Volcano - Knowledge

1001: 2542:. Even then, some eruptions will have no useful warning. An example of this occurred in March 2017, when a tourist group was witnessing a presumed to be predictable Mount Etna eruption and the flowing lava came in contact with a snow accumulation causing a situational phreatic explosion causing injury to ten persons. Other types of significant eruptions are known to give useful warnings of only hours at the most by seismic monitoring. The recent demonstration of a magma chamber with repose times of tens of thousands of years, with potential for rapid recharge so potentially decreasing warning times, under the youngest volcano in central Europe, does not tell us if more careful monitoring will be useful. 1202: 2043: 453: 33: 1755: 223: 2270: 1190: 580: 2534:

volcanic activities. While the science of volcanology may not yet be capable of predicting the exact times and dates of eruptions far into the future, on suitably monitored volcanoes the monitoring of ongoing volcanic indicators is often capable of predicting imminent eruptions with advance warnings minimally of hours, and usually of days prior to any eruptions. The diversity of volcanoes and their complexities mean that eruption forecasts for the foreseeable future will be based on

617: 2550:

ability is derived via such volcanic-activity monitoring programs, through the greater abilities of local officials to facilitate timely evacuations based upon the greater modern-day knowledge of volcanism that is now available, and upon improved communications technologies such as cell phones. Such operations tend to provide enough time for humans to escape at least with their lives before a pending eruption. One example of such a recent successful volcanic evacuation was the

1150: 2278: 4123: 1958: 1174: 7732: 1648: 3000: 7756: 4084: 2656: 759: 1861: 2424: 689: 1338: 7503: 7768: 2593: 7744: 1602: 387:, which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off the plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The 456: 455: 5136: 460: 459: 454: 1406:) are highly hazardous products of such volcanoes since they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as high as 850 °C (1,560 °F) are known to occur in pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in their path, and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid down, often many meters thick. 461: 458: 1153: 1156: 1155: 1151: 2431:) with major historical volcanic eruptions in the 19th and 20th century (VEI 5, 6 and 7). From left to right: Yellowstone 2.1 Ma, Yellowstone 1.3 Ma, Long Valley 6.26 Ma, Yellowstone 0.64 Ma . 19th century eruptions: Tambora 1815, Krakatoa 1883. 20th century eruptions: Novarupta 1912, St. Helens 1980, Pinatubo 1991. 1157: 5555:

Wieczorek, Mark A.; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Khan, Amir; Pritchard, Matthew E.; Weiss, Benjamin P.; Williams, James G.; Hood, Lon L.; Righter, Kevin; Neal, Clive R.; Shearer, Charles K.; McCallum, I. Stewart; Tompkins, Stephanie; Hawke, B. Ray; Peterson, Chris; Gillis, Jeffrey J.; Bussey, Ben (January 1,

2499:

Although volcanic eruptions pose considerable hazards to humans, past volcanic activity has created important economic resources. Tuff formed from volcanic ash is a relatively soft rock, and it has been used for construction since ancient times. The Romans often used tuff, which is abundant in Italy,

1896:

in 2008. Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in the modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style,

1477:

rises into the overlying mantle, lowering its melting point, particularly for the more silica-rich minerals. Fractional crystallization further enriches the magma in silica. It has also been suggested that intermediate magmas are produced by the melting of sediments carried downwards by the subducted

1887:

pointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "he term "dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in the glossaries or index", however the

1575:

words. ʻAʻa is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa

1015:

Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the ocean's surface. In the deep ocean

2517:

Volcanic ash and weathered basalt produce some of the most fertile soil in the world, rich in nutrients such as iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus. Volcanic activity is responsible for emplacing valuable mineral resources, such as metal ores. It is accompanied by high rates of heat

2033:

The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to describe the

1698:

Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by yet higher viscosities and partial crystallization of magma, which is often intermediate in composition. Eruptions take the form of short-lived explosions for several hours, which destroy a central dome and eject large lava blocks and bombs. This is followed

1355:

The form and style of an eruption of a volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma.

2864:

found in East African volcanic ash dated at 3.66 million years old. The association of volcanoes with fire and disaster is found in many oral traditions and had religious and thus social significance before the first written record of concepts related to volcanoes. Examples are: (1) the stories in

1928:

was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were

1875:

The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again. Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but

1028:

is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to

2024:

can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years may be considered dormant instead of extinct. An individual volcano in a monogenetic volcanic field can be extinct but that does not mean a completely new

909:

A supervolcano is defined as a volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event. Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a

2549:

Thus in many cases, while volcanic eruptions may still cause major property destruction, the periodic large-scale loss of human life that was once associated with many volcanic eruptions, has recently been significantly reduced in areas where volcanoes are adequately monitored. This life-saving

2533:

Many volcanoes near human settlements are heavily monitored with the aim of providing adequate advance warnings of imminent eruptions to nearby populations. Also, a better modern-day understanding of volcanology has led to some better informed governmental and public responses to unanticipated

5348: 2643:

are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar

1154: 707:(both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in 473:

A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a

1633:(shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism. 1822:, but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform amongst volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon a graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories. 2545:

Scientists are known to perceive risk, with its social elements, differently from local populations and those that undertake social risk assessments on their behalf, so that both disruptive false alarms and retrospective blame, when disasters occur, will continue to happen.

929:, and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of 2561:

Citizens who may be concerned about their own exposure to risk from nearby volcanic activity should familiarize themselves with the types of, and quality of, volcano monitoring and public notification procedures being employed by governmental authorities in their areas.

868:

posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting

245:

During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in the theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are

1443:

Felsic magmas are formed within the crust, usually through the melting of crust rock from the heat of underlying mafic magmas. The lighter felsic magma floats on the mafic magma without significant mixing. Less commonly, felsic magmas are produced by extreme

5012:

Aiuppa, Alessandro; Moretti, Roberto; Federico, Cinzia; Giudice, Gaetano; Gurrieri, Sergio; Liuzzo, Marco; Papale, Paolo; Shinohara, Hiroshi; Valenza, Mariano (2007). "Forecasting Etna eruptions by real-time observation of volcanic gas composition".

421:

and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an

627:

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentle

1663:

Magmatic eruptions are driven primarily by gas release due to decompression. Low-viscosity magma with little dissolved gas produces relatively gentle effusive eruptions. High-viscosity magma with a high content of dissolved gas produces violent

457: 2078:(IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations-sponsored 2737:

is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.

1891:

Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalisation is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of the

2639:, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. 1682:

Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderate viscosities and dissolved gas levels. They are characterized by frequent but short-lived eruptions that can produce eruptive columns hundreds of meters high, which can also be seen in

501:

at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behavior of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by

325:

zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called

3568:

Lawrence, S.J.; Stopar, J.D.; Hawke, B.R.; Greenhagen, B.T.; Cahill, J.T.S.; Bandfield, J.L.; Jolliff, B.L.; Denevi, B.W.; Robinson, M.S.; Glotch, T.D.; Bussey, D.B.J.; Spudis, P.D.; Giguere, T.A.; Garry, W.B. (2013).

1140:

Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.

1613:(long dimension is several mm): the curved shapes of altered glass shards (ash fragments) are well preserved, although the glass is partly altered. The shapes were formed around bubbles of expanding, water-rich gas. 2075: 1495:. These lavas are usually hotter and much less viscous than felsic lavas. Mafic magmas are formed by partial melting of the dry mantle, with limited fractional crystallization and assimilation of crustal material. 2034:

various levels and stages of volcanic activity. Some alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors and words. Some systems use a combination of both.

152:

Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus. In 2009, a paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such as

1152: 632:. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in 1617:

Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases

5274:

Marcari, G., G. Fabbrocino, and G. Manfredi. "Shear seismic capacity of tuff masonry panels in heritage constructions." Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture X 95 (2007):

5713:

Robinson, Cordula A.; Thornhill, Gill D.; Parfitt, Elisabeth A. (1995). "Large-scale volcanic activity at Maat Mons: Can this explain fluctuations in atmospheric chemistry observed by Pioneer Venus?".

