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own ... as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." The statement that "discoveries are ... property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years." In Europe, 1432:

differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights". Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that, "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."

93: 1082:: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own". European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality". Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality. 453:

Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.

988:(AFTA) found that "nonprofit arts and culture organizations and their audiences generated $ 151.7 billion in economic activity—$ 73.3 billion in spending by the organizations, which leveraged an additional $ 78.4 billion in event-related spending by their audiences." This spending supported 2.6 million jobs and generated $ 29.1 billion in local, state and federal tax revenue." 224,000 audience members and over 16,000 organizations in all 50 states and Puerto Rico were surveyed over an 18-month period to collect the data. 794:) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods. 1368: 7791: 8839: 7805: 1175:, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy". In the United States, while copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright. Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The 472: 5989: 1328: 1089:(1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases". 6046: 2642:

Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman domination; The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..." in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).

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of time. Supporters argue that because IP laws allow people to protect their original ideas and prevent unauthorized copying, creators derive greater individual economic benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and thus have more economic incentives to create them in the first place. Advocates of IP believe that these economic incentives and legal protections stimulate

1660:, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition. 1179:, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement. There are 652:

controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries. Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.

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costs. In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their

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Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a "one-fits-all" protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with

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Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an Account of

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to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify

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that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other

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Supporters of intellectual property laws often describe their main purpose as encouraging the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to certain information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period

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Women have historically been underrepresented in the creation and ownership of intellectual property covered by intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women composed only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020. This disparity is the result

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If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every

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issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human

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and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of

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in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of

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system. By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility. The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of

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The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue

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By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual

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The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because

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Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the

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magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the

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prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights. They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create

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Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states

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Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may

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Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate

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is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws originated separately, evolved

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to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement.

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in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or to gather data to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent infringement cases are handled

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One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to

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includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist—notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not

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According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift". Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a

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Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the

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On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have

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nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can in theory "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted.

1971:

The global increase in intellectual property protection is sometimes referred to as a global IP ratchet in which a spiral of bilateral and multilateral agreements result in growing obligations where new agreements never recede from existing standards and very often further heighten them.

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is more than US $ 5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in

632:. Historically, therefore, legal protection was granted only when necessary to encourage invention, and it was limited in time and scope. This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement. 1749:

Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against

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exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug. "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".

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As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms, and in the United States,

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have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce DRM systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the

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one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his

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notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."

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to set their own IP standards. Developing countries' lack of bargaining power relative to the developed countries driving the global IP ratchet means that developing countries' ability to regulate intellectual property to advance domestic interests is eroding.

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The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or

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for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process, and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be

8329: 4413:

Birgitte Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov

1842:, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based DRM tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the 771:

to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.

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These exclusive rights allow intellectual property owners to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated

714:). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications. 2773:: "The protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition." 909:

can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for

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Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder, i.e. from the patent owner. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the

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rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits. In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted

1043:, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author". Although the relationship between intellectual property and 1067:: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the 931:, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of 870:

is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.

514:"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property ( 432:

in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in most of the world's

3564:

Ronald V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996),

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Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights", in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.),

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3584:

3574:

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Farah, Paolo and Elena Cima. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues". In Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.),

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intellectual works". Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.

3298: 604:

obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law

588:, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the 732:

is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an

566: 1448:

benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers. Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and

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Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets. "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72% more

577: 4306: 1871:, are designed to counter this. Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for 1153:

under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).

3857: 3362: 3116: 5171:

Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, 22 October 2012. Notices. PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and 3rd column for description of the problem.

562: 3084:

Farah, Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo (15 March 2014). "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of Intellectual Property Rights".

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BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.

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that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The best-known types are

4815: 996:

The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The

749:. To enrich the body of knowledge and to stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public. 5946:

Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.

2251: 1886:

which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.

4603: 558: 5933:

Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004.

1801: 1031:

measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."

8670: 6098: 5915:

Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389

1125:, IP has been a consideration in punishment of the aggressor through trade sanctions, has been proposed as a method to prevent future wars of aggression involving 5887: 4032: 2689: 2671: 2653: 1245:), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, 495:

and ingenious device, not previously made", provided it was useful. By and large, these principles still remain the basic principles of current patent laws. The

5888:

Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.

3232: 1838:, which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company 1583: 1808:(copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world. 1683:

which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".

1674:(WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between respecting and implementing current intellectual property systems and other human rights. In 2001 the UN 1121:

As of 2011, trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $ 600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade. During the

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Make no mistake: the headline rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting.

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in 1769 used the phrase. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.

157: 1882:

ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any

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Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the

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the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original). Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is

1013:(ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally". 3699: 1878:

In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the

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of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original.

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A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand").

1298: 2894: 1621:), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that ever-expansive monopolies in the form of 6304: 5824: 5037:"Rip, mix, burn ... sue ... ad infinitum: The effects of deterrence vs voluntary cooperation on non-commercial online copyright infringing behaviour" 2009: 1960: 1694: 1675: 1578:

The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an

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stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".

815:. The variety must, amongst others, be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered. 4877:"Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States Intellectual Property Laws" 5612: 5459: 5405: 5934: 5656:

Farah, Paolo Davide and Tremolada Riccardo. "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs". In

3123: 1927: 352: 4314: 3370: 3323: 2815: 4789: 3375: 3131: 2215: 8886: 5441: 5271: 4588: 2994: 5912:

Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128

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EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.

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The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions

8247: 6091: 3873: 17: 5557: 4236: 1495:

to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and

8507: 5719: 4902: 1959:

of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within

142: 5606: 2469:(1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual Property.") 3465: 2085: 965: 2478: 600:(1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal 7857: 5601:. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". 2958: 1831: 5146: 3024: 2953: 2690:"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275" 2672:"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275" 2654:"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275" 7772: 6269: 5939:

Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007.

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Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:

573: 4364: 1963:, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons. 6084: 5881: 4174: 3940: 3901: 2989: 2783: 1860: 1797: 1769:

and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.

1571: 1392: 1263:, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In 1180: 260: 5374: 4706: 1286:

The international governance of IP involves multiple overlapping institutions and forums. There is no overall rule-making body.

8881: 6050: 5072: 4139: 3213: 2528: 1930:

timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above, and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:

1746:, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law. 565:(1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the 491:

is usually considered to be the earliest codified patent system in the world. It states that patents might be granted for "any

3871:

International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions

3164: 1408:

ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like

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Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23–44.

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Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.

1040: 218: 5552:

Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation",

3262: 628:

Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage

8458: 5674:

Farah, Paolo Davide and Tremolada Riccardo. "Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage".

703: 275: 177: 42: 8438: 8081: 6346: 5954:

The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System

5778:. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity", 2004. New York: 5294: 5085: 1176: 1010: 928: 345: 6061: 5786: 4482:

Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio. Nov. 2003

1777: 1183:, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the 8876: 2748:"WTO | intellectual property (TRIPS) - Responding to least developed countries' special needs in intellectual property" 1343: 1256: 1247: 1234: 1112: 742: 1348: 1304:

Bilateral and multi-lateral agreements often establish IP requirements above the requirements of the TRIPS Agreement.

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Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin", Variety (3 August 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.

3678: 2151: 2062: 8853: 8412: 7976: 7312: 7181: 6279: 6057: 5829: 2708:"Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective" 2426:(1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.") 1920: 1843: 1755: 1122: 307: 132: 2588: 2275: 572:

The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the

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4827: 3029: 2927: 2867: 2367: 978: 365: 255: 4388: 3299:"Groundbreaking Arts & Economic Prosperity 6 Study Reveals Impact of the Arts on Communities Across America" 8402: 7274: 6908: 6443: 5844: 2813:

WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection

1765:, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as 1713:

and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:

1485: 1230: 434: 338: 4480:'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On? 8896: 8433: 7850: 6627: 6284: 6152: 5940: 4093: 3435: 1935: 1848: 1297:(WTO) must comply with. A member's non-compliance with the TRIPS Agreement may be grounds for suit under the 1098: 70: 7434: 6913: 6379: 5899:

Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality"

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Bettig, R. V. (1996). "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright". In R. V. Bettig,

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property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.

63: 6004: 4858: 4662: 3891:"The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development" 2859: 2252:"The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth: Theory and Evidence" 1781:

Expansion of U.S. copyright law (assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)

8708: 8150: 8023: 7429: 5768: 5391: 4718:

Chapman, Audrey R. (December 2002). "The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection".

1709:, argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates 4479: 2842: 8891: 8187: 8165: 7404: 6903: 5757: 5737: 5477: 3845: 546: 5278:. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal. 30 August 2016. Archived from 2517:

1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West. L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414

8281: 7487: 6593: 6493: 6389: 6211: 6142: 5715: 5322: 2443: 2400: 1790: 1496: 1226: 1210:

Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.

1028: 808: 803: 162: 38: 5147:"Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property" 4949:

Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing

3337: 2812: 1804:. With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in 1647:

has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:

609:

The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case

8118: 7843: 7282: 7264: 6448: 6351: 5756:

Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy", April 2001.

