192:
employment opportunities were said by the legislators to be favorable. Types of assistance offered included relocation transportation, transportation of household goods, subsistence per diem for both the time of relocation and up to four weeks after arrival, and funds to purchase tools or equipment for apprentice workers. Vocational training was oriented towards jobs in industry and other professions that hadn't existed in rural communities. Additional benefits offered included: medical insurance for workers and their dependents, grants to purchase work clothing, grants to purchase household goods and furniture, tuition costs for vocational night school training, and in some cases funds to help purchase a home. However, not all who accepted these offers actually received these benefits once they arrived in the cities, leading to some cases of poverty, culture shock, joblessness and homelessness among this population in the new, urban environment. A major issue that came with this was the then inability for Native
Americans to return to their reservations. If relocation had been completed, the reservation the Natives had previously lived on was dissolved. From 1950 to 1968 almost 200,000 Native Americans migrated to cities, leaving reservations almost completely a thing of the past.
283:
program of vocational training that provides for vocational counseling or guidance, institutional training in any recognized vocation or trade, apprenticeship, and on the job training, for periods that do not exceed twenty-four months, transportation to the place of training, and subsistence during the course of training. The program shall be available primarily to
Indians who are not less than eighteen and not more than thirty-five years of age and who reside on or near an Indian reservation, and the program shall be conducted under such rules and regulations as the Secretary may prescribe. For the purposes of this program the Secretary is authorized to enter into contracts or agreements with any Federal, State, or local governmental agency, or with any private school which has a recognized reputation in the field of vocational education and has successfully found employment for its graduates in their respective fields of training, or with any corporation or association which has an existing apprenticeship or on-the-job training program which is recognized by industry and labor as leading to skilled employment.
242:
Indian termination policy further emphasized individual ownership of land and sold more of reservation land to settlers. Over the next decade the government terminated 109 tribes and removed 2.5 million acres of trust land. Related to the Indian
Relocation Act, those who moved to cities forfeited their designated allotment, lessening the amount of land for reservations and making it further vulnerable to encroaching settler colonialism. This theft of land from the Dawes Act, the termination policy, and the subsequent relocation program allowed for more encroaching settler colonialism and opened more opportunities for development and resource extraction.
36:
254:
job opportunities program, the relocation act was enticing for many Native
American people suffering the consequences of the termination policy. While some people volunteered to move, many were pressured to leave reservations experienced what they describe as harassed by BIA officials. Motivations to assimilate were based on disconnecting people from traditional homelands, where Native American people have special relationships to land and ties communities. While an economic and cultural disaster for many indigenous people of the United States, the act was rationally planned and successful for the US. Native American scholar
343:, and general community support. In addition, more politically motivated cross cultural groups began to form with proximity in cities and a pan-Indian consciousness developed. This resulted in inter-tribal marriages and people holding claims to multiple Indian nations. Similarly, coalitions began to form among tribal communities which would not have existed had people stayed on reservations. Though this pan-Indian identity was important to bridge groups together, it is important to note that tribal differences were still important and did not lead to a "
301:
Native
Americans migrated to the cities, some as part of the relocation program, others on their own. By the 2000 census, the urban Indian population was 64% higher than it had been in the pre-termination era of the 1940s. The biggest concern for the government with the relocation of Native Americans was that the large reservations could not hold them numbers wise. It was no longer that the land was too valuable for the Natives, but that the land was "too small" to hold them.
324:
would in some scenarios be forced into boarding schools by the government. This was another layer of the plan to integrate and
Indians into urban life. It was at these boarding schools that the Native American children would have haircuts enforced and be essentially brainwashed ageist Native culture. The only positive was that at this point, very slowly, the boarding schools were beginning to be phased out.
209:
officially extending the program to all Native
Americans the following year. In 1955, additional BIA relocation offices in Cleveland, Dallas, Minneapolis, Oklahoma City, St. Louis, the San Francisco Bay area, San Jose, Seattle, and Tulsa were added. Relocation to cities, where more jobs were available, was expected to reduce poverty among Native Americans, who tended to live on isolated, rural reservations.