3636:

Berger, Melvin, Gilda Berger, and Higgins Bond. "Volcanoes-why and how ." Why do volcanoes blow their tops?: Questions and answers about volcanoes and earthquakes. New York: Scholastic, 1999. 7. Print.

1713:

Plinian eruptions are the most violent of all volcanic eruptions. They are characterized by sustained huge eruption columns whose collapse produces catastrophic pyroclastic flows. They are named after

877:

like the one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose

2616:

has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as

242:, and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created). 1551:, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and were probably more fluid than common mafic lavas, with a viscosity less than a tenth that of hot basalt magma. 7303: 1830:

The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater.

936:

Because of the enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful

5812: 1741:

are characterized by superheating of groundwater that comes in contact with hot rock or magma. They are distinguished from phreatomagmatic eruptions because the erupted material is all

2932:

with a central fire connected to numerous others depicting volcanoes as a type of safety valve. Edward Jorden, in his work on mineral waters, challenged this view; in 1632 he proposed

1799:(the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for the same time interval. 838:

that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples include

1968:

Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the

1056:

monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An

2869:'s migration through the Hawarian island chain, ability to destroy forests and manifestations of the god's temper, and (3) the association in Javanese folklore of a king resident in 6539: 6125:

Troll, VR; Deegan, FM; Jolis, EM; Budd, DA; Dahren, B; Schwarzkopf, LM (2015). "Ancient oral tradition describes volcano–earthquake interaction at Merapi volcano, Indonesia".

3498:

Meresse, S.; Costard, F.O.; Mangold, N.; Masson, P.; Neukum, G. (2008). "Formation and evolution of the chaotic terrains by subsidence and magmatism: Hydraotes Chaos, Mars".

5538: 2860:

Volcanoes are not distributed evenly over the Earth's surface but active ones with significant impact were encountered early in human history, evidenced by footprints of

3863: 1924:

Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness.

1041:

feeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or floating

980:

Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in the same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes".

750:

Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon.

3735:

Druitt, T. H.; Costa, F.; Deloule, E.; Dungan, M.; Scaillet, B. (2012). "Decadal to monthly timescales of magma transfer and reservoir growth at a caldera volcano".

2956:

had demonstrated by 1794 that steam explosions could cause explosive eruptions and many geologists held this as the universal cause of explosive eruptions up to the

695:, the youngest volcano in El Salvador. Izalco erupted almost continuously from 1770 (when it formed) to 1958, earning it the nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific". 304:(also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such as 4124:"Descriptive nomenclature and classification of pyroclastic deposits and fragments: recommendations of the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks" 5978: 5786: 4775: 1706:

Peléan eruptions are more violent still, being characterized by dome growth and collapse that produces various kinds of pyroclastic flows. They are named after

538:

in New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognise as such and be obscured by geological processes.

650:

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of

3658: 1448:

of more mafic magmas. This is a process in which mafic minerals crystallize out of the slowly cooling magma, which enriches the remaining liquid in silica.

4892:"Constraints on the pre-eruptive magma storage conditions and magma evolution of the 56–30 ka explosive volcanism of Ciomadul (East Carpathians, Romania)" 2079: 1671:

Hawaiian eruptions are typical of volcanoes that erupt mafic lava with a relatively low gas content. These are almost entirely effusive, producing local

106:

has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the

5459: 1655:

Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. The intensity of explosive volcanism is expressed using the

1060:

research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by the formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of

417:

Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by

2873:

volcano and a queen resident at a beach 50 km (31 mi) away on what is now known to be an earthquake fault that interacts with that volcano.

1478:

slab. Another process is magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir before emplacement or lava flow.

5519: 5209: 2821:, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the 561:, which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of 6556: 4890:

Cserép, B.; Szemerédi, M.; Harangi, S.; Erdmann, S.; Bachmann, O.; Dunkl, I.; Seghedi, I.; Mészáros, K.; Kovács, Z.; Virág, A; Ntaflos, T. (2023).

2296:

Volcanic eruptions pose a significant threat to human civilization. However, volcanic activity has also provided humans with important resources.

1473:, by several processes. One process is the hydration melting of mantle peridotite followed by fractional crystallization. Water from a subducting 1622:. These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from the volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter ( 4735: 6604: 1897:

depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale. For example, the

5820: 1016:

basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by

670:

was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down the north side of the mountain.

6303: 6325:

Berryman, Kelvin; Villamor, Pilar; Nairn, Ian.A.; Begg, John; Alloway, Brent V.; Rowland, Julie; Lee, Julie; Capote, Ramon (July 1, 2022).

2451:

that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today. Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to major extinction events, such as the

658:. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent. 2846:

from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.

2746:, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into 4523: 4104: 226:

Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading ridges) and recent sub-aerial volcanoes (mostly at convergent boundaries)

3915: 6057: 4713: 1356:

Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases.

7685: 7227: 3019: 2988:

structure, partial decompression melting of magma, and magma convection. This eventually led to the acceptance of plate tectonics.

2490: 1422:

in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough to erupt high into the

4689: 1844:

While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano, the USGS defines a volcano as

346:. When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called 4099: 3533:

Brož, P.; Hauber, E. (2012). "A unique volcanic field in Tharsis, Mars: Pyroclastic cones as evidence for explosive eruptions".

1398:

Because felsic magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which leads to explosive volcanism.

252:

with more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once are

5558: 5535: 3029: 5947: 7323: 6480: 6461: 6442: 6423: 5863: 4672: 4222: 3621: 3356: 2452: 2245:, monitors nine volcanoes, two of which are Decade volcanoes. The focus of the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project is to use 5257: 3203: 2944:

proposed the core of Earth was incandescent and, by 1785, the works of Decartes and others were synthesised into geology by

2369:

aerosols that can reflect solar radiation and lower surface temperatures significantly. Sulfur dioxide from the eruption of

1445: 111: 7361: 4313: 2865:

the Athabascan subcultures about humans living inside mountains and a woman who uses fire to escape from a mountain, (2)

2246: 2238: 1969: 6327:"Volcano-tectonic interactions at the southern margin of the Okataina Volcanic Centre, Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand" 5346:"Making Moai: Reconsidering Concepts of Risk in the Construction of Megalithic Architecture in Rapa Nui (Easter Island)" 2477:" because of the effect on North American and European weather. The freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread 2257:

ratios in real-time and in high-resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving

7313: 7298: 6597: 5345: 3014: 2644:

sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano

2571: 2420:

blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. This can cause major disruptions to air travel.

904: 330:, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creating 5990: 2652:

near the summit and on the northern flank. However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.

1000: 6220: 6184: 5885: 5244: 4783: 3898: 3458: 3381: 3269: 1993: 1961: 667: 234:, its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to 7328: 7308: 6012:

Zaitsev, AN; Chakhmouradian, AR; Musiba, C (2023). "Laetoli: The Oldest Known Hominin Footprints in Volcanic Ash".

5286: 1910: 1718: 94:, and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a 6384: 3571:"LRO observations of morphology and surface roughness of volcanic cones and lobate lava flows in the Marius Hills" 2899:

However, others proposed more natural (but still incorrect) causes of volcanic activity. In the fifth century BC,

1579:

More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where the flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks.

7772: 7255: 6498: 6170:"Geomythology, theodicy, and the continuing relevance of religious worldviews on responses to volcanic eruptions" 4531: 3034: 2957: 2374: 2258: 5408: 4969: 3646: 2977: 7318: 4508: 4285: 3040: 1806:

ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years. Volcanoes are informally described as

1213:

has erupted continuously for thousands of years, giving rise to its nickname "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".

1111: 6590: 5456: 2416:

where the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the

1411: 5653: 7819: 7220: 2704:

spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.