5212: 4842: 3969: 2210: 1508: 1420: 1294: 1293:(TRIPS). The TRIPS Agreement sets minimum international standards for IP which every member of the 945: 746: 685: 462: 7616: 5279: 5248: 2770: 369:

Intellectual property laws such as trademark laws forbid the sale of infringing goods like these "

8324: 8291: 8071: 7657: 7444: 6933: 6918: 6579: 6289: 6184: 6127: 4567: 4119: 4001:

China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice

3127: 2448: 2437: 2405: 2394: 2014: 1938:, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes. 1630: 1317: 1264: 787: 781: 669: 538: 484: 167: 137: 127: 5683: 5665: 5528: 5233: 4546:"Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities" 4208: 3870: 1772: 1594: 1477:

on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.

8768: 8651: 8397: 8366: 8182: 8086: 8064: 7712: 7697: 6399: 6384: 6259: 6226: 6132: 4244: 2963: 1999: 1835: 1751: 1200: 1162: 985: 238: 5761: 5036: 4897: 4876: 3829: 3097: 2466: 2423: 2174: 1761:

Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the

8848: 8821: 8801: 8793: 8645: 8417: 7816: 7409: 7087: 6394: 6299: 6264: 4990:""Fair use is legal use": Copyright negotiations and strategies in the fan-vidding community" 2456: 2413: 1994: 1739: 1633:

harm the public interest. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that

1618: 1614: 1599: 842: 496: 466: 6029: 5191:

The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States

5113: 3713: 3700:

Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures

3547: 3475: 3401: 2107: 1926:

In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the

1923:(BEPS) tools, which the OECD estimates costs $ 100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues. 1219: 8684: 8018: 7880: 7537: 6883: 6339: 6334: 6314: 5617: 4818:, "LewRockwell.com", published 2004-01-20, archived 15 April 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018. 2133: 2044: 1313: 1206: 677: 5154: 4951:. CSCW '15. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 116–129. 8: 8807: 8495: 8490: 8177: 8091: 8033: 7966: 7692: 6832: 6749: 6254: 6122: 5839: 5204: 4705:

Staff, UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Geneva, 12–30 November 2001.

4090: 4061: 3034: 2967: 2747: 1710: 1622: 1512: 1466: 1337: 1138: 1129:, and has caused concern about stifling innovation by keeping patent information secret. 974: 850: 812: 449: 228: 5994: 5133: 3436:"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States" 3402:"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States" 640:

author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of

8774: 8098: 7895: 7507: 7166: 7020: 7005: 6983: 6727: 6707: 6660: 6650: 6572: 6518: 6422: 5949: 5190: 5129: 5017: 4970: 4744: 4631:"Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI" 4575: 4520: 4493: 4452: 4425: 4004: 3817: 3741: 3615: 2201:"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the 2004: 1976: 1851:. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the 1702: 1383: 596:

The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by

528: 522: 488: 312: 122: 102: 5168: 4182: 2999: 2791: 2086:"Intellectual, industrial and commercial property | Fact Sheets on the European Union" 1875:

reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.

1652:

entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.

8843: 8567: 8552: 8172: 8038: 7988: 7983: 7492: 7414: 7252: 6995: 6990: 6943: 6868: 6862: 6702: 6620: 6453: 6216: 6070: 5965: 5923: 5859: 5813: 5805: 5801: 5751: 5722: 5698: 5679: 5661: 5643: 5392:"A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act" 5341:"Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting" 5054: 5009: 4960: 4923: 4892: 4774: 4525: 4457: 4340: 4008: 3946: 3825: 3821: 3782: 3745: 3733: 3674: 3667: 3271: 3203: 3093: 3064: 2933: 2873: 2729: 2596: 2373: 2346: 2321: 2281: 2147: 2058: 2019: 1947: 1766: 1706: 1481: 1149: 644:

offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".

597: 589: 92: 5581: 5021: 4974: 4761:

Sonderholm, Jorn (2010). "Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights".

4746:

The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization

4146: 3194: 2536: 1681:

The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization

1444:

market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.

1251: 8744: 8736: 8664: 8361: 8301: 8054: 7940: 7930: 7915: 7885: 7497: 7464: 6963: 6827: 6822: 6787: 6533: 6478: 6438: 6319: 6157: 5907:

Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity

5851: 5743: 5639: 5621: 5478:"What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean – and how they would hurt Ireland" 5044: 5001: 4952: 4884: 4770: 4727: 4642: 4515: 4505: 4447: 4437: 4204: 4170: 3809: 3772: 3725: 3619: 3607: 3497: 3156: 2719: 2139: 2050: 1901: 1883: 1722: 1698: 1626: 1551: 1470: 1424: 1205:

Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or

1168: 1086: 846: 834: 738: 492: 223: 4647: 4630: 4494:"Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs)" 1260: 1242: 1238: 935:

derived from this possibility. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.

8787: 8609: 8599: 8575: 8512: 8378: 8334: 8235: 7935: 7920: 7746: 7719: 7707: 7687: 7621: 7599: 7579: 7574: 7554: 7419: 7399: 7394: 7297: 7257: 6968: 6893: 6817: 6802: 6722: 6565: 6528: 6363: 6221: 6137: 6076: 5877: 5790: 5775: 5628:, eds. (pp. 408–439). 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d. 5577: 5573: 4917: 4790:"Libertarian Views of Intellectual Property: Rothbard, Tucker, Spooner, and Rand" 4607: 4563: 4426:"Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines" 4336: 4126: 4064: 3877: 3842: 3281: 3190: 3186: 2819: 2369:

The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911

2219: 1879: 1743: 1634: 1569:, have also found supporters, especially among those who have used the backronym 1488: 1457: 1440: 1436: 1290: 1255:, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, 1172: 1005:

encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.

958: 954: 932: 768: 707: 516: 500: 476: 233: 5354: 1167:

557:) to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the 8692: 8463: 8446: 8383: 8356: 8339: 8028: 7961: 7925: 7905: 7823: 7631: 7549: 7138: 7104: 7055: 7040: 6812: 6717: 6697: 6687: 6523: 6488: 6463: 6204: 6177: 6167: 5598: 5594: 5588:

Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology

5567: 5305: 4307:"Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties" 4302: 3652:

The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner

3518: 2620: 2206: 2042: 1638: 1145: 1126: 581: 280: 243: 172: 117: 4545: 3729: 3611: 2724: 2707: 2318:

Patents, trademarks, and related rights: national and international protection

1519:

and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term

8870: 8782: 8749: 8547: 8527: 8478: 8155: 8135: 8076: 7993: 7890: 7677: 7636: 7522: 7502: 7474: 7424: 7389: 7363: 7358: 7351: 7302: 7242: 7082: 7072: 7030: 6953: 6948: 6878: 6837: 6761: 6513: 6238: 6065: 5869: 5783: 5779: 5711: 5058: 5013: 5005: 4258: 4033:"If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?" 3918: 3786: 3737: 2733: 2600: 1916: 1872: 1856: 1773:

Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws

1762: 1582:(IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and 1051:

that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.

1020:(price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries". 370: 302: 197: 6468: 5894:'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,' 5635:

El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas

4956: 2505:'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,' 1657: 1278:

right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.

706:

for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and

8754: 8730: 8697: 8678: 8659: 8614: 8587: 8580: 8562: 8500: 8276: 8230: 8225: 8128: 8113: 7956: 7809: 7559: 7527: 7482: 7220: 7215: 7186: 7099: 7077: 7045: 6978: 6958: 6852: 6792: 6782: 6734: 6692: 6670: 6613: 6548: 6473: 6309: 6294: 6231: 6189: 6172: 5798:

Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code

4989: 4731: 4674: 4529: 4461: 4267: 4028: 3801: 3412: 3238: 3112: 1915:

Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and

1805: 1663: 1603: 1388: 1376: 1367: 1271: 1188: 1044: 969: 886: 880: 689: 550: 425: 328: 297: 292: 265: 187: 147: 5822:

Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development".

5049: 4944: 4943:

Fiesler, Casey; Feuston, Jessica L.; Bruckman, Amy S. (28 February 2015).

4510: 4442: 3777: 3760: 2869:

Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights

8722: 8522: 8407: 8296: 8271: 8259: 8240: 8123: 8103: 8013: 7910: 7731: 7672: 7662: 7459: 7454: 7292: 7193: 7109: 7068: 7035: 7000: 6923: 6847: 6797: 6712: 6543: 6538: 6358: 6329: 6194: 5340: 4915: 4888: 3813: 3802:"The War in Ukraine Raises Questions About Patents for Secret Inventions" 3233:"Why Chemotherapy That Costs $ 70,000 in the U.S. Costs $ 2,500 in India" 1690: 1644: 1017: 902: 867: 862: 694: 681: 585: 287: 213: 182: 5506: 5292:

Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.