310:
transportation, room, board, funds for books and tools, and a living allowance. Overall, the program had devastating long-term effects. Relocated tribe members became isolated from their communities and experienced homesickness. Many also faced racial discrimination and segregation. Many found only low-paying jobs with little advancement potential with the higher expenses typical for urban areas. Scholar
327:
Despite the overly positive declarations made by its supporters, in reality, termination and relocation policy wrought social havoc for
Indians generally. Mothers would be terrified to let their children even so much as play in their neighborhood. The Native Americans felt lost in the city where they
253:
Because of this ended support for Native
American people, the BIA began a voluntary urban relocation program. Critics described the relocation program as an intentional continuation of settler colonialism to continue assimilation and "get out of the reservation business". Superficially marketed as a
183:
between 1940 and 1960, which terminated the tribal status of numerous groups and cut off previous assistance to tribal citizens. The Indian
Relocation Act encouraged and forced Native Americans to move to cities for job opportunities. It also played a significant role in increasing the population of
323:
often made it impossible for people either to find homes near their employment or to be able to afford desirable housing. Children of relocated workers had difficulty enrolling in segregated public schools and faced the same social discrimination as their parents. These children of Native Americans
249:
directly preceded the Indian Relocation Act and is seen by critics as another legislative event under the history of settler colonialism. It terminated Native American reservations which removed legal standing as sovereign dependent nations. This included an end to all federal aid, protections, and
366:
in 1968. This activism included legal challenges to the termination and relocation policy which eventually succeeded. Overall, Native American activism had a large advantage in the cities over reservations, with large coalitions, proximity to other civil rights movements, and a distancing from the
282:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That in order to help adult Indians who reside on or near Indian reservations to obtain reasonable and satisfactory employment, the Secretary of the Interior is authorized to undertake a
300:
In 1960, it was reported that in excess of 31,000 people had moved off the reservation and to urban areas since 1952, with about 30% returning to their reservations. About 70% of them became self-sufficient in their new cities. It is estimated that between the 1950s and 1980s, as many as 750,000
250:
services, such as health care. It is proposed that this policy directly worsened conditions on reservations and for Native American people. For the Monominees tribes, for example, it is argued this caused a rapidly sinking economy, health and education issues, and skyrocketing tuberculosis rate.
241:
broke up communally owned reservation land into smaller, individually owned lots for each tribal member and remaining tribal land not given to tribal members were sold to settlers. This effort was to promote individualistic values on Native American people. As a continuation of the Dawes Act the
314:
writes that "Native American men were often tracked into low-level, dead-end jobs, and women were directed to domestic service in white households". Many suffered from the lack of community support and lived in urban poverty, poor health, with substance abuse, emotional suffering, and a loss of
208:
was passed which funded a program to help relocate tribe members to Los Angeles, Salt Lake City, and Denver and help them find jobs. In 1951 the Bureau of Indian Affairs began expanding the program and assigned relocation workers to Oklahoma, New Mexico, California, Arizona, Utah and Colorado,
191:
At a time when the U.S. government was decreasing subsidies to Native Americans living on reservations, the Relocation Act offered to pay moving expenses and provide some vocational training for those who were willing to move from the reservations to certain government-designated cities, where
236:
To succeed in occupation of land by settlers, it is argued settler colonialism is predicated on the theft of land of original inhabitants, which in the United States are Native Americans. While the beginning of US settler colonialism witnessed physical violence against Native Americans, it is
309:
reported that 91% of graduates were employed after the program. Students entered vocational programs, including study of more than 100 vocations including electronics, nursing, and X-ray technology, with assistance from the act. Students were provided two years of education, along with
220:
that was followed assumed that mainstreaming of Native Americans would be easier in metropolitan areas and there would be more work opportunities for them there. Quotas were implemented for processing relocatees. By 1954 approximately 6200 Native Americans had been relocated to cities.
318:
Given the rapid urban expansion of the period, Native Americans often found that lower cost housing was often in areas most likely to be targeted for urban renewal and replaced with office buildings, freeways and commercial developments. This added to the instability of their lives.