2478: 5516: 5217: 4170:"Tunable diode laser measurements of hydrothermal/volcanic CO2 and implications for the global CO2 budget" 1005: 7814: 7799: 5986: 5843: 4211: 4053: 3920: 2311: 2025:

volcano might not erupt close by with little or no warning as its field may have an active magma supply.

1642: 6553: 5375: 4753: 2285: 1110:

analyzed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The

7748: 7715: 7710: 7260: 6723: 5236: 4168:

Pedone, M.; Aiuppa, A.; Giudice, G.; Grassa, F.; Francofonte, V.; Bergsson, B.; Ilyinskaya, E. (2014).

4014:"Episodic massive mud eruptions from submarine mud volcanoes examined through topographical signatures" 3024: 1909:

was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected

1884: 1868: 1656: 708: 293: 254: 248: 5918: 2042: 1201: 4732: 945: 24: 2273:

Solar radiation graph 1958–2008, showing how the radiation is reduced after major volcanic eruptions

1090:, or (in Iceland) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in 7809: 6517: 6090:

Swanson, DA (2008). "Hawaiian oral tradition describes 400 years of volcanic activity at Kīlauea".

4626: 4585: 4524:"The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism" 3835: 3802: 2460: 2050: 1880: 1789: 1724: 1455: 1393:

in California is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.

134:

is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

123: 118:

in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling

20: 3424: 2173: 296:

are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new

7824: 7354: 7213: 6575: 6385:"Arthur Holmes: Harnessing the Mechanics of Mantle Convection to the Theory of Continental Drift" 6297: 5314:"The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*" 5168: 5099: 4623: 4582: 3841: 3808: 3172: 2790: 2448: 2242: 2017: 1785: 1320: 926: 523: 277: 157:. It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from which 83: 4615: 3830: 7265: 6487:

This is a reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.

6211:

Sigurdsson, H; Houghton, B; Rymer, H; Stix, J; McNutt, S (2000). "The history of volcanology".

1778: 1742: 6544: 5409:"A message from the 'underground forge of the gods': History and current eruptions at Mt Etna" 5407:

Thomaidis, K; Troll, VR; Deegan, FM; Freda, C; Corsaro, RA; Behncke, B; Rafailidis, S (2021).

5231: 4834:

Castro, J.; Dingwell, D. (2009). "Rapid ascent of rhyolitic magma at Chaitén volcano, Chile".

3611: 1852:, ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present. 1802:

Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an

1465:. Intermediate magmas are characteristic of stratovolcanoes. They are most commonly formed at 6626: 5790: 5748:

Mouginis-Mark, Peter J. (October 2016). "Geomorphology and volcanology of Maat Mons, Venus".

5117: 4556: 3428: 3259: 2575: 2474: 1949:

in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE.

1466: 1423: 427: 258:(meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region. 52: 32: 4664: 4089:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

1307:. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example 830:

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and

666:

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The

7829: 7193: 7029: 6338: 6134: 6099: 6021: 5757: 5722: 5687: 5567: 5489: 5423: 5064: 5022: 4957: 4903: 4843: 4806:"Mount Edgecumbe volcanic field changes from 'dormant' to 'active' -- what does that mean?" 4540: 4400: 4181: 4025: 3976: 3929: 3744: 3701: 3582: 3542: 3507: 3480: 3184: 3129: 3082: 2554:

evacuation of 1991. This evacuation is believed to have saved 20,000 lives. In the case of

2406: 2167: 2020:. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" 1972:

in the Pacific Ocean (although some volcanoes at the eastern end of the chain are active),

1938: 1162: 711:

that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as

359: 351: 103: 5145:

McGee, Kenneth A.; Doukas, Michael P.; Kessler, Richard; Gerlach, Terrence M. (May 1997).

4942: 3945: 3286: 1893: 534:

are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with

8: 7280: 6918: 6751: 5545:

Courthouse News Service. By Candace Cheung. August 17, 2022. Downloaded August 17, 2022.

4710: 3051: 2953: 2928: 2785: 2219: 2054: 1946: 1898: 1699:

by an effusive phase that rebuilds the central dome. Vulcanian eruptions are named after

1659:(VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions. 1011:

Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the

941: 400: 396: 317: 91: 6342: 6169: 6138: 6103: 6025: 5761: 5726: 5691: 5571: 5493: 5427: 5186: 5068: 5026: 4961: 4907: 4847: 4544: 4404: 4185: 4029: 3980: 3933: 3748: 3705: 3586: 3546: 3511: 3484: 3188: 3133: 3094: 3086: 1264:, particles of solid material of all shapes and sizes ejected and thrown through the air 918:

emplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of

889:. Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 meters (4 ft) across and weigh several tons. 7804: 7794: 7736: 7680: 7467: 7442: 7347: 7290: 6366: 6254: 6237: 6150: 6037: 5855: 5583: 5439: 5146: 5080: 4867: 4143: 3717: 3153: 2911: 2904: 2822: 2587: 2535: 2394: 2315: 2229: 2157: 2065: 1665: 1073: 995: 870: 861: 447: 267: 193: 99: 87: 5049: 4250: 3713: 2889: 1930: 1754: 7755: 7675: 7534: 7472: 7113: 7069: 7019: 6928: 6893: 6476: 6457: 6438: 6419: 6412: 6370: 6351: 6326: 6259: 6216: 6180: 6154: 6111: 6041: 5859: 5587: 5443: 5330: 5313: 5240: 4859: 4668: 4281: 4218: 4147: 3894: 3778: 3770: 3617: 3454: 3377: 3352: 3265: 3157: 3145: 3098: 2949: 2776: 2711: 2678:, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include 2666:, "Mount Olympus"), located on the planet Mars, is the tallest known mountain in the 2579: 2382: 2289: 2269: 1738: 1714: 1572: 1567: 1557: 1525: 1304: 1300: 1218: 1030: 989: 969: 874: 629: 435: 392: 380: 375: 355: 343: 239: 127: 107: 36: 5955: 5678:

Bindschadler, D.L. (1995). "Magellan: A new view of Venus' geology and geophysics".

5084: 4943:"Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" 3988: 2941: 222: 7760: 7690: 7659: 7654: 7437: 7250: 7148: 7044: 6913: 6845: 6356: 6346: 6282: 6249: 6142: 6107: 6029: 5851: 5765: 5730: 5695: 5575: 5497: 5431: 5325: 5072: 5030: 4965: 4921: 4911: 4871: 4851: 4660: 4630: 4589: 4548: 4408: 4189: 4135: 4033: 3992: 3984: 3967:

Mazzini, Adriano; Etiope, Giuseppe (May 2017). "Mud volcanism: An updated review".

3937: 3797: 3760: 3752: 3709: 3590: 3550: 3515: 3137: 3090: 3005: 2985: 2896:

and the concepts of the underworld are aligned to volcanoes in that Greek culture.

2597: 2519: 2494: 2456: 2335: 2147: 2101: 2069: 2013: 1864: 1849: 1675:

and highly fluid lava flows but relatively little tephra. They are named after the

1509: 1505: 1399: 1296: 1245: 1091: 865: 704: 692: 651: 591: 388: 131: 4634: 4593: 3376:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 380–384, 390. 2984:

work had brought together the concepts of radioactive generation of heat, Earth's

2412:

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially

1189: 1029:

air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor.

620: 7629: 7492: 7404: 7394: 7270: 7118: 7039: 7024: 6978: 6958: 6645: 6560: 6534: 5769: 5627: 5542: 5523: 5463: 5352: 5261: 4739: 4717: 3554: 3519: 3211: 2961: 2937: 2855: 2798: 2698:. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European 2583: 2558:, a 2021 review found 77 deaths due to eruptions since 1536 but none since 1987. 2539: 2463: 2436: 2377:. Chemical reactions of sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere can also damage the 2331: 2305: 1997: 1796: 1630: 1547:, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at Earth's surface since the 1501: 1427: 1312: 1178: 1123: 531: 498: 289: 273: 217: 197: 189: 146: 115: 95: 48: 6033: 3233: 3171:

Lopes, R. M.; Mitchell, K. L.; Williams, D. A.; Mitri, G.; Gregg, T. K. (2009).