4094:"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing" 2143: 2131: 2054: 1637:

are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like

1589: 567:

United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property

553:

granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (

511:

respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.

8815: 8702: 8319: 7900: 7795: 7724: 7604: 7542: 7287: 7208: 7203: 7161: 7143: 7131: 7092: 6938: 6928: 6888: 6873: 6857: 6807: 6744: 6739: 6324: 6147: 5360:. Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW). October 2013. p. 3. 3970:

The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement

3858:

The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?

1267: 636: 629: 504: 442: 380: 5355:"Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms" 4363:

Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, 6 January 2011.

8716: 8517: 8468: 8451: 8389: 8371: 8145: 8059: 7702: 7667: 7609: 7584: 7449: 7346: 7334: 7319: 7307: 7235: 7153: 7126: 7010: 6199: 3598:

Spinello, Richard A. (January 2007). "Intellectual property rights".

2138:. WIPO publication. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 1989: 1868: 1617:, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of 1555: 911: 905:

which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a

830: 824: 764: 758: 733: 699: 673: 665: 508: 421: 417: 248: 192: 112: 7790: 5920:

Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks

5687: 5669: 5651: 5564:

Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property

2892: 1270:

jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an

8604: 8537: 8473: 8286: 8264: 8160: 8108: 7866: 7751: 7736: 7439: 7324: 7121: 6665: 6274: 5893: 5835: 4589:

Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium

4289: 4040: 3662: 2504: 2491: 1919:. IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance 1864: 1827: 1819: 1511:

jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as

1492: 1461: 1449: 1275: 1184: 1093: 906: 409: 324: 270: 107: 5492:"New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure" 4467:

most pressing challenges facing international policy makers today.

3443: 2299: 2297: 1880:

Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

1834:, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against 1291:

Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

1106: 471: 8557: 8351: 8344: 8209: 8005: 7641: 7589: 7569: 7517: 7329: 7247: 7063: 7025: 6973: 6586: 6483: 5193:

Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)

4601:

Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector

3047:

Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders

2343:

The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA

1839: 1289:

One of the most important aspects of global IP governance is the

1047:

is complex, there are moral arguments for intellectual property.

898: 890: 641: 429: 4916:

Dariusz Jemielniak; Aleksandra Przegalinska (18 February 2020).

4684: 3524: 3400:

Shapiro, Robert J.; Pham, Nam D.; Blinder, Alan S. (July 2007).

3270:. Newport, Wales: The Intellectual Property Office. p. 15. 3110: 2435: 2392: 8532: 8484: 8253: 7741: 7594: 7339: 7230: 7225: 7171: 6842: 6045: 5505:

WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (8 March 2021).

2294: 1731: 1372: 1068: 894: 838: 729: 723: 711: 661: 614: 413: 390: 152: 5527:

WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (21 May 2021).

4065:"Did You Say "Intellectual Property"? It's a Seductive Mirage" 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2222:, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4. 1491:

have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect

1391:

in reference to the "in popular culture" rationale behind the

8621: 8217: 7682: 7626: 7532: 7373: 7176: 6675: 4568:"Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work" 4175:"copyright and globalization in the age of computer networks" 3942:

Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives

3059:

Merges, Robert P.; Menell, Peter S.; Lemley, Mark A. (2007).

1966: 1823: 1515:, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included 1399: 1079: 811:

or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a

635:

The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further.

601: 394: 5236:

Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239

4945:"Understanding Copyright Law in Online Creative Communities" 4909: 2784:"Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property" 1725:

once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:

1613:

Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the

1229:. The United States also has federal law in the form of the 968:

approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the

7835: 7564: 7512: 7368: 6766: 6682: 5602: 5553: 5406:"Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland" 3702:

The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117

3470: 3331: 3117:"Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform. A Report for Innova-P2" 3063:(4th rev. ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 29. 2225: 1855:

of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting

1024: 977:

and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the

445:

and contribute to technological progress of certain kinds.

428:. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in 5959: 5620:"Intellectual Property Rights". In George G. Brenkert and 3714:"Russia-Ukraine War and WTO's National Security Exception" 3434:

Shapiro, Robert; Pham, Nam; Blinder, Alan S. (July 2007).

1387:"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling 692:. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of 62:"Intellectual Property" redirects here. For the film, see 8594: 6636: 5856:

Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright

5460:"EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here" 3761:"Leveraging Intellectual Property to Prevent Nuclear War" 1830:, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The 385: 375: 8671:

The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State

5611:

Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007.

3900:. UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin. p. 2. Archived from 2043:

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2016).

1453:

terminating this right after a certain period of time".

698:

exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called

545:

The German equivalent was used with the founding of the

1523:

has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term

6605: 5734:

Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth

5507:"Gender Equality, Diversity and Intellectual Property" 5442:"Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front" 5295:"Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance" 4942: 4663:

Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?

2479:'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)' 2463:

Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence

2345:(1. publ ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 1953: 5169:

Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization

4677:"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview" 3972:

Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518

3521:"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview" 3519:

WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization.

3458: 3185: 1590:

Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws

5272:"Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland" 5114:

A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?

4491: 4423: 2621:"Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright")" 853:

from similar products or services of other traders.

5369: 5367: 4629:Baten, Jörg; Bianchi, Nicola; Moser, Petra (2017). 4375: 3334:

Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use

1822:, and particularly distributed search engines like 1335:It has been suggested that this article should be 6106: 5249:"Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago" 5247: 4543: 4231: 4229: 3666: 3433: 3399: 3231: 3061:Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age 3058: 2806: 2563:"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding" 2492:"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding" 2436: 2393: 1000:gives two reasons for intellectual property laws: 536:dates to this time, when a piece published in the 5962:The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It 5896:Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001 5825:Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 5073:DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms 4675:WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization. 4628: 4378:run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE) 3800:Matthews, Duncan; Ostapenko, Hanna (2023-01-31). 3799: 2919: 2556: 2554: 2365: 2180:. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2132:World Intellectual Property Organization (2021). 2010:Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property 1975:The global IP ratchet has limited the freedom of 1889: 1676:Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 623:Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs 8868: 5830:journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu 5424:"Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech" 5364: 3593: 3591: 3554:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2212:Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding 1863:, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some 1213: 5658:Transnational Dispute Management, Special Issue 4226: 1538:have emerged among those who argue against the 1107:Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement 917: 59:Ownership of creative expressions and processes 5750:(pp. 1–53), vol. 15, no. 2, Spring 2001. 5692: 5232:Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) 4756: 4754: 4301: 4263:""Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism" 4129:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. 4083: 3938: 3371:Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada 3083: 2551: 2303: 2238: 503:(1710) are seen as the origins of the current 7851: 6621: 6092: 6071:Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts 5633: 3882: 3588: 3466:"Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems" 2925: 2320:. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. 2197: 2195: 1734:at mine, receives light without darkening me. 1456:Law professor, writer and political activist 346: 5714:. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". 5697:(6th ed.). New York: Foundation Press. 5138: 4027: 3673:(paperback 2nd ed.). New York: Signet. 3427: 3260: 2895:"Understanding Copyright and Related Rights" 2507:Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001 2481:Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001 2049:. World Intellectual Property Organization. 6064:legislature and covers media laws in their 5693:Goldstein, Paul; Reese, R. Anthony (2008). 4816:"What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist" 4751: 4492:Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). 4424:Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). 4335: 3889:Panethiere, Darrell (July–September 2005). 3498:"The Universal Declaration of Human Rights" 2872:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. 2865: 2830: 2828: 2372:. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. 2340: 966:United States Patent & Trademark Office 775: 143:Integrated circuit layout design protection 23: 7858: 7844: 6628: 6614: 6099: 6085: 5960:Burk, Dan L. & Mark A. Lemley (2009). 5858:, 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. 5202: 4760: 4341:"1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak" 3888: 3856:Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. 2893:World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2560: 2341:Teich, Mikuláš; Porter, Roy, eds. (1996). 2192: 1967:Global IP ratchet and developing countries 1281: 353: 339: 24: 5918:Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. 5580:. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. 5494:. Tax Justice Network. 11 September 2017. 5245: 5048: 4896: 4646: 4519: 4509: 4451: 4441: 4292:Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53 3932: 3776: 3694: 3692: 3690: 2959:United States Patent and Trademark Office 2723: 2529:"Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP" 2280:. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 33–35. 1832:Recording Industry Association of America 1793:have been patentable for over a century. 1194: 1156: 1078:: this argument is based on a quote from 845:that distinguishes a particular trader's 532:(1774)). The first known use of the term 7773:History of the American legal profession 6270:Business models for open-source software 5686:, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at 5333: 5134:Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003) 4562: 4257: 4169: 3945:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 211. 3597: 3104: 2825: 2203:World Intellectual Property Organization 2108:"What are intellectual property rights?" 1776: 1695:differing views on intellectual property 1672:World Intellectual Property Organization 1593: 1382: 1366: 574:World Intellectual Property Organization 470: 364: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 5882:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5304:. UCLA Law Review. 2015. Archived from 5264: 5144: 4787: 4717: 4118:Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. 4003:. Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series. 3964: 3962: 3939:Correa, Carlos Maria; Li, Xuan (2009). 3261:Brassell, Martin; King, Kelvin (2013). 3229: 3179: 2273: 1861:limitations and exceptions to copyright 1393:Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act 1181:limitations and exceptions to copyright 261:Limitations and exceptions to copyright 14: 8869: 5732:Greenhalgh, C. and M. Rogers, (2010). 5626:The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics 4987: 4874: 4707:Human rights and intellectual property 4054: 3758: 3711: 3687: 3324:"The Concept of Intellectual Property" 3161:Stanford Copyright and Fair Use Center 2705: 1132: 938: 767:gives the creator of an original work 487:of March 19, 1474, established by the 7839: 6609: 6459:Organization for Transformative Works 6080: 5286: 5246:Toplensky, Rochelle (11 March 2018). 5234:Expanding Global Trademark Regulation 5167:Library of Congress Copyright Office 5035:Allen, Peter James (24 August 2008). 5034: 4720:Journal of International Economic Law 3998: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3545: 3363:"Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement" 2366:Brad, Sherman; Lionel Bently (1999). 2315: 1813:Motion Picture Association of America 1754:of indigenous knowledge, for which a 1417:copyright, patents, trademarks, etc. 1041:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 704:supplementary protection certificates 660:Intellectual property rights include 219:Artificial intelligence and copyright 8887:Economics of the arts and literature 5676:Journal of Intellectual Property Law 5526: 5504: 5484: 5347: 5315: 4544:Daniel B. Ravicher (6 August 2008). 4203: 4089: 4060: 3959: 3860:ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004 3661: 2771:Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention 2457:participating institution membership 2414:participating institution membership 1607:that bears little or no restrictions 1502: 1321: 1225:have nearly universally adopted the 1220:Trade secret § Misappropriation 949:respective writings and discoveries. 790:(sometimes called "design right" or 178:Supplementary protection certificate 5746:. "Against Intellectual Property". 5343:. University of Tilburg. June 2017. 5071:Council for Responsible Genetics, " 4988:Freund, Katharina (1 August 2016). 4661:Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite. 3552:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3474:. 19 September 2007. Archived from 2932:. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. 2706:Roisah, Kholis (26 December 2017). 2175:"Understanding Industrial Property" 1954:Gender gap in intellectual property 1011:Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 998:WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook 56: 5922:. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, 5556:Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. 4905:from the original on Nov 26, 2023. 3975: 3219:from the original on Jan 22, 2024. 3033:. 28 November 2014. Archived from 2990:"What is a trade mark (or brand)?" 2966:. 13 December 2015. Archived from 2954:"Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?" 2205:(WIPO) by the United Nations." in 1344:Criticism of intellectual property 1299:WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism 1113:Intellectual property infringement 991: 984:An October 2023 study released by 797: 57: 8908: 6757:Restitution and unjust enrichment 5980: 4857:Boyle, James (14 October 2005). " 3230:Bollyky, Thomas (10 April 2013). 3167:from the original on Aug 26, 2017 2900:. WIPO. p. 8. Archived from 2687: 2669: 2651: 2046:Understanding Industrial Property 8838: 8837: 7804: 7803: 7789: 6280:Commercial use of copyleft works 6058:European Audiovisual Observatory 6044: 5987: 5769:Scope and Interplay of IP Rights 5605:Working Paper 11516. July 2005. 5520: 5498: 5470: 5452: 5434: 5416: 5398: 5384: 5260:from the original on 2022-12-10. 5239: 5226: 5196: 5183: 5174: 5161: 5122: 5106: 5090: 5078: 5065: 5028: 4981: 4936: 4868: 4851: 4836: 4821: 4808: 4781: 4775:10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x 4738: 4711: 4699: 4668: 4655: 4635:Journal of Development Economics 4622: 3086:Transnational Dispute Management 2836:"What is Intellectual Property?" 2316:Ladas, Stephen Pericles (1975). 1921:base erosion and profit shifting 1844:Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1400:The term "intellectual property" 1326: 1148:of the granted patent. There is 1123:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine 1023:A joint research project of the 874: 308:Outline of intellectual property 133:Indigenous intellectual property 91: 69:. For the Waterparks album, see 7768:History of the legal profession 6260:Alternative compensation system 5964:. University of Chicago Press. 5660:, vol. 11, iss. 2, March 2014. 5480:. thejournal.ie. 24 March 2018. 5375:"BEPS Project Background Brief" 4613: 4594: 4582: 4556: 4536: 4485: 4472: 4417: 4407: 4381: 4369: 4357: 4329: 4295: 4282: 4251: 4197: 4163: 4132: 4112: 4071:. Free Software Foundation, Inc 4021: 3911: 3863: 3850: 3836: 3793: 3752: 3712:Ranjan, Prabhash (2022-07-17). 3705: 3655: 3646: 3636: 3626: 3578: 3568: 3558: 3539: 3512: 3490: 3393: 3355: 3316: 3291: 3254: 3223: 3149: 3077: 3052: 3030:Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt 3017: 2982: 2946: 2886: 2776: 2764: 2740: 2699: 2681: 2663: 2645: 2635: 2613: 2581: 2521: 2510: 2497: 2484: 2472: 2429: 2386: 2359: 2334: 2309: 1580:intellectual monopoly privilege 1572:digital restrictions management 1427:argues that, although the term 1059:Natural Rights/Justice Argument 1039:According to Article 27 of the 979:UK Intellectual Property Office 8403:Right of way (property access) 6444:Electronic Frontier Foundation 5956:. New York: Basic Books, 2004. 