212:
Through the first half of the 20th century, the majority of the American population had become increasingly urbanized, as cities were the places with jobs and related amenities. But in 1950, only 6% of Native Americans lived in urban areas.
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Schools offered vocational or on-the-job training to anyone age 18 to 35 who was at least one-fourth Native American. More than 3500 persons enrolled in 322 institutions and job placement was reported at 70% by 1966.
1815:
1074:
291:
There is authorized to be appropriated for the purposes of this Act the sum of $ 3,500,000 for each fiscal year, and not to exceed $ 500,000 of such sum shall be available for administrative purposes.
339:
While people who moved from reservations were initially isolated, Native Americans began to form communities through intertribal communities. These community endeavors included cultural centers,
258:
describes the Indian Relocation Act as the "Most disastrous policy outside termination ... meant to get Indians off reservation and into the city slums where they could fade away".
1678:
1488:
1778:
315:
tribal connection and cultural identity. Many could not return to dissolved reservations and those who could often found they did not "fit in" with those who stayed behind.
233:. According to this line of argument, the Indian Relocation Act goes along with the Indian termination policy and land theft in which settler colonialism is intricately tied to.
229:
Critics have characterized the Indian Relocation Act as one legislative event in a long series of violence and legislation to get rid of and assimilate Native Americans, called
179:
and their traditional lands, to assimilate into the general population in urban areas, and to weaken community and tribal ties. Critics also characterize the law as part of the
1594:
122:
1851:
1846:
1369:
764:
499:
Rebecca L. Robbins, "Self-Determination and Subordination: the Past, Present, and Future of American Indian Governance" (87:122) in M. Annette Jaimes (editor),
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knew nothing. The groups would often end up living hotels for long stretches of time upon moving to cities and having no money to afford much else than a room.
1630:
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204:, at the request of President Truman, proposed a ten-year program to provide the Hopi and Navajo tribes with vocational training. In 1950, the
1041:
1683:
1658:
1377:
1856:
765:"Homogenization, Protests & Outright Rebellion: 1950s: Native Americans Move to the City—The Urban Relocation Program | Picture This"
1313:
397:
1417:
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1803:
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267:
934:
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275:
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93:
85:
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1457:
1166:
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376:
1102:
885:
78:
1773:
1558:
452:"Settler Colonialism as Structure: A Framework for Comparative Studies of U.S. Race and Gender Formation"
55:
1026:
987:
553:, Turtle Mountain Agency, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Belcourt, North Dakota. Accessed online May 4, 2009.
1193:
1552:
1479:
1337:
384:, a 1953 law establishing "a method whereby States may assume jurisdiction over reservation Indians."
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180:
906:
822:
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402:
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534:, The United Sioux Tribes of South Dakota Development Corporation. Accessed online May 4, 2009.
387:
355:
1516:
1433:
1209:
217:
16:
Law attempting to move Native Americans from reservations and traditional homelands to cities
35:
1201:
451:
147:
917:
8:
1709:
1185:
311:
271:
230:
1119:
350:
Pan-Indian political groups were unique to cities. First, these groups had proximity to
1748:
1729:
1534:
1522:
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1504:
1471:
1075:"Native American Boarding Schools · Intermountain Indian School · USU Digital Exhibits"
1013:
974:
735:
659:
634:
479:
351:
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Native Americans were not allowed to return to their reserves, tearing families apart.
176:
46:
An Act relative to employment for certain adult Indians on or near Indian reservations.
20:
543:
171:) was a United States law intended to create a "a program of vocational training" for
1724:
1449:
1361:
1233:
1047:
739:
727:
664:
603:
508:
483:
471:
175:. Critics characterize the law as an attempt to encourage Native Americans to leave
717:
654:
646:
463:
255:
1816:
United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes
1040:
Murrin, John; Johnson, Paul; McPherson, James; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2008).