1114:

was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of

565:

volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

7705: 7634: 7452: 7432: 7275: 6963: 6660: 4926: 4916: 4891: 3045: 2973: 2969: 2839: 2726: 2687: 2551: 2398: 2281: 1839: 1762: 1676: 1474: 1470: 1292: 1288: 1237: 1233: 1194: 1119: 949: 847: 744: 720: 611: 579: 466: 465:

Video of lava agitating and bubbling in the volcanic eruption of Litli-Hrútur (

280:

diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath the thinned

6512: 5502: 5477: 5287:"Home Away from Home: Ancestral Pueblo Fieldhouses in the Northern Rio Grande" 4941:

Chesner, C.A.; Rose, J.A.; Deino, W.I.; Drake, R.; Westgate, A. (March 1991).

4805: 4413: 4388: 2076:

International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior

1707: 1668:. The range of observed eruption styles is expressed from historical examples. 1430:

may travel hundreds of kilometers before it falls back to ground as a fallout

7788: 7700: 7604: 7511: 7487: 7462: 7457: 7447: 7049: 6883: 6582: 6529: 5140: 4574: 4095: 4090: 3774: 3149: 3102: 2981: 2843: 2772: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2683: 2511: 2470: 2440: 2366: 2153: 2009: 1876:

have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in the future.

1672: 1521: 1481:

If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called

1341: 1057: 886: 843: 825: 764: 728: 679: 281: 154: 138: 72: 4552: 1937:, thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital 957: 616: 535: 7695: 7639: 7477: 7409: 7034: 6731: 6263: 5526:

LiveScience. By Stephanie Pappas. June 15, 2011. Downloaded July 25, 2022.

4863: 4194: 4169: 3782: 2965: 2945: 2877: 2870: 2866: 2818: 2755: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2667: 2659: 2413: 2370: 2343: 2189: 2141: 2137: 1770: 1732: 1610: 1529: 1435: 1419: 1280: 1274: 1225: 1182: 1034: 1021: 937: 919: 898: 857: 740: 574: 515: 494: 418: 384: 347: 327: 301: 68: 64: 5895: 5579: 5312:

Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005).

5124:. trans. Jóhann Hannesson, Pétur Karlsson. Reykjavík: Almenna bókafélagið. 5050:"The significance of volcanic eruption strength and frequency for climate" 3941: 3117: 724: 518:) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on the 137:

Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of

7589: 7544: 7519: 7427: 7399: 7389: 6813: 6808: 6771: 5285:

Dolan, S.G.; Cates, K.M.; Conrad, C.N.; Copeland, S.R. (March 14, 2019).

4990: 4038: 4013: 3402: 3141: 2768: 2754:, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the 2378: 2277: 2215: 2209: 2001: 1914: 1728: 1555:

Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced

1548: 1390: 1284: 1166: 1135: 1042: 1025: 683: 655: 558: 542: 431: 231: 201: 169: 142: 5169:"Supervolcano eruption – in Sumatra – deforested India 73,000 years ago" 4855: 3756: 3721: 1957: 1562: 1173: 1169:

is home to 20 Holocene volcanoes, 3 of which have erupted in last 100yrs

7614: 7564: 7539: 7014: 6933: 6761: 6146: 5601: 5232:

Volcanoes in human history: the far-reaching effects of major eruptions

4139: 3997: 3595: 3570: 3173:"What is a Volcano? How planetary volcanism has changed our definition" 2915: 2900: 2893: 2679: 2640: 2625: 2617: 2555: 2347: 2163: 2115: 2087: 1985: 1973: 1942: 1934: 1539: 1403: 1337: 1316: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1083: 1082:. They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and 1053: 1038: 1017: 953: 839: 736: 322: 235: 6361: 5734: 5699: 5466:

National Geographic. By Maya Wei-Haas. 2015. Downloaded June 24, 2022.

5435: 5034: 3765: 2968:

eruptions from dry explosive eruption, of, as it turned out, a basalt

2940:(1571–1630) believed volcanoes were ducts for Earth's tears. In 1650, 2717:

is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of

2600:

volcano erupts a plume 330 km (205 mi) above the surface of

925:

Supervolcano eruptions, while the most dangerous type, are very rare;

527: 426:), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual 126:, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in 7599: 7584: 7569: 7417: 7168: 7059: 7009: 6968: 6878: 6835: 6698: 6677: 5478:"Scientists' views about lay perceptions of volcanic hazard and risk" 5076: 4655:

Martí Molist, Joan (September 6, 2017). "Assessing Volcanic Hazard".

3073:

Rampino, M R; Self, S; Stothers, R B (May 1988). "Volcanic Winters".

2919: 2832: 2763: 2734: 2714: 2645: 2605: 2481:

in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic eruption.

2444: 2390: 2386: 2179: 2131: 2095: 2091: 2046: 1902: 1692: 1647: 1619: 1580: 1544: 1513: 1488: 1461: 1415: 1349: 1332: 1206: 1115: 961: 851: 716: 645: 507: 503: 423: 363: 285: 76: 5813:"Exceptionally bright eruption on Io rivals largest in solar system" 3864:"Origin of mystery humming noises heard around the world, uncovered" 2125: 1731:. They are driven by the resulting rapid buildup of pressure in the 292:

of the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most

7644: 7619: 7594: 7524: 7128: 7092: 7082: 6973: 6655: 6617: 6565: 6177:

Living under the shadow: The cultural impacts of volcanic eruptions

5147:"Impacts of Volcanic Gases on Climate, the Environment, and People" 4742:

Wired. August 15, 2015. By Erik Klimetti. Downloaded July 24, 2022.

2999: 2923: 2861: 2835: 2730: 2655: 2649: 2501: 2351: 2323: 2225: 2183: 1981: 1925: 1906: 1860: 1793: 1684: 1584: 1382: 1308: 1107: 1012: 519: 297: 6853: 3048: – System for uniquely identifying volcanic features on Earth 2721:

interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt

2423: 1901:

volcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and

19:

This article is about the geological feature. For other uses, see

7574: 7559: 7502: 7384: 7205: 6994: 6948: 6938: 6873: 6783: 6667: 5139:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

4614:

Venzke, E. (compiler) (December 19, 2022). Venzke, Edward (ed.).

4573:

Venzke, E. (compiler) (December 19, 2022). Venzke, Edward (ed.).

2885: 2806: 2802: 2780: 2707: 2601: 2439:

is thought to have taken place around 70,000 years ago after the

2417: 2355: 2121: 2105: 2021: 1977: 1918: 1774: 1766: 1700: 1517: 1386: 1359:

Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions:

1079: 1061: 1049: 965: 911: 758: 732: 688: 633: 587: 562: 554: 546: 511: 486: 335: 305: 185: 5517:

Pinatubo: Why the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Wasn't the Deadliest

5097: 4776:"How is a volcano defined as being active, dormant, or extinct?" 3328: 2592: 2525:

Tourism associated with volcanoes is also a worldwide industry.

598:

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which

102:, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the 7624: 7609: 7579: 7554: 7549: 7529: 7482: 7304:

Large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province

7178: 7163: 7158: 7123: 7097: 7077: 6999: 6953: 6943: 6858: 6830: 6820: 6798: 6741: 6713: 6708: 6682: 6548: 5787:"Glacial, volcanic and fluvial activity on Mars: latest images" 5556:

2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior".

3316: 2933: 2908: 2903:

proposed eruptions were caused by a great wind. By 65 CE,

2825: 2814: 2794: 2722: 2636: 2402: 2359: 2327: 2319: 2205: 2109: 2058: 1758: 1688: 1596: 1492: 1407: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1345: 1261: 1210: 930: 878: 835: 831: 700: 550: 339: 145:. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by 119: 5536:

About to blow: Are we ready for the next volcanic catastrophe?