5845:New York University Law Review 5842:, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. 5748:Journal of Libertarian Studies 5566:(pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: 5529:"Closing the Gender Gap in IP" 3202:. Cambridge University Press. 2277:Safeguarding Intangible Assets 2267: 2244: 2167: 2135:What is Intellectual Property? 2125: 2100: 2078: 2036: 1890:Use in corporate tax avoidance 1231:Economic Espionage Act of 1996 1065:Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument 961:, dispute this justification. 953:" "Some commentators, such as 856: 555:Schutz des geistigen Eigentums 13: 1: 8882:Social information processing 6285:Commons-based peer production 6153:Legal aspects of file sharing 5394:. Tax Foundation. 3 May 2018. 5145:Masnick, Mike (21 May 2007). 4830:Against Intellectual property 4648:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.002 4290:Against Intellectual Property 4237:"Against perpetual copyright" 4120:Against intellectual monopoly 3806:Queen Mary Law Research Paper 3669:Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal 3196:Against intellectual monopoly 2589:"The liquidity of innovation" 2494:(Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5. 2025: 1936:Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 1905:European Commissioner for Tax 1656:In support of that argument, 1307: 1214:Trade secret misappropriation 1099:Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal 818: 584:. According to legal scholar 7865: 6380:Access to Knowledge movement 6035:Resources in other libraries 5101:Copyright Term Extension Act 4859:Protecting the public domain 3374:. p. 24. Archived from 3242:. The Atlantic Monthly Group 2995:Intellectual Property Office 2304:Goldstein & Reese (2008) 2274:Moberly, Michael D. (2014). 2239:Goldstein & Reese (2008) 2030: 1853:Conditional Access Directive 1707:right-wing of libertarianism 1602:champions the production of 1480:Entrepreneur and politician 918:Motivation and justification 752: 688:, and in some jurisdictions 18:Intellectual Property Rights 7: 8709:Two Treatises of Government 5909:. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 5848:, no. 81, 2006. (Abstract.) 5678:, iss. 2, p. I, June 2014. 4209:"Misinterpreting Copyright" 3968:Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 3336:. p. 3. Archived from 2535:. Ladas.com. Archived from 1983: 1034: 256:Idea–expression distinction 10: 8913: 7435:International legal theory 6914:International slavery laws 6909:International human rights 6904:International criminal law 5758:Princeton University Press 5738:Princeton University Press 5545: 5203:Smith, Brett (2007–2010). 3759:Pearce, Joshua M. (2022). 1565:, whose initials are also 1559:intellectual protectionism 1341:into a new article titled 1311: 1217: 1198: 1160: 1136: 1110: 878: 860: 822: 801: 779: 756: 721: 717: 547:North German Confederation 460: 456: 61: 8877:Intellectual property law 8833: 8630: 8432: 8312: 8205: 8198: 8047: 8004: 7949: 7873: 7783: 7760: 7650: 7488:Administration of justice 7473: 7382: 7273: 7152: 7054: 6775: 6643: 6557: 6506: 6494:Students for Free Culture 6431: 6415: 6408: 6390:Cultural environmentalism 6372: 6347:Prizes instead of patents 6247: 6143:Digital rights management 6115: 6030:Resources in your library 5789:16 September 2009 at the 5642:, Valencia, Spain, 2010. 4845:Letter to Isaac McPherson 3876:22 September 2013 at the 3869:Matthew L. Cutler (2008) 3730:10.1177/00157325221114586 3612:10.1108/07378830710735821 2725:10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153 2444:Oxford English Dictionary 2401:Oxford English Dictionary 1532:monopolies on information 1497:digital rights management 1227:Uniform Trade Secrets Act 1029:United Nations University 745:and there needs to be an 655: 617:author A. Nion mentioned 8761:The Great Transformation 8119:Labor theory of property 7265:Basic structure doctrine 7115:Natural and legal rights 6996:Public international law 6449:Free Software Foundation 5854:, and Michael H. Davis. 5590:, AEI Press, March 2005. 5213:Free Software Foundation 5205:"A Quick Guide to GPLv3" 5075:". Retrieved 2008.12.18. 5006:10.1177/1461444814555952 4498:Globalization and Health 4430:Globalization and Health 4288:Stephan Kinsella (2001) 2218:26 February 2009 at the 2112:World Trade Organization 1791:certain living organisms 1460:, along with many other 1421:Free Software Foundation 1295:World Trade Organization 946:research and development 776:Industrial design rights 747:industrial applicability 686:geographical indications 670:industrial design rights 619:propriété intellectuelle 479:came into force in 1710. 463:History of copyright law 39:latest accepted revision 8330:Forest-dwelling (India) 8292:restraint on alienation 8072:Common good (economics) 7445:Principle of typicality 6919:International trade law 6635: 6580:RiP!: A Remix Manifesto 6290:Electronic sell-through 6185:Monopolies of knowledge 6128:Censorship by copyright 5943:. Retrieved 2008-04-09. 5874:"Intellectual Property" 5189:William W. Fisher III, 4994:New Media & Society 4957:10.1145/2675133.2675234 4875:Bennet, Philip (2009). 4125:6 December 2017 at the 3999:Cheng, Wenting (2023). 3548:"Intellectual Property" 3128:University of Melbourne 2449:Oxford University Press 2438:"intellectual property" 2406:Oxford University Press 2395:"intellectual property" 2015:New product development 1631:business method patents 1318:Opposition to copyright 1282:International framework 788:industrial design right 782:Industrial design right 499:(1624) and the British 485:Venetian Patent Statute 168:Plant genetic resources 138:Industrial design right 128:Geographical indication 8769:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 8543:Primitive accumulation 8398:Right of way (transit) 8183:Tragedy of the commons 8065:fictitious commodities 6594:The Internet's Own Boy 6400:Free software movement 6227:software patent debate 6133:Copyright infringement 5884:, Summer 2011 Edition. 5852:Miller, Arthur Raphael 5716:Her Majesty's Treasury 5634: 5323:"Patently problematic" 4610:- Wired UK 23 Nov 2012 4376:Official drm.info site 4140:"A Model of Discovery" 3303:Americans for the Arts 2964:Department of Commerce 2926:Simon, Stokes (2001). 2688:Morin, Jean-Frédéric. 2670:Morin, Jean-Frédéric. 2652:Morin, Jean-Frédéric. 2000:Freedom of information 1898: 1836:copyright infringement 1782: 1752:cultural appropriation 1736: 1720: 1654: 1619:pharmaceutical patents 1610: 1435:Similarly, economists 1404:Criticism of the term 1396: 1380: 1201:Trademark infringement 1195:Trademark infringement 1163:Copyright infringement 1157:Copyright infringement 1118:nature of the action. 1076:"Personality" Argument 1007: 986:Americans for the Arts 813:new variety of a plant 809:Plant breeders' rights 804:Plant breeders' rights 611:Davoll et al. v. Brown 607: 480: 398: 239:Criticism of copyright 163:Plant breeders' rights 8822:The Wealth of Nations 8802:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 8794:The Ethics of Liberty 7440:Principle of legality 7199:Delegated legislation 6899:Intellectual property 6395:Free-culture movement 6305:Libertarian positions 6300:Free-software license 6265:Anti-copyright notice 6108:Intellectual property 6051:Intellectual property 6021:Intellectual property 6005:Intellectual property 5901:stockholm-network.org 5618:De George, Richard T. 5613:rebirthofffreedom.org 5607:weblog.ipcentral.info 5380:. OECD. January 2017. 5112:Mark Helprin, Op-ed: 5050:10.5210/fm.v13i9.2073 4919:Collaborative Society 4828:N. Stephan Kinsella, 4511:10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 4443:10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 4395:. Defective by Design 3926:U.S. Copyright Office 3778:10.3390/safety8030055 3698:Miriam Bitton (2012) 2712:Hasanuddin Law Review 2088:. European Parliament 1995:Defensive publication 1894: 1780: 1740:Royal Society of Arts 1727: 1715: 1649: 1615:free culture movement 1600:free culture movement 1597: 1550:assumptions, notably 1536:intellectual monopoly 1525:intellectual property 1475:intellectual property 1429:intellectual property 1406:intellectual property 1386: 1370: 1312:Further information: 1002: 893:, practice, process, 625:, published in 1846. 594: 534:intellectual property 497:Statute of Monopolies 474: 467:History of patent law 402:Intellectual property 368: 85:Intellectual property 72:Intellectual Property 65:Intellectual Property 8897:Intellectual capital 8685:Progress and Poverty 8019:Common-pool resource 7658:Barristers' chambers 7600:Legal representation 7538:Justice of the peace 6884:Financial regulation 6315:Open-design movement 6053:at Wikimedia Commons 5828:, vol. 32, no. 471. 5157:on 7 September 2009. 4889:10.2139/ssrn.1498783 4732:10.1093/jiel/5.4.861 4606:2 March 2014 at the 4365:Intellectual Poverty 4261:(21 February 2008). 4091:Stallman, Richard M. 4062:Stallman, Richard M. 3814:10.2139/ssrn.4344212 3718:Foreign Trade Review 3546:Moore, Adam (2014). 3287:on 14 November 2013. 3193:(7 September 2008). 3137:on 27 September 2011 3111:Doris Schroeder and 2866:Peter K, Yu (2007). 1977:developing countries 1798:in the United States 1756:collective IP regime 1623:copyright extensions 1584:Thomas Alured Faunce 1563:intellectual poverty 1314:Criticism of patents 1274:right rather than a 1177:ACTA trade agreement 901:, or compilation of 678:plant variety rights 580:as an agency of the 8808:The Social Contract 8496:population transfer 8413:prior-appropriation 8092:homestead principle 7693:Election commission 7405:Expressive function 6934:Landlord–tenant law 6833:Consumer protection 6255:All rights reversed 6123:Artificial scarcity 5950:Vaidhyanathan, Siva 5941:the-value-of.ip.org 5905:Perelman, Michael. 5840:Brooklyn Law School 5772:. Accralaw Offices. 5638:(pp. 85–121). 5430:. 29 November 2017. 5412:. 30 November 2017. 4566:(13 October 2006). 4478:Birgitte Andersen. 4247:on 3 November 2009. 3446:on 16 February 2008 3440:the-value-of-ip.org 3037:on 29 November 2014 2970:on 13 December 2012 2818:20 May 2013 at the 2447:(Online ed.). 2404:(Online ed.). 2144:10.34667/tind.43765 2055:10.34667/tind.36288 1867:licenses, like the 1849:Copyright Directive 1711:artificial scarcity 1521:intellectual rights 1513:intellectual rights 1467:no natural scarcity 1207:confusingly similar 1139:Patent infringement 1133:Patent infringement 1096:argued in her book 975:pension-led funding 939:Financial incentive 929:America Invents Act 702:rights in the US), 408:) is a category of 229:Copyright abolition 29:Page version status 8788:Murray N. Rothbard 8099:Free-rider problem 7651:Legal institutions 7518:Lawsuit/Litigation 7508:Dispute resolution 7313:Catholic canon law 7021:State of emergency 6984:Will and testament 6708:Law of obligations 6661:Constitutional law 6651:Administrative law 6573:Good Copy Bad Copy 6519:Alexandra Elbakyan 6423:Copyright Alliance 6060:hosts articles on 5720:hm-treasury.gov.uk 5593:Branstetter, Lee, 5130:Eldred v. Ashcroft 5117:The New York Times 4843:Thomas Jefferson, 4814:Stephan Kinsella, 4794:Libertarianism.org 4763:Philosophy Compass 4687:on 22 October 2011 4005:Palgrave Macmillan 3919:"Copyright Basics" 3907:on 16 August 2008. 