1736:
1465:
1385:
1289:
1257:
1126:
1109:
569:
550:
531:
504:
599:"They Made Us Many Promises": The American Indian Experience 1524 to the Present
1793:
1570:
1241:
381:
722:
705:
1830:
1798:
1783:
1401:
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650:
635:"The Intergenerational Effects of Relocation Policies on Indigenous Families"
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668:
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185:
1714:
1043:
Liberty, Equality, Power: Volume II: Since 1863, Enhanced Concise Edition
681:
363:
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201:
1788:
524:
97:
957:
955:
684:"Indian Relocation Act passes, launching the urban relocation process"
1540:
1528:
320:
238:
237:
proposed later efforts to steal land were based on legislation. The
1165:
952:
501:
The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance
287:
Section 2 of the act sets an amount of funding for such programs:
1489:
List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes
340:
1130:
544:
Information on Chippewa Indians Turtle Mountain Reservation
354:
groups and provided support for political efforts, such as
1370:
County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State
1039:
706:"Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native"
1631:
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
1595:
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act
1103:
Public Law 959 from Oklahoma State University Library
633:
Walls, Melissa L.; Whitbeck, Les B. (June 14, 2012).
572:, Phoenix Indian Center. Accessed online May 4, 2009.
123:
U.S. Senate Committee on Interior and Insulars Affair
1442:
City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York
1322:
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida
295:
127:
U.S. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs
1852:
Assimilation of indigenous peoples of North America
1643:
Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art
1298:
Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation
884:. Oklahoma State University Library. Archived from
849:"The Problem With The Ecological Indian Stereotype"
1120:Bureau of Indian Affairs Indian Relocation Records
682:Native Americans in Philosophy and Candid (2023).
1847:United States federal Native American legislation
307:Oklahoma State University Institute of Technology
1828:
1394:Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield
1720:Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
115:in the Senate as S. 3416 on July 19, 1956
1274:United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.
591:
589:
1151:
1033:
632:
334:
1378:South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.
928:
926:
803:
602:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 196–197.
586:
1314:McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission
1158:
1144:
1115:Public Law 959, US Government digital scan
872:
870:
721:
658:
495:
493:
398:Cultural assimilation of Native Americans
962:"Unskilled, Jobless Indians suffering".
935:"The 1950s plan to erase Indian Country"
923:
1842:August 1956 events in the United States
1667:Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians
867:
1829:
1046:. Cengage Learning. pp. 743–744.
490:
266:The main text of the act empowers the
224:
1601:American Indian Religious Freedom Act
1418:Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho
1171:Native Americans in the United States
1139:
817:
815:
799:
797:
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703:
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595:
450:Glenn, Evelyn Nakano (January 2015).
449:
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443:
270:to fund and administer a program for
173:Native Americans in the United States
1282:Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States
932:
628:
626:
441:
439:
437:
435:
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429:
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200:In 1947, Secretary of the Interior,
1589:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act
1250:Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy
13:
1857:Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
823:"American Indian Urban Relocation"
812:
782:
746:
690:
583:, Bureau of Indian Affairs website
261:
14:
1868:
1759:National Indian Gaming Commission
1354:Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe
1218:New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble
1096:
882:Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties
623:
420:
296:Consequences for Native Americans
169:Adult Vocational Training Program
1306:Menominee Tribe v. United States
704:Wolfe, Patrick (December 2006).
34:
1513:(1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)
1067:
994:
911:
900:
841:
456:Sociology of Race and Ethnicity
408:American Indian outing programs
1743:In the Courts of the Conqueror
1346:Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez
675:
575:
556:
537:
518:
140:on July 27, 1956 (Passed)
134:on July 23, 1956 (Passed)
1:
1625:Native American Languages Act
525:Employment Assistance Program
413:
195:
161:Indian Relocation Act of 1956
29:Indian Relocation Act of 1956
1764:Native American civil rights
1619:Indian Gaming Regulatory Act
1458:Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl
710:Journal of Genocide Research
393:Intertribal Friendship House
377:Native American civil rights
7:
1779:Recognition of sacred sites
1774:Native American Rights Fund
1679:Federally recognized tribes
1559:Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act
1108:September 26, 2013, at the
370:
239:Dawes Severalty Act of 1887
56:84th United States Congress
10:
1873:
1637:Indian Arts and Crafts Act
1194:Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
908:, Bureau of Indian Affairs
804:Deloria Jr., Vine (1969).