4344: 4294: 4231: 3304: 2907:

proposed combustion as the cause, an idea also adopted by the

1601: 1576:

flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse.

1258:, the name of magma when it emerges and flows over the surface 284:. The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads to 75:

below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called

7153: 7143: 7133: 7004: 6923: 6903: 6868: 6863: 6825: 6803: 6788: 6778: 6756: 6736: 6703: 6672: 6640: 6613: 5890: 5554: 4889: 4481: 3567: 2960:

which allowed in one event differentiation of the concurrent

2718: 2663: 2632: 2621: 2339: 2199: 2193: 2005: 1500:

Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings. These include

1483: 1364: 1229: 882: 699:

Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of

391:

are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the

331: 161:, as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.' 158: 56: 7339: 5357:

Rapa Nui–Easter Island: Cultural and Historical Perspectives

5011: 4690:"Difference Between an Active, Dormant, and Extinct Volcano" 4457: 4421: 4356: 3390: 3118:"A Morphological and Spatial Analysis of Volcanoes on Venus" 2888:. The earliest known such example is a neolithic goddess at 2813:

also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the

2016:

in Scotland is located atop an extinct volcano, which forms

1453:

If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of

1106:

in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such

403:. However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. 7649: 7422: 7173: 7087: 6793: 6766: 6746: 6650: 6210: 6011: 5926: 4970:

10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2

4445: 4433: 3916:"Tuyas, flat-topped volcanoes in northern British Columbia" 3870: 3673: 3654: 3497: 2881: 2675: 2613: 2506: 2473:

created global climate anomalies that became known as the "

2385:(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) can fall to the ground as 2365:

Volcanic gases can reach the stratosphere, where they form

1879:

In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's

1623: 1606: 1431: 1255: 1087: 915: 712: 599: 583: 490: 412: 399:

being part of the North American plate currently above the

60: 6571: 5235:. Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Donald Theodore Sanders (2002). 4720:

usgs.gov. Updated July 24, 2022. Downloaded July 24, 2022.

3471:

Wood, C.A. (1979). "Cindercones on Earth, Moon and Mars".

3170: 1883:

volcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at the

7138: 6908: 6324: 5406: 5144: 4754:"Volcanic Hazards & Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions" 4167: 2936:"fermentation" as a heat source within Earth, Astronomer 2747: 2428: 2427:

Comparison of major United States prehistoric eruptions (

2318:(steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruptions of high- 1287:

is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by

514:. Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and 5886:"Cassini Finds an Atmosphere on Saturn's Moon Enceladus" 5712: 5284: 4469: 4368: 4332: 3734: 3287:"Do monogenetic volcanoes threaten the southwestern US?" 2447:

on Sumatra island in Indonesia. This may have created a

2389:. Excessive fluoride salts from eruptions have poisoned 2074:

The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the

753: 165: 6554:

U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency Volcano advice

5979:""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io" 4733:

How We Tell if a Volcano Is Active, Dormant, or Extinct

2976:

built upon his other knowledge with his studies on the

1989: 1098:, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the 5844:"Chapter 44 - Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System" 2565: 1727:

are characterized by interaction of rising magma with

1004:

Satellite images of the January 15, 2022, eruption of

39:(Alaska) during its eruptive phase on January 24, 2006 6277:

Williams, Micheal (November 2007). "Hearts of fire".

5311: 5057:

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society

5047: 4940: 4613: 4572: 2791:

fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus

654:, but can also form independently, as in the case of 6124: 5338: 5100:"Volcanic Eruption Of 1600 Caused Global Disruption" 5048:

Miles, M.G.; Grainger, R.G.; Highwood, E.J. (2004).

3893:(Fourth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2995: 2876:

Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to

1651:

Schematic of volcano injection of aerosols and gases

1537:

Some erupted magmas contain ≤45% silica and produce

1283:

can vary considerably from one volcano to the next.

342:

content, so it often does not reach the surface but

230:

According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's

5781: 5779: 5098:University of California – Davis (April 25, 2008). 3072: 2849: 2518:flow from Earth's interior. These can be tapped as 2080:

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

1867:, India, is classified as a dormant volcano by the 1086:. These volcanoes are also called table mountains, 164:This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See 6411: 6206: 6204: 6202: 6200: 6198: 6196: 5475: 4728: 4726: 4210: 3692:Francis, Peter (1983). "Giant Volcanic Calderas". 3657:Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. August 21, 2015. 3054: – Institution that monitors volcano activity 2346:. These can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, 2082:(the 1990s). The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are: 623:, a shield volcano whose name means "broad shield" 545:(or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of 16:Rupture in a planet's crust where material escapes 6127:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography 5305: 5268: 4012:Kioka, Arata; Ashi, Juichiro (October 28, 2015). 3861: 1389:and are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows. 873:that produce great quantities of ash, as well as 594:, has a chain of volcanic cones along its length. 7786: 5776: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5396: 4768: 2750:on the frigid surface. This process is known as 2326:), effusive eruptions of low-silica lava (e.g., 485:The most common perception of a volcano is of a 6409: 6302:. Wellington, New Zealand: Government Printer. 6193: 5850:, Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 763–776, 5278: 4723: 4522:Newhall, Christopher G.; Self, Stephen (1982). 4487: 4275: 4117: 4115: 3789: 3610:Lockwood, John P.; Hazlett, Richard W. (2010). 3609: 3374:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology 3208:Mind over Magma: The Story of Igneous Petrology 3116:Hahn, Rebecca M.; Byrne, Paul K. (April 2023). 82:On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where 6612: 6331:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 6092:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 5848:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition) 5369: 5367: 5365: 4833: 1636: 506:rather than a summit crater while others have 311: 7355: 7221: 6598: 6179:. Walnut Creek: Left Coast. pp. 203–24. 6167: 5747: 5393: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4829: 4827: 4451: 4439: 4427: 4362: 4350: 4314:"Exploring the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes" 4300: 4280:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 210–211. 4276:Fisher, Richard V.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1984). 4237: 3966: 3889:Allaby, Michael, ed. (July 4, 2013). "Tuya". 3876: 3679: 3408: 3371: 3075:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 3037: – Research to predict volcanic activity 1020:and by the discoloration of water because of 261: 6161: 5677: 5260:. Princeton University Press. Archived from 5207: 5116: 4991:"Volcanic Alert Levels of Various Countries" 4654: 4389:"The off-crust origin of granite batholiths" 4112: 4108:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3449:David S.G. Thomas and Andrew Goudie (eds.), 3372:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). 723:on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. 350:. Typical examples are the volcanoes in the 6414:Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii 6058:"The volcano in Athabascan oral narratives" 5362: 4934: 4896:Contribribtions to Mineralogy and Petrology 4657:Oxford Handbook Topics in Physical Sciences 4521: 4498: 4496: 3419: 3417: 3349:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy 3285:Hsu-Buffalo, Charlotte (November 4, 2021). 3284: 1487:(because it contains higher percentages of 522:and may give rise to smaller cones such as 383:are volcanic areas thought to be formed by 7362: 7348: 7228: 7214: 6605: 6591: 6470: 6432: 6410:Macdonald, Gordon; Abbott, Agatin (1970). 5634:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012 5608:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012 5476:Donovan, A; Eiser, JR; Sparks, RS (2014). 4878: 4824: 4745: 4607: 4208: 3891:A dictionary of geology and earth sciences 3532: 3443: 1855: 1848:whenever subterranean indicators, such as 927:four are known from the last million years 166:§ Volcanoes on other celestial bodies 6433:Marti, Joan & Ernst, Gerald. (2005). 6360: 6350: 6253: 5948:"Hydrocarbon volcano discovered on Titan" 5501: 5329: 4925: 4915: 4782:. Oregon State University. Archived from 4502: 4475: 4463: 4412: 4374: 4338: 4318:Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska 4193: 4077: 4075: 4037: 4011: 3996: 3764: 3594: 3396: 3334: 3322: 3310: 3257: 3115: 1295:. Other principal volcanic gases include 592:major world climate alteration of 1783–84 482:, typically a volcanic cone or mountain. 6538:) is being considered for deletion. See 6456:. Australian National University Press. 6299:Report on the Tarawera volcanic district 6276: 5841: 5654:"A Lunar Mystery: The Gruithuisen Domes" 4493: 4255:Lassen Volcanic National Park California 4094: 3575:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 3414: 3122:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 3020:List of volcanic eruptions by death toll 2914:(1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions of 2654: 2591: 2528: 2491:Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit 2422: 2276: 2268: 2041: 1956: 1859: 1753: 1646: 1600: 1367:contains a high percentage (>63%) of 1336: 1200: 1188: 1181:. The picture shows overflows of a main 1172: 1148: 1078:Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath 999: 757: 687: 615: 578: 451: 434:. Examples include the volcanoes of the 221: 149:which have caused catastrophic famines. 31: 6089: 5983:National Geographic web site daily news 5976: 5255: 4687: 4121: 3913: 3822: 3691: 3526: 3346: 3340: 2797:. The ejecta may be composed of water, 2674:There are several extinct volcanoes on 2620:(the darker patches seen on the Moon), 2264: 2028: 1067: 192:of Italy whose name in turn comes from 7787: 6451: 6295: 5977:Jaggard, Victoria (February 5, 2010). 5559:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 5373: 4752:Nelson, Stephen A. (October 4, 2016). 4751: 4620:Volcanoes of the World (Version 5.0.1) 4616:"How many active volcanoes are there?" 4579:Volcanoes of the World (Version 5.0.1) 4566: 4386: 4072: 3888: 3862:Ashley Strickland (January 10, 2020). 3838:Volcanoes of the World (version 4.9.1) 3831:"How many active volcanoes are there?" 3828: 3805:Volcanoes of the World (version 4.9.1) 3795: 3030:Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions 2926:and published his view of an Earth in 1792:database of volcanic eruptions in the 1566: 1556: 1543:lava. Ultramafic flows, also known as 1197:) eruption 2023. View from an airplane 983: 933:and ash released into the atmosphere. 406: 7343: 7209: 6586: 6235: 6175:. In Grattan, J; Torrence, R (eds.). 5916: 4688:Pariona, Amber (September 19, 2019). 4665:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699420.013.32 3561: 3201: 2504:people used tuff to make most of the 1626:or smaller) are called volcanic ash. 1048:In May and June 2018, a multitude of 1033:are common near these volcanoes, and 798:Layers of lava emitted by the volcano 754:Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) 7743: 6306:from the original on August 29, 2023 6055: 5256:Ó Gráda, Cormac (February 6, 2009). 3914:Mathews, W. H. (September 1, 1947). 3470: 3451:The Dictionary of Physical Geography 3264:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 13–20. 2292:, during an eruption in October 2005 1888:USGS still widely employs the term. 1749: 1221:can be classified into three types: 1094:. The origin of the term comes from 975: 885:. Large pieces of tephra are called 792:Layers of ash emitted by the volcano 441: 112:Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field 7767: 5819:. November 13, 2002. Archived from 5374:Kiprop, Joseph (January 18, 2019). 4711:Kilauea eruption confined to crater 4209:Casq, R.A.F.; Wright, J.V. (1987). 3095:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445 2566:Volcanoes on other celestial bodies 2362:often accompany volcanic activity. 2247:Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System 2239:Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project 2037: 1583:flows typically consist largely of 1434:. Volcanic gases may remain in the 1217:The material that is expelled in a 1144: 605: 334:. This magma tends to be extremely 200:. The study of volcanoes is called 13: 7235: 6471:Sigurðsson, Haraldur, ed. (2015). 6402: 6215:. Academic Press. pp. 15–37. 5856:10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00044-4 5842:Geissler, Paul (January 1, 2015), 5208:O'Hanlon, Larry (March 14, 2005). 3015:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes 2572:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes 2401:and thus provide a deep source of 2393:in Iceland on multiple occasions. 2150:, Democratic Republic of the Congo 905:List of largest volcanic eruptions 211: 14: 7841: 6542:to help reach a consensus. › 6492: 5846:, in Sigurdsson, Haraldur (ed.), 5149:. United States Geological Survey 3714:10.1038/scientificamerican0683-60 3661:from the original on July 3, 2017 1962:Capulin Volcano National Monument 1268: 892: 735:are examples of cinder cones. In 668:1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens 141:obscure the Sun and cool Earth's 7766: 7754: 7742: 7731: 7730: 7501: 6377: 6352:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107552 6318: 6289: 6270: 6229: 6168:Chester, DK; Duncan, AM (2007). 