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meter to ten meters, with the largest ones located far from the shore. Eruptions over ten meters high have been observed, but it is believed that the height of the eruptions are proportional to the size of the mounds. A single eruption may increase the height of the volcano by several centimeters. When an eruption occurs above 0 °C (32 °F), however, the water erodes the uplift instead of expanding it. Spacing is determined by the amplitude and direction of the waves. In general, the appearance and number of ice volcanoes change considerably between winters.
131:. Instead, ice volcanoes are created by waves colliding with irregularities at the edge of an ice sheet. The abnormalities concentrate the wave energy in a small area, where the ice is eroded to form a V-shaped channel. Spray, ice, and slush splashing out of the feature create a volcanic cone at the channel's shoreward end. This process takes only a few hours. The lakeward end of the channel may then be sealed by ice, but the volcano may continue to erupt. A wave
38:
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is required, so the volcanoes normally form near land. They are found in successive rows, and within one row, the features usually have equal height and spacing. However, when comparing two rows, the height and spacing may be drastically different. Ice volcanoes range in height from less than one
143:, which absorb the wave energy needed for the phenomenon. Nonetheless, they may produce larger cones further out at sea, where the greater depth makes this possible. Formation is more thoroughly suppressed by powerful storms, which erode the ice too fast for mound creation.
146:
One type of ice volcano, known as a "cold spot", does not require waves to break against the edge of an ice shelf. Instead, water and slush erupt through a region of weak ice near the coast and form a mound. This is analogous to a
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107:
The uplifts may attract a number of visitors, but they are dangerous, and experts warn that people may fall through the ice or slip into the cold lake. Ice volcanoes are used by
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of at least one metre (3 ft 3 in) is needed to induce eruptions, so ice volcanoes are rarely active without storm-force winds. Formation near land is suppressed by
89:
there. The formations are temporary: they are frequently destroyed by storms and warm weather, and once the lake wholly freezes over, eruptions are no longer possible.
69:. The process is wave-driven, with wind providing the energy for the waves to cut through the ice and create formations that loosely mimic the shape and activity of
272:
85:, when the temperature is below freezing and the wind blows onshore with a velocity of at least 25 mph (40 km/h). They are known to reduce
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73:. After being ejected into the atmosphere, the liquid water and slush freeze and fall back to the surface, growing the formation.
174:. They are noted for their symmetry. Cold spot volcanoes are particularly symmetrical, but their eruption has not been observed.
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There is no consensus name for this phenomenon. Due to its visual similarity to volcanism and particularly
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388:. Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences at Michigan Technological University
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may also be erupted. The phenomenon is most often observed along the southern coast of
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127:, which are uplifts formed by the compression of ice against a shoreline or another
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96:, the term "ice volcano" is frequently used, but it remains controversial. Unlike
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Jeffries, Martin O. (December 29, 2006). "Sea ice". In
Rafferty, John P. (ed.).
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233:"Ice Volcanoes of the Lake Erie Shore Near Dunkirk, New York, U.S.A."
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Fahnestock, R. K.; Crowley, D. J.; Wilson, M.; Schneider, H. (1973).
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For the extraterrestrial volcanoes in the outer Solar System, see
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428:"Dozens of Ice Volcanoes Discovered on Nearby Dwarf Planet"
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Leonard Bryan, M.; Marcus, Melvin G. (September 1972).
197:"'Ice volcanoes' are a frozen Chicago beach phenomenon"
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Different types of ice volcanoes have been compared to
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412:"Bizarre 'ice volcanoes' erupt on Lake Michigan beach"
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is a conical mound of ice formed over a terrestrial
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Wave-driven mound of ice formed on terrestrial lakes
303:"Physical Characteristics of Near-Shore Ice Ridges"
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382:"Ice Volcanoes of Lake Superior's South Shore"
273:"A Great Lakes Oddity: Ice Volcanoes (PHOTOS)"
100:and related structures, ice volcanoes are not
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380:Dolan, Michael; Kimberly, Paul (2011-02-07).
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356:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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279:. The Weather Company. Archived from
1106:"Evidence of Cryovolcanism on Titan"
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111:as hunting platforms to search for
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386:Michigan Technological University
123:These features are distinct from
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271:Burlingame, Liz (2014-03-01).
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1145:Snow or ice weather phenomena
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195:Swasko, Mick (2015-02-12).
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257:10.1017/s0022143000022735
155:Appearance and eruptions
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344:Encyclopedia Britannica
438:on September 17, 2018.
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236:Journal of Glaciology
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29:
57:via the eruption of
30:An ice volcano over
961:Iceman (occupation)
432:National Geographic
320:10.14430/arctic2960
277:The Weather Channel
248:1973JGlac..12...93F
513:Crystalline phases
149:geological hotspot
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32:Lake Michigan
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1113:. Retrieved
1110:www.usgs.gov
1109:
1100:
870:Tour skating
670:Frost flower
603:
501:Major phases
442:
436:the original
431:
416:Live Science
415:
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390:. Retrieved
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285:. Retrieved
281:the original
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204:. Retrieved
200:
165:
160:Landfast ice
158:
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122:
106:
102:hydrothermal
91:
83:Lake Ontario
50:
48:
1040:Pleistocene
754:Ice-related
665:Frost heave
599:Stalactites
424:Nadia Drake
65:through an
51:ice volcano
21:Cryovolcano
1135:Glaciology
1129:Categories
1115:2021-10-13
1086:Wiktionary
1030:Glaciology
985:Other uses
855:Ice racing
850:Ice hockey
825:Iceboating
756:activities
527:Formations
518:Superionic
392:2018-05-25
346:. Chicago.
287:2018-05-26
206:2018-05-25
178:References
109:snowy owls
797:Sculpture
613:Phenomena
133:amplitude
119:Formation
113:waterfowl
79:Lake Erie
71:volcanoes
67:ice shelf
1064:Category
1022:Ice ages
976:YakhchÄl
956:Icehouse
782:Climbing
777:Blocking
772:Blasting
690:Hair ice
640:Crystals
329:40508045
1140:Sea ice
946:Cutting
920:Pykrete
840:Cycling
835:Curling
830:Cricket
802:Skating
792:Rafting
787:Fishing
767:Bathing
710:Nucleus
695:Jacking
674:sea ice
672: (
604:Volcano
568:calving
566: (
564:Iceberg
559:Glacier
244:Bibcode
98:geysers
1079:
1068:
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951:Icebox
910:Palace
895:Bridge
812:Sports
730:Slurry
705:Needle
655:Frazil
574:Icicle
534:Anchor
327:
307:Arctic
141:shoals
1002:Cream
992:Chips
971:Trade
905:Igloo
900:Hotel
820:Bandy
745:Storm
735:Slush
725:Shuga
720:Shove
680:Glaze
660:Frost
635:Clear
625:Black
594:Spike
589:Sheet
554:Field
494:water
490:state
487:solid
325:JSTOR
137:reefs
63:slush
59:water
43:Ystad
1012:Pack
1007:Cube
997:Core
966:Pick
939:Work
930:Road
925:Rink
915:Pier
740:Snow
715:Rime
700:Névé
685:Hail
645:Firn
549:Dune
544:Cave
485:The
358:link
170:and
139:and
129:floe
81:and
61:and
55:lake
890:Bar
650:Fog
584:Sea
579:Jam
539:Cap
492:of
477:Ice
315:doi
252:doi
75:Ice
49:An
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366:^
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