3527:on 22 October 2011 3343:on 15 January 2013 2539:on 15 January 2013 2005:Information policy 1818:The growth of the 1783: 1767:anime music videos 1703:anarcho-capitalist 1611: 1530:Alternative terms 1397: 1381: 833:is a recognizable 529:Donaldson v Becket 523:Hinton v Donaldson 489:Republic of Venice 481: 399: 321:Higher categories: 313:Outline of patents 35: 8892:Intangible assets 8864: 8863: 8775:What Is Property? 8568:human trafficking 8553:Regulatory taking 8428: 8427: 8173:Right to property 7833: 7832: 7493:Constitutionalism 7415:Law and economics 7253:Act of parliament 6991:Product liability 6944:Legal archaeology 6869:Environmental law 6863:Entertainment law 6703:International law 6603: 6602: 6502: 6501: 6454:Open Rights Group 6049:Media related to 6016:Library resources 5971:978-0-226-08061-1 5834:Mazzone, Jason. " 5818:978-0-596-51796-0 5766:Lee, Richmond K. 5744:Kinsella, Stephan 5727:978-0-11-840483-9 5718:, November 2006. 5704:978-1-59941-139-2 5648:978-84-8456-981-7 5586:Hahn, Robert W., 5464:Irish Independent 5311:on 16 March 2015. 5103:, Pub.L. 105–298. 4966:978-1-4503-2922-4 4929:978-0-262-35645-9 4848:(August 13, 1813) 4769:(12): 1107–1115. 4393:defectivebydesign 4205:Stallman, Richard 4173:(19 April 2001). 4171:Stallman, Richard 4100:. The GNU Project 4014:978-3-031-24369-1 3952:978-1-84844-663-2 3928:. September 2021. 3808:. Rochester, NY. 3277:978-1-908908-86-5 3209:978-0-521-87928-6 3157:"US Constitution" 3070:978-0-7355-6989-8 2939:978-1-84113-225-9 2929:Art and copyright 2879:978-0-275-98883-8 2533:Ladas & Parry 2455:(Subscription or 2412:(Subscription or 2379:978-0-521-56363-5 2352:978-0-521-40940-7 2327:978-0-674-65775-5 2306:, pp. 18–19. 2287:978-0-12-800516-3 2020:Sweat of the brow 1948:capital allowance 1928:OECD BEPS Project 1503:Alternative terms 1482:Rickard Falkvinge 1371:Demonstration in 1365: 1364: 598:Queen Elizabeth I 363: 362: 26: 16:(Redirected from 8904: 8841: 8840: 8745:John Stuart Mill 8665:Friedrich Engels 8646:Frédéric Bastiat 8639: 8491:Forced migration 8459:Collectivization 8203: 8202: 8082:First possession 8055:Bundle of rights 7860: 7853: 7846: 7837: 7836: 7808: 7807: 7806: 7794: 7793: 7617:Question of fact 7498:Criminal justice 6828:Construction law 6823:Conflict of laws 6788:Agricultural law 6630: 6623: 6616: 6607: 6606: 6534:Richard Stallman 6479:Public Knowledge 6439:Creative Commons 6413: 6412: 6320:Open music model 6101: 6094: 6087: 6078: 6077: 6048: 5991: 5990: 5975: 5776:Lessig, Lawrence 5708: 5640:Tirant lo Blanch 5637: 5622:Tom L. Beauchamp 5574:Boldrin, Michele 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5513: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5488: 5482: 5481: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5466:. 21 March 2018. 5456: 5450: 5449: 5448:. 14 March 2018. 5438: 5432: 5431: 5420: 5414: 5413: 5402: 5396: 5395: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5371: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5319: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5299: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5251: 5243: 5237: 5230: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5200: 5194: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5172: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5153:. Archived from 5142: 5136: 5126: 5120: 5110: 5104: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5052: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5000:(7): 1347–1363. 4985: 4979: 4978: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4900: 4872: 4866: 4855: 4849: 4840: 4834: 4825: 4819: 4812: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4796:. Cato Institute 4788:D'Amato, David. 4785: 4779: 4778: 4758: 4749: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4692: 4683:. Archived from 4672: 4666: 4665:, Earthscan 2002 4659: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4611: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4574:. Archived from 4564:Stiglitz, Joseph 4560: 4554: 4553: 4540: 4534: 4533: 4523: 4513: 4489: 4483: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4455: 4445: 4421: 4415: 4411: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4350: 4345: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4313:. Archived from 4311:torrentfreak.com 4305:(14 July 2013). 4299: 4293: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4243:. Archived from 4233: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4181:. Archived from 4167: 4161: 4160: 4158: 4157: 4151: 4145:. Archived from 4144: 4136: 4130: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4031:(6 March 2008). 4025: 4019: 4018: 3996: 3973: 3966: 3957: 3956: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3923: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3895: 3886: 3880: 3867: 3861: 3854: 3848: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3780: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3709: 3703: 3696: 3685: 3684: 3672: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3644: 3640: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3595: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3572: 3566: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3543: 3537: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3523:. Archived from 3516: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3500:. United Nations 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3442:. Archived from 3431: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3406: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3380: 3367: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3342: 3328: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3280:. Archived from 3269: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3235: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3218: 3201: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3163:. 8 April 2013. 3153: 3147: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3136: 3130:. Archived from 3121: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3044: 3042: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3009: 3007: 2998:. Archived from 2986: 2980: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2950: 2944: 2943: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2906: 2899: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2854: 2853: 2847: 2841:. Archived from 2840: 2832: 2823: 2810: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2790:. Archived from 2780: 2774: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2758: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2727: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2694: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2667: 2661: 2660: 2658: 2649: 2643: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2607: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2569:. Heinonline.org 2561:Mark A. Lemley. 2558: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2525: 2519: 2514: 2508: 2501: 2495: 2490:Mark A. Lemley, 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2460: 2452: 2440: 2433: 2427: 2417: 2409: 2397: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2292: 2291: 2271: 2265: 2264: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2223: 2199: 2190: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2179: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2104: 2098: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2082: 2076: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2040: 1911: 1902:Pierre Moscovici 1723:Thomas Jefferson 1699:Stephan Kinsella 1627:software patents 1552:Richard Stallman 1473:has objected to 1471:Stephan Kinsella 1425:Richard Stallman 1360: 1357: 1330: 1329: 1322: 1254: 1173:derivative works 1087:Lysander Spooner 952: 769:exclusive rights 563:Berne Convention 559:Paris Convention 355: 348: 341: 224:Brand protection 158:Peasants' rights 95: 81: 80: 47:8 September 2024 21: 8912: 8911: 8907: 8906: 8905: 8903: 8902: 8901: 8867: 8866: 8865: 8860: 8829: 8633: 8632: 8626: 8576:husband-selling 8513:Illegal logging 8508:Illegal fishing 8437: 8424: 8335:Freedom to roam 8308: 8221:(agrarian land) 8194: 8151:Property rights 8043: 8000: 7962:Estate (landed) 7945: 7869: 7864: 7834: 7829: 7802: 7788: 7779: 7756: 7747:Political party 7720:Legal education 7708:Law enforcement 7688:Court of equity 7646: 7622:Question of law 7575:Practice of law 7555:Judicial review 7469: 7420:Legal formalism 7400:Comparative law 7395:Contract theory 7378: 7298:Legal pluralism 7269: 7258:Act of Congress 7182:Executive order 7148: 7050: 6969:Nationality law 6894:Immigration law 6818:Competition law 6771: 6639: 6634: 6604: 6599: 6566:Steal This Film 6553: 6529:Lawrence Lessig 6498: 6427: 6404: 6368: 6364:Video on demand 6243: 6138:Copyright troll 6111: 6105: 6041: 6040: 6039: 6024: 6023: 6019: 6012: 6011: 6010: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5878:Edward N. Zalta 5796:Lindberg, Van. 5791:Wayback Machine 5784:free-culture.cc 5705: 5650:. Available at 5578:David K. Levine 5548: 5543: 5533: 5531: 5525: 5521: 5511: 5509: 5503: 5499: 5490: 5489: 5485: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5446:The Irish Times 5440: 5439: 5435: 5428:The Irish Times 5422: 5421: 5417: 5410:The Irish Times 5404: 5403: 5399: 5390: 5389: 5385: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5365: 5357: 5353: 5352: 5348: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5321: 5320: 5316: 5308: 5297: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5270: 5269: 5265: 5254:Financial Times 5244: 5240: 5231: 5227: 5217: 5215: 5201: 5197: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5175: 5166: 5162: 5143: 5139: 5127: 5123: 5111: 5107: 5095: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5070: 5066: 5033: 5029: 4986: 4982: 4967: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4914: 4910: 4873: 4869: 4856: 4852: 4841: 4837: 4826: 4822: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4786: 4782: 4759: 4752: 4743: 4739: 4716: 4712: 4704: 4700: 4690: 4688: 4673: 4669: 4660: 4656: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4608:Wayback Machine 4599: 4595: 4587: 4583: 4561: 4557: 4541: 4537: 4490: 4486: 4477: 4473: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4408: 4398: 4396: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4374: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4337:Alexandre Oliva 4334: 4330: 4320: 4318: 4300: 4296: 4287: 4283: 4273: 4271: 4256: 4252: 4241:wiki.lessig.org 4235: 4234: 4227: 4217: 4215: 4202: 4198: 4188: 4186: 4185:on 2 March 2015 4168: 4164: 4155: 4153: 4149: 4142: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4127:Wayback Machine 4117: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4088: 4084: 4074: 4072: 4059: 4055: 4045: 4043: 4026: 4022: 4015: 3997: 3976: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3937: 3933: 3921: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3904: 3893: 3887: 3883: 3878:Wayback Machine 3868: 3864: 3855: 3851: 3841: 3837: 3798: 3794: 3757: 3753: 3710: 3706: 3697: 3688: 3681: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3641: 3637: 3631: 3627: 3600:Library Hi Tech 3596: 3589: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3544: 3540: 3530: 3528: 3517: 3513: 3503: 3501: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3479: 3464: 3463: 