6118: 6112:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.033 6083: 6048: 6005: 5970: 5940: 5917:Smith, Yvette (March 15, 2012). 5910: 5894:. March 16, 2005. Archived from 5878: 5835: 5331:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x 5134: 4387:Castro, Antonio (January 2014). 4217:. Unwin Hyman Inc. p. 528. 4082: 3647:"Questions About Supervolcanoes" 3453:(Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 301. 2998: 2850:History of volcano understanding 1719:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 1279:The concentrations of different 1252:S, depending on the temperature) 1236:, and a sulfur compound (either 1129: 1035:some support peculiar ecosystems 568: 7256:Prediction of volcanic activity 5805: 5741: 5715:Journal of Geophysical Research 5706: 5671: 5646: 5620: 5594: 5548: 5529: 5510: 5469: 5450: 5376:"Why Is Volcanic Soil Fertile?" 5249: 5224: 5201: 5179: 5161: 5128: 5110: 5091: 5041: 5005: 4983: 4798: 4704: 4681: 4648: 4532:Journal of Geophysical Research 4515: 4380: 4306: 4269: 4243: 4202: 4161: 4046: 4005: 3989:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.03.001 3960: 3907: 3882: 3855: 3728: 3685: 3639: 3630: 3603: 3491: 3464: 3365: 3258:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). 3035:Prediction of volcanic activity 2958:1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera 2880:causes, such as the actions of 2259:prediction of volcanic activity 1970:Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain 1913:, which destroyed the towns of 1209:stratovolcano off the coast of 767:(vertical scale is exaggerated) 673: 541:Other types of volcano include 6475:(2 ed.). Academic Press. 6437:. Cambridge University Press. 6418:. University of Hawaii Press. 6065:Alaska Journal of Anthropology 5954:. June 8, 2005. Archived from 5482:Journal of Applied Volcanology 5187:"When humans faced extinction" 4509:University of California Press 3613:Volcanoes: Global Perspectives 3278: 3251: 3226: 3195: 3164: 3109: 3066: 3041:Timeline of volcanism on Earth 1784:As of December 2022, the 1112:Tuya Mountains Provincial Park 956:(both western United States); 661: 1: 7369: 7324:Quaternary volcanic eruptions 6527: 6473:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes 6435:Volcanoes and the Environment 4635:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW5-2022.5.0 4594:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW5-2022.5.0 4503:Heiken, G. & Wohletz, K. 3059: 2922:, then visited the crater of 1717:, who chronicled the Plinian 1412:Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes 1326: 639: 344:cools and solidifies at depth 6518:Resources in other libraries 5770:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.022 5210:"Yellowstone's Super Sister" 4018:Geophysical Research Letters 3555:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030 3520:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.10.023 3411:, pp. 390–394, 396–397. 3347:Foulger, Gillian R. (2010). 2978:1902 eruption of Mount Pelée 2742:, the smallest of Jupiter's 2395:Explosive volcanic eruptions 1620:when it flows to the surface 1414:, formed by the eruption of 914:-forming eruption. Ash flow 362:, or the eastern islands of 184:is derived from the name of 175: 7: 6034:10.2138/gselements.19.2.104 5987:National Geographic Society 4488:Fisher & Schmincke 1984 3921:American Journal of Science 3473:Lunar and Planetary Science 2991: 2484: 2397:release the greenhouse gas 2375:Russian famine of 1601–1603 2312:types of volcanic eruptions 1825: 1687:. Their primary product is 1643:Types of volcanic eruptions 1637:Types of volcanic eruptions 1371:, the lava is described as 1228:, a mixture made mostly of 1122:near the boundary with the 881:are material for dangerous 719:. Cinder cones may form as 709:monogenetic volcanic fields 369: 312:Convergent plate boundaries 188:, a volcanic island in the 10: 7846: 7314:Largest volcanic eruptions 7299:Extraterrestrial volcanoes 7261:Volcanic explosivity index 7191: 6572:"Global Volcanism Program" 5919:"Enceladus, Saturn's Moon" 5351:November 14, 2022, at the 5237:Princeton University Press 5122:Hekla, A Notorious Volcano 4917:10.1007/s00410-023-02075-z 4810:Alaska Volcano Observatory 3177:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 3025:List of volcanic landforms 2856:Volcanology § History 2853: 2635:has a surface that is 90% 2569: 2488: 2303: 2299: 2063: 1952: 1885:Alaska Volcano Observatory 1869:Geological Survey of India 1837: 1657:Volcanic Explosivity Index 1640: 1605:Light-microscope image of 1594: 1446:fractional crystallization 1330: 1272: 1133: 1071: 993: 987: 902: 896: 823: 677: 643: 609: 572: 445: 410: 373: 315: 294:divergent plate boundaries 265: 262:Divergent plate boundaries 238:in the underlying ductile 215: 18: 7726: 7668: 7510: 7499: 7377: 7289: 7243: 7187: 7106: 7068: 6987: 6892: 6844: 6722: 6691: 6633: 6624: 6513:Resources in your library 6242:Annals of Medical History 6213:Encyclopedia of volcanoes 5503:10.1186/s13617-014-0015-5 5258:"Famine: A Short History" 4452:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4440:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4428:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4414:10.1016/j.gsf.2013.06.006 4363:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4351:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4301:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4238:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4060:. Smithsonian Institution 3877:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3680:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3409:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2538:, and the application of 2314:and associated activity: 2310:There are many different 2249:instruments to measure CO 1933:volcano on the island of 1905:of around 380,000 years. 1833: 1725:Phreatomagmatic eruptions 1590: 1319:, organic compounds, and 1052:signals were detected by 1006:Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai 946:Yellowstone National Park 940:. Known examples include 834:in alternate layers, the 747:of over 60 cinder cones. 510:features such as massive 25:Volcanic (disambiguation) 7405:Cryptovolcanic structure 7329:Volcanic eruption deaths 7309:Large volcanic eruptions 6559:August 27, 2021, at the 6540:templates for discussion 5923:Image of the Day Gallery 5541:August 17, 2022, at the 4627:Global Volcanism Program 4586:Global Volcanism Program 4058:Global Volcanism Program 3836:Global Volcanism Program 3829:Venzke, E., ed. (2013). 3803:Global Volcanism Program 3796:Venzke, E., ed. (2013). 3651:Volcanic Hazards Program 3202:Young, Davis A. (2003). 2892:. The Ancient Greek god 2842:in 2009, suggested that 2838:, which was detected by 2051:Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 2004:, and many volcanoes in 1790:Global Volcanism Program 1456:intermediate composition 846:in the Philippines, and 763:Cross-section through a 21:Volcano (disambiguation) 7686:Eruptions by death toll 6576:Smithsonian Institution 5344:Richards, Colin. 2016. 4624:Smithsonian Institution 4583:Smithsonian Institution 4553:10.1029/JC087iC02p01231 4320:. National Park Service 4257:. National Park Service 4105:Encyclopædia Britannica 4054:"El Salvador Volcanoes" 3842:Smithsonian Institution 3809:Smithsonian Institution 3798:"Holocene Volcano List" 3337:, pp. 18, 106–107. 3325:, pp. 18, 113–126. 2733:rock, and as a result, 2284:concentration over the 2243:Deep Carbon Observatory 2241:, an initiative of the 2202:, Canary Islands, Spain 2174:Santa Maria/Santiaguito 1856:Dormant and reactivated 1786:Smithsonian Institution 1691:. They are named after 1568:[paːˈho.eˈho.e] 1491:(Mg) and iron (Fe)) or 864:of stratovolcanoes has 7266:Volcanic Seven Summits 6452:Ollier, Cliff (1969). 5522:July 19, 2022, at the 5462:July 25, 2022, at the 5118:Thorarinsson, Sigurdur 4738:July 25, 2022, at the 4716:July 17, 2022, at the 4195:10.5194/se-5-1209-2014 3616:. Wiley. p. 552. 3425:"Anatomy of a Volcano" 3313:, pp. 17–18, 276. 2948:in his writings about 2671: 2609: 2500:for construction. The 2432: 2344:volcanic gas emissions 2293: 2274: 2061: 2049:volcano towering over 1965: 1872: 1781: 1779:House of the Centenary 1745:; no magma is erupted. 1652: 1614: 1352: 1214: 1198: 1186: 1177:Pāhoehoe lava flow on 1170: 1008: 821: 715:explosion craters and 696: 624: 595: 470: 227: 172:for more information. 40: 6296:Hutton, F.W. (1887). 5958:on September 19, 2007 5817:W.M. Keck Observatory 5791:European Space Agency 5680:Reviews of Geophysics 5580:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 4562:on December 13, 2013. 3969:Earth-Science Reviews 3948:on September 29, 2011 3942:10.2475/ajs.245.9.560 3429:National Park Service 2658: 2595: 2576:Volcanism on the Moon 2529:Safety considerations 2475:Year Without a Summer 2469:The 1815 eruption of 2449:population bottleneck 2426: 2407:biogeochemical cycles 2280: 2272: 2045: 1960: 1863: 1757: 1650: 1604: 1528:; and as continental 1467:convergent boundaries 1344:eruption in 1994, in 1340: 1204: 1192: 1176: 1160: 1003: 761: 691: 619: 582: 464: 446:Further information: 225: 196:, the god of fire in 53:planetary-mass object 35: 7194:Geographical feature 7030:Volcanic crater lake 6281:. No. 11–2007. 6238:"Athanasius Kircher" 5264:on January 12, 2016. 5175:. November 24, 2009. 4393:Geoscience Frontiers 4213:Volcanic Successions 4122:Schmidt, R. (1981). 