568:December 12, 2008, at the
335:Native American resistance
18:
1692:
1652:
1553:Indian Reorganization Act
1497:
1480:Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta
1338:United States v. Antelope
1177:
806:Custer Died for Your Sins
723:10.1080/14623520601056240
549:January 23, 2015, at the
268:Secretary of the Interior
247:Indian termination policy
181:Indian termination policy
108:
103:
84:
74:
69:
61:
50:
42:
33:
1705:Bureau of Indian Affairs
1607:Indian Child Welfare Act
1410:South Dakota v. Bourland
769:picturethis.museumca.org
651:10.1177/0192513x12447178
639:Journal of Family Issues
468:10.1177/2332649214560440
403:Indian Placement Program
360:American Indian Movement
358:. In addition, the
347:" of a single identity.
19:Not to be confused with
1754:Long Walk of the Navajo
1684:State recognized tribes
1583:Indian Civil Rights Act
1125:March 25, 2020, at the
188:in succeeding decades.
119:Committee consideration
1769:Native American gaming
1672:Legal status of Hawaii
1547:Indian Citizenship Act
1426:Idaho v. United States
1330:Bryan v. Itasca County
1266:Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock
1226:Standing Bear v. Crook
596:Weeks, Philip (2014).
530:July 26, 2009, at the
388:American Indian Center
293:
285:
186:urban Native Americans
1577:Indian Relocation Act
1434:United States v. Lara
1210:Fellows v. Blacksmith
966:. September 18, 1966.
888:on September 26, 2013
289:
280:
1837:1956 in American law
1202:Worcester v. Georgia
1131:the Newberry Library
1079:exhibits.lib.usu.edu
1005:. September 1, 1965.
356:protests on Alcatraz
148:Dwight D. Eisenhower
1749:Indian reservations
1710:Cherokee Commission
1186:Johnson v. McIntosh
1003:Salinas Californian
312:Evelyn Nakano Glenn
272:vocational training
231:settler colonialism
225:Settler colonialism
177:Indian reservations
104:Legislative history
30:
1809:Self-determination
1804:Tribal sovereignty
1730:Eagle-bone whistle
1523:Indian Removal Act
1511:Nonintercourse Act
1505:Blood quantum laws
1472:McGirt v. Oklahoma
939:www.apmreports.org
855:. February 7, 2017
352:black civil rights
28:
21:Indian Removal Act
1824:
1823:
1725:Eagle feather law
1659:State recognition
1450:Cobell v. Salazar
1362:Solem v. Bartlett
1234:Ex parte Crow Dog
1021:Missing or empty
982:Missing or empty
829:. August 15, 2016
827:National Archives
563:History and Facts
157:
156:
150:on August 3, 1956
132:Passed the Senate
87:Statutes at Large
1864:
1700:Aboriginal title
1517:Civilization Act
1453:(D.C. Cir. 2009)
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1001:"New Students".
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918:"Indian Country"
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878:"Public Law 959"
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645:(9): 1272–1293.
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276:Native Americans
256:Vine Deloria Jr.
138:Passed the House
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27:
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1737:Hunting license
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1565:Nationality Act
1493:
1466:Sharp v. Murphy
1386:Hodel v. Irving
1290:Williams v. Lee
1258:Talton v. Mayes
1173:
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1127:Wayback Machine
1110:Wayback Machine
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570:Wayback Machine
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551:Wayback Machine
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532:Wayback Machine
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505:South End Press
498:
491:
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362:was founded in
337:
298:
264:
262:Text of the law
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206:Navajo-Hopi Law
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163:(also known as
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144:Signed into law
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51:Enacted by
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5:
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1794:Trail of Tears
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1571:Public Law 280
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808:. Scribner.
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364:Minneapolis
345:melting pot
202:Julius Krug
1831:Categories
1789:Survivance
1535:Curtis Act
414:References
196:Background
113:Introduced
75:Public law
43:Long title
1541:Burke Act
1529:Dawes Act
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371:See also
341:pow wows
92:70
1693:Related
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660:3457652
167:or the
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