3459: 3449: 3447: 3432: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3404: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3378: 3365: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3346: 3344: 3340: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3307: 3305: 3297: 3296: 3292: 3284: 3278: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3228: 3224: 3216: 3210: 3199: 3191:Michele Boldrin 3184: 3180: 3170: 3168: 3155: 3154: 3150: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3119: 3109: 3105: 3082: 3078: 3071: 3057: 3053: 3040: 3038: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3005: 3003: 2988: 2987: 2983: 2973: 2971: 2952: 2951: 2947: 2940: 2924: 2920: 2910: 2908: 2904: 2897: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2864: 2860: 2851: 2849: 2845: 2838: 2834: 2833: 2826: 2820:Wayback Machine 2811: 2807: 2797: 2795: 2794:on 11 July 2014 2782: 2781: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2756: 2754: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2704: 2700: 2692: 2686: 2682: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2650: 2646: 2640: 2636: 2626: 2624: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2605: 2603: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2572: 2570: 2559: 2552: 2542: 2540: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2511: 2502: 2498: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2467:vol. 11. p. 303 2454: 2434: 2430: 2424:vol. 41. p. 290 2411: 2391: 2387: 2380: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2339: 2335: 2328: 2314: 2310: 2302: 2295: 2288: 2272: 2268: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2237: 2226: 2220:Wayback Machine 2200: 2193: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2114: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2091: 2089: 2084: 2083: 2079: 2069: 2067: 2065: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2028: 1986: 1969: 1956: 1913: 1910:, 11 March 2018 1908:Financial Times 1906: 1904: 1900: 1892: 1775: 1744:Adelphi Charter 1635:patent thickets 1592: 1527:has increased. 1505: 1489:Alexandre Oliva 1458:Lawrence Lessig 1402: 1361: 1355: 1352: 1331: 1327: 1320: 1310: 1284: 1246: 1222: 1216: 1203: 1197: 1165: 1159: 1141: 1135: 1127:nuclear weapons 1115: 1109: 1037: 994: 992:Economic growth 959:Michele Boldrin 950: 941: 933:commodification 920: 883: 877: 865: 859: 827: 821: 806: 800: 798:Plant varieties 784: 778: 761: 755: 726: 720: 708:database rights 658: 561:(1883) and the 517:Millar v Taylor 501:Statute of Anne 477:Statute of Anne 469: 461:Main articles: 459: 359: 323: 319: 234:Copyright troll 123:Farmers' rights 103:Authors' rights 77: 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8910: 8900: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8862: 8861: 8859: 8858: 8857: 8856: 8846: 8834: 8831: 8830: 8828: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8813: 8812: 8811: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8785: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8766: 8765: 8764: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8741: 8740: 8728: 8727: 8726: 8714: 8713: 8712: 8700: 8695: 8693:Garrett Hardin 8690: 8689: 8688: 8676: 8675: 8674: 8662: 8657: 8656: 8655: 8642: 8640: 8628: 8627: 8625: 8624: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8592: 8591: 8590: 8585: 8584: 8583: 8578: 8570: 8565: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8504: 8503: 8498: 8488: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8464:Eminent domain 8461: 8456: 8455: 8454: 8447:Bioprospecting 8443: 8441: 8439:redistribution 8430: 8429: 8426: 8425: 8423: 8422: 8421: 8420: 8415: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8394: 8393: 8381: 8376: 8375: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8354: 8349: 8348: 8347: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8316: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8306: 8305: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8274: 8269: 8268: 8267: 8257: 8250: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8223: 8215: 8206: 8200: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8190: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8169: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8148: 8143: 8141:Natural rights 8138: 8133: 8132: 8131: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8068: 8067: 8057: 8051: 8049: 8045: 8044: 8042: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8010: 8008: 8002: 8001: 7999: 7998: 7997: 7996: 7986: 7981: 7980: 7979: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7953: 7951: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7877: 7875: 7871: 7870: 7863: 7862: 7855: 7848: 7840: 7831: 7830: 7828: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7799: 7796:Law portal 7784: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7777: 7776: 7775: 7764: 7762: 7758: 7757: 7755: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7728: 7727: 7717: 7716: 7715: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7654: 7652: 7648: 7647: 7645: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7632:Trial advocacy 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7613: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7540: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7479: 7477: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7386: 7384: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7355: 7354: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7279: 7277: 7271: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7240: 7239: 7238: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7212: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7191: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7169: 7164: 7162:Ballot measure 7158: 7156: 7150: 7149: 7147: 7146: 7141: 7139:Legal treatise 7136: 7135: 7134: 7129: 7119: 7118: 7117: 7107: 7105:Letters patent 7102: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7066: 7060: 7058: 7056:Sources of law 7052: 7051: 7049: 7048: 7043: 7041:Unenforced law 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6987: 6986: 6981: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6813:Commercial law 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6779: 6777: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6753: 6752: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6725: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6679: 6678: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6647: 6645: 6641: 6640: 6633: 6632: 6625: 6618: 6610: 6601: 6600: 6598: 6597: 6590: 6583: 6576: 6569: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6524:Rick Falkvinge 6521: 6516: 6510: 6508: 6504: 6503: 6500: 6499: 6497: 6496: 6491: 6489:Shadow library 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6464:The Pirate Bay 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6435: 6433: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6425: 6419: 6417: 6410: 6406: 6405: 6403: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6385:Anti-copyright 6382: 6376: 6374: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6344: 6343: 6342: 6337: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6251: 6249: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6241: 6236: 6235: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6209: 6208: 6207: 6205:Bioprospecting 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6181: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6119: 6117: 6113: 6112: 6104: 6103: 6096: 6089: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6068: 6054: 6038: 6037: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6014: 6013: 5993: 5986: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5981:External links 5979: 5977: 5976: 5970: 5957: 5947: 5944: 5937: 5931: 5916: 5913: 5910: 5903: 5897: 5890: 5885: 5867: 5849: 5832: 5820: 5802:O'Reilly Books 5794: 5773: 5764: 5754: 5741: 5736:. New Jersey: 5730: 5712:Gowers, Andrew 5709: 5703: 5690: 5672: 5654: 5629: 5615: 5609: 5599:C. Fritz Foley 5595:Raymond Fisman 5591: 5584: 5571: 5568:Westview Press 5560: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5519: 5497: 5483: 5469: 5451: 5433: 5415: 5397: 5383: 5363: 5346: 5332: 5329:. August 2015. 5314: 5285: 5282:on 2 May 2019. 5263: 5238: 5225: 5195: 5182: 5173: 5160: 5137: 5121: 5119:, 20 May 2007. 5105: 5089: 5084:Plant Patents 5077: 5064: 5027: 4980: 4965: 4935: 4928: 4908: 4867: 4850: 4835: 4833:(2008), p. 44. 4820: 4807: 4780: 4750: 4737: 4726:(4): 861–882. 4710: 4698: 4667: 4654: 4621: 4612: 4593: 4591:– Ars Technica 4581: 4578:on 2021-10-28. 4555: 4535: 4484: 4471: 4416: 4406: 4389:"What is DRM?" 4380: 4368: 4356: 4328: 4317:on 4 June 2014 4303:Rick Falkvinge 4294: 4281: 4259:Doctorow, Cory 4250: 4225: 4196: 4162: 4131: 4111: 4082: 4053: 4020: 4013: 3974: 3958: 3951: 3931: 3910: 3881: 3862: 3849: 3835: 3792: 3751: 3724:(2): 246–258. 3704: 3686: 3679: 3654: 3645: 3635: 3625: 3587: 3577: 3567: 3557: 3538: 3511: 3489: 3478:on 21 May 2017 3457: 3426: 3392: 3354: 3315: 3290: 3276: 3264:Banking on IP? 3253: 3222: 3208: 3178: 3148: 3103: 3076: 3069: 3051: 3016: 3002:on 3 July 2012 2981: 2945: 2938: 2918: 2907:on 6 June 2012 2885: 2878: 2858: 2824: 2805: 2775: 2763: 2739: 2718:(3): 277–289. 2698: 2680: 2662: 2644: 2634: 2612: 2580: 2550: 2520: 2509: 2496: 2483: 2471: 2428: 2420:Monthly Review 2385: 2378: 2358: 2351: 2333: 2326: 2308: 2293: 2286: 2266: 2243: 2224: 2207:Mark A. Lemley 2191: 2166: 2152: 2124: 2099: 2077: 2063: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2023: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1985: 1982: 1968: 1965: 1955: 1952: 1943: 1942: 1939: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1774: 1771: 1639:nanotechnology 1591: 1588: 1504: 1501: 1401: 1398: 1375:in support of 1363: 1362: 1334: 1332: 1325: 1309: 1306: 1283: 1280: 1257:18 U.S.C. 1252:§ 1831(a) 1235:18 U.S.C. 1218:Main article: 1215: 1212: 1199:Main article: 1196: 1193: 1161:Main article: 1158: 1155: 1137:Main article: 1134: 1131: 1111:Main article: 1108: 1105: 1084: 1083: 1073: 1062: 1036: 1033: 993: 990: 940: 937: 919: 916: 897:, instrument, 879:Main article: 876: 873: 861:Main article: 858: 855: 823:Main article: 820: 817: 802:Main article: 799: 796: 780:Main article: 777: 774: 757:Main article: 754: 751: 722:Main article: 719: 716: 657: 654: 582:United Nations 539:Monthly Review 458: 455: 361: 360: 358: 357: 350: 343: 335: 332: 331: 318: 317: 316: 315: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 284: 283: 281:Right to quote 278: 273: 268: 258: 253: 252: 251: 244:Bioprospecting 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 208: 207: 206:Related topics 203: 202: 201: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 173:Related rights 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 118:Database right 115: 110: 105: 97: 96: 88: 87: 58: 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8909: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8874: 8872: 8855: 8852: 8851: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842:Categories: 8836: 8835: 8832: 8824: 8823: 8819: 8818: 8817: 8814: 8810: 8809: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8800: 8796: 8795: 8791: 8790: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8783:David Ricardo 8781: 8777: 8776: 8772: 8771: 8770: 8767: 8763: 8762: 8758: 8757: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8750:Elinor