4039:10.1002/2015GL065713 3214:on November 12, 2015 3142:10.1029/2023je007753 2831:A 2010 study of the 2767:spacecraft observed 2381:, and acids such as 2373:may have caused the 2286:Sierra Negra Volcano 2265:Volcanoes and humans 2168:Kagoshima Prefecture 2094:(grouped together), 2029:Volcanic-alert level 1163:San Miguel (volcano) 1068:Subglacial volcanoes 590:, the source of the 360:Japanese Archipelago 352:Pacific Ring of Fire 338:because of its high 204:, sometimes spelled 124:core–mantle boundary 104:Pacific Ring of Fire 47:is a rupture in the 7820:Volcanoes by status 7281:Volcano observatory 6343:2022JVGR..42707552B 6139:2015GeAnA..97..137T 6104:2008JVGR..176..427S 6026:2023Eleme..19..104Z 5993:on February 9, 2010 5793:. February 25, 2005 5762:2016Icar..277..433M 5727:1995JGR...10011755R 5692:1995RvGeo..33S.459B 5572:2006RvMG...60..221W 5494:2014JApV....3...15D 5457:Volcano Safety Tips 5428:2021GeolT..37..141T 5189:. BBC. June 9, 2003 5069:2004QJRMS.130.2361M 5027:2007Geo....35.1115A 4962:1991Geo....19..200C 4927:20.500.11850/646219 4908:2023CoMP..178...96C 4856:10.1038/nature08458 4848:2009Natur.461..780C 4786:on January 12, 2013 4756:. Tulane University 4545:1982JGR....87.1231N 4466:, pp. 131–132. 4405:2014GeoFr...5...63C 4186:2014SolE....5.1209P 4030:2015GeoRL..42.8406K 3981:2017ESRv..168...81M 3934:1947AmJS..245..560M 3757:10.1038/nature10706 3749:2012Natur.482...77D 3706:1983SciAm.248f..60F 3694:Scientific American 3587:2013JGRE..118..615L 3547:2012Icar..218...88B 3512:2008Icar..194..487M 3485:1979LPI....10.1370W 3399:, pp. 108–110. 3351:. Wiley-Blackwell. 3189:2009AGUFM.V21H..08L 3134:2023JGRE..12807753H 3087:1988AREPS..16...73R 3052:Volcano observatory 2954:Lazzaro Spallanzani 2929:Mundus Subterraneus 2789:probe photographed 2771:(ice volcanoes) on 2342:(debris flows) and 2220:Nagasaki Prefecture 2055:Kamchatka Peninsula 1996:in New Mexico, US, 1947:Fourpeaked Mountain 1804:eruption recurrence 1666:explosive eruptions 1165:degassing in 2022. 984:Submarine volcanoes 942:Yellowstone Caldera 871:explosive eruptions 774:Large magma chamber 407:Continental rifting 401:Yellowstone hotspot 397:Yellowstone Caldera 318:Convergent boundary 7815:Volcanic landforms 7800:Geological hazards 7681:Lists of volcanoes 7468:Subglacial volcano 7443:Pyroclastic shield 6236:Major, RH (1939). 6147:10.1111/geoa.12099 5658:Moon: NASA Science 5220:on March 14, 2005. 5063:(602): 2361–2376. 4140:10.1007/BF01822152 3596:10.1002/jgre.20060 2950:igneous intrusions 2912:Athanasius Kircher 2905:Seneca the Younger 2823:Kuiper Belt Object 2783:, and in 2005 the 2672: 2610: 2588:Volcanism on Venus 2433: 2316:phreatic eruptions 2294: 2275: 2212:, Papua New Guinea 2066:Lists of volcanoes 2062: 1966: 1873: 1782: 1739:Phreatic eruptions 1677:Hawaiian volcanoes 1653: 1615: 1424:Earth's atmosphere 1353: 1215: 1199: 1187: 1171: 1074:Subglacial volcano 1031:Hydrothermal vents 1009: 996:Subaqueous volcano 875:pyroclastic surges 862:explosive eruption 822: 697: 630:effusive eruptions 625: 596: 489:mountain, spewing 471: 448:Types of volcanoes 288:expansion and the 268:Divergent boundary 228: 100:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 59:, that allows hot 41: 7782: 7781: 7535:Basaltic andesite 7473:Submarine volcano 7337: 7336: 7203: 7202: 7114:Artificial island 7020:Submarine volcano 6929:Continental shelf 6896:coastal landforms 6692:Continental plain 6627:List of landforms 6499:Library resources 6482:978-0-12-385938-9 6463:978-0-7081-0532-0 6444:978-0-521-59254-3 6425:978-0-870-22495-9 6056:Fast, PA (2008). 5898:on March 10, 2007 5865:978-0-12-385938-9 5823:on August 6, 2017 5735:10.1029/95JE00147 5700:10.1029/95RG00281 5436:10.1111/gto.12362 5214:Discovery Channel 5035:10.1130/G24149A.1 5021:(12): 1115–1118. 4993:. Volcanolive.com 4842:(7265): 780–783. 4674:978-0-19-069942-0 4575:"Database Search" 4539:(C2): 1231–1238. 4353:, pp. 15–16. 4278:Pyroclastic rocks 4224:978-0-04-552022-0 4024:(20): 8406–8414. 3623:978-1-4051-6250-0 3358:978-1-4051-6148-0 2648:, in the form of 2580:Volcanism on Mars 2383:hydrogen chloride 2336:pyroclastic flows 2290:Galapagos Islands 1964:in New Mexico, US 1929:the long-dormant 1911:eruption of 79 CE 1850:earthquake swarms 1750:Volcanic activity 1715:Pliny the Younger 1629:Tephra and other 1526:continental crust 1400:Pyroclastic flows 1323:metal chlorides. 1305:hydrogen fluoride 1301:hydrogen chloride 1219:volcanic eruption 1158: 1118:and south of the 990:Submarine volcano 976:Caldera volcanoes 970:Ngorongoro Crater 968:, Indonesia; and 462: 442:Volcanic features 436:East African Rift 393:Snake River Plain 376:Hotspot (geology) 356:Cascade Volcanoes 128:hotspot volcanism 108:East African Rift 71:to escape from a 37:Augustine Volcano 7837: 7770: 7769: 7758: 7746: 7745: 7734: 7733: 7691:Decade Volcanoes 7669:Lists and groups 7660:Pyroclastic flow 7655:Pyroclastic fall 7505: 7438:Pyroclastic cone 7364: 7357: 7350: 7341: 7340: 7251:Decade Volcanoes 7230: 7223: 7216: 7207: 7206: 7149:Land reclamation 7045:Volcanic plateau 6607: 6600: 6593: 6584: 6583: 6579: 6486: 6467: 6448: 6429: 6417: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6391: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6364: 6354: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6283:Korean Air Lines 6274: 6268: 6267: 6257: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6208: 6191: 6190: 6174: 6165: 6159: 6158: 6122: 6116: 6115: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6062: 6052: 6046: 6045: 6009: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5998: 5989:. Archived from 5974: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5963: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5903: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5798: 5783: 5774: 5773: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5650: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5628:"Sinuous Rilles" 5624: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5552: 5546: 5533: 5527: 5514: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5473: 5467: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5413: 5404: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5371: 5360: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5309: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5298: 5282: 5276: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5253: 5247: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5216:. Archived from 5205: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5138: 5137: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5077:10.1256/qj.03.60 5054: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5009: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4998: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4976: 4947: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4929: 4919: 4887: 4876: 4875: 4831: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4817: 4802: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4772: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4749: 4743: 4730: 4721: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4692:. WorldAtlas.com 4685: 4679: 4678: 4652: 4646: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4611: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4555:. Archived from 4528: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4500: 4491: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4384: 4378: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4310: 4304: 4303:, p. 73-77. 4298: 4292: 4291: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4247: 4241: 4240:, p. 70-72. 4235: 4229: 4228: 4216: 4206: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4180:(2): 1209–1221. 4165: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4119: 4110: 4109: 4088: 4086: 4085: 4079: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4009: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3964: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3944:. Archived from 3911: 3905: 3904: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3768: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3689: 3683: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3643: 3637: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3598: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3530: 3524: 3523: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3468: 3462: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3421: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3255: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3210:. Archived from 3199: 3193: 3192: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3070: 3008: 3006:Volcanoes portal 3003: 3002: 2520:geothermal power 2495:Geothermal power 2464:mass extinctions 2457:Permian-Triassic 2332:sector collapses 2148:Mount Nyiragongo 2102:Nevado de Colima 2070:Decade Volcanoes 2038:Decade volcanoes 2014:Edinburgh Castle 1865:Narcondam Island 1570: 1560: 1510:Hawaiian Islands 1506:Shield volcanoes 1502:mid-ocean ridges 1377:. Felsic lavas ( 1297:hydrogen sulfide 1246:hydrogen sulfide 1159: 1145:Erupted material 1092:British Columbia 960:in New Zealand; 938:geologic mapping 860:produced by the 652:Mount St. Helens 606:Shield volcanoes 586:fissure vent in 532:Volcanic craters 480: 479: 478:volcanic edifice 469:), Iceland, 2023 463: 389:Hawaiian Islands 274:mid-ocean ridges 147:volcanic winters 132:Hawaiian hotspot 7845: 7844: 7840: 7839: 7838: 7836: 7835: 7834: 7810:Plate tectonics 7785: 7784: 7783: 7778: 7722: 7664: 7630:Tephriphonolite 7506: 