Ostrom 8748: 8746: 8743: 8739: 8738: 8734: 8733: 8732: 8729: 8725: 8724: 8720: 8719: 8718: 8715: 8711: 8710: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8687: 8686: 8682: 8681: 8680: 8677: 8673: 8672: 8668: 8667: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8654: 8653: 8649: 8648: 8647: 8644: 8643: 8641: 8637: 8629: 8623: 8620: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8597: 8596: 8593: 8589: 8586: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8573: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8560: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8548:Privatization 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8528:Legal plunder 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8493: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8486: 8482: 8480: 8479:Expropriation 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8453: 8450: 8449: 8448: 8445: 8444: 8442: 8440: 8435: 8431: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8410: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8392: 8391: 8387: 8386: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8359: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8346: 8343: 8342: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8317: 8315: 8311: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8279: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8255: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8228: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8220: 8216: 8214: 8213:(watercourse) 8212: 8208: 8207: 8204: 8201: 8197: 8189: 8186: 8185: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8156:primogeniture 8154: 8153: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8136:Legal plunder 8134: 8130: 8127: 8126: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8087:appropriation 8085: 8084: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8077:Excludability 8075: 8073: 8070: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8052: 8050: 8046: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8007: 8003: 7995: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7978: 7975: 7974: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7954: 7952: 7948: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7878: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7861: 7856: 7854: 7849: 7847: 7842: 7841: 7838: 7826: 7825: 7821: 7819: 7818: 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7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7031:Transport law 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6949:Legal fiction 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6879:Financial law 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6838:Corporate law 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6774: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6762:Statutory law 6760: 6758: 6755: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6677: 6674: 6673: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6644:Core subjects 6642: 6638: 6631: 6626: 6624: 6619: 6617: 6612: 6611: 6608: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6589: 6588: 6584: 6582: 6581: 6577: 6575: 6574: 6570: 6568: 6567: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6558:Documentaries 6556: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6514:Cory Doctorow 6512: 6511: 6509: 6505: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6430: 6424: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6416:Pro-copyright 6414: 6411: 6409:Organizations 6407: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6371: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6345: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6252: 6250: 6246: 6240: 6239:Public domain 6237: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6214: 6213: 6210: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6109: 6102: 6097: 6095: 6090: 6088: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6042: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6008: 6007: 6006: 6000: 5996: 5973: 5967: 5963: 5958: 5955: 5951: 5948: 5945: 5942: 5938: 5936: 5935:mtholyoke.edu 5932: 5929: 5928:0-314-06599-7 5925: 5921: 5917: 5914: 5911: 5908: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5895: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5868: 5865: 5864:0-314-23519-1 5861: 5857: 5853: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5831: 5827: 5826: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5810:0-596-51796-3 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5792: 5788: 5785: 5781: 5780:Penguin Press 5777: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5765: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5710: 5706: 5700: 5696: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5671: 5668:Available at 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5630: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5572: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5550: 5530: 5523: 5508: 5501: 5493: 5487: 5479: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5411: 5407: 5401: 5393: 5387: 5376: 5370: 5368: 5356: 5350: 5342: 5336: 5328: 5327:The Economist 5324: 5318: 5307: 5303: 5302:uclalawreview 5296: 5289: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5267: 5259: 5255: 5250: 5242: 5235: 5229: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5199: 5192: 5186: 5177: 5170: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5125: 5118: 5115: 5109: 5102: 5098: 5093: 5087: 5081: 5074: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4984: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 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MIT Press. 4921: 4920: 4912: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4871: 4864: 4860: 4854: 4847: 4846: 4839: 4832: 4831: 4824: 4817: 4811: 4795: 4791: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4757: 4755: 4748: 4747: 4741: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4671: 4664: 4658: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4616: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4597: 4590: 4585: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4559: 4551: 4547: 4542:On patents – 4539: 4531: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4488: 4481: 4475: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4420: 4410: 4394: 4390: 4384: 4377: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4342: 4338: 4332: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4298: 4291: 4285: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4254: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4230: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4152:on 2017-08-09 4148: 4141: 4135: 4128: 4124: 4121: 4115: 4099: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4070: 4066: 4063: 4057: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4016: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3971: 3965: 3963: 3954: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3935: 3927: 3920: 3914: 3903: 3899: 3898:portal.unesco 3892: 3885: 3879: 3875: 3872: 3866: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3844: 3839: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3796: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3701: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3682: 3680:9780451147950 3676: 3671: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3649: 3639: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3592: 3581: 3571: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3542: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3499: 3493: 3477: 3473: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3381:on 7 May 2012 3377: 3373: 3372: 3364: 3358: 3339: 3335: 3333: 3325: 3319: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3283: 3279: 3273: 3266: 3265: 3257: 3241: 3240: 3234: 3226: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3198: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3187:Levine, David 3182: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3152: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3048: 3036: 3032: 3031: 3026: 3025:"Trade Marks" 3020: 3013: 3001: 2997: 2996: 2991: 2985: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2960: 2955: 2949: 2941: 2935: 2931: 2930: 2922: 2903: 2896: 2889: 2881: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2862: 2848:on 2020-11-11 2844: 2837: 2831: 2829: 2821: 2817: 2814: 2809: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2779: 2772: 2767: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2735: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2702: 2691: 2684: 2673: 2666: 2655: 2648: 2638: 2622: 2616: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593:The Economist 2590: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2513: 2506: 2500: 2493: 2487: 2480: 2475: 2468: 2464: 2458: 2450: 2446: 2445: 2439: 2432: 2425: 2421: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2402: 2396: 2389: 2381: 2375: 2371: 2370: 2362: 2354: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2329: 2323: 2319: 2312: 2305: 2300: 2298: 2289: 2283: 2279: 2278: 2270: 2253: 2247: 2241:, p. 17. 2240: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2204: 2198: 2196: 2176: 2170: 2155: 2153:9789280532210 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2136: 2128: 2113: 2109: 2103: 2087: 2081: 2066: 2064:9789280525939 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2047: 2039: 2035: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1981: 1978: 1973: 1964: 1962: 1951: 1949: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1932: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1917:tax avoidance 1912: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1874: 1873:accessibility 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1857:public domain 1854: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1814: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1792: 1786: 1779: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1763:remix culture 1759: 1757: 1753: 1747: 1745: 1742:launched the 1741: 1735: 1733: 1726: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1682: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1659: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1608: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1451: 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667: 663: 653: 649: 645: 643: 638: 633: 631: 626: 624: 620: 616: 612: 606: 603: 599: 593: 591: 590:Bayh–Dole Act 587: 583: 579: 575: 570: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 540: 535: 531: 530: 525: 524: 519: 518: 512: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 478: 473: 468: 464: 454: 451: 446: 444: 438: 436: 435:legal systems 431: 427: 426:trade secrets 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 396: 392: 388: 387: 382: 378: 377: 372: 367: 356: 351: 349: 344: 342: 337: 336: 334: 333: 330: 326: 322: 314: 311: 310: 309: 306: 304: 303:Public domain 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 263: 262: 259: 257: 254: 250: 247: 246: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 210: 209: 205: 204: 199: 198:Utility model 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 100: 99: 98: 94: 90: 89: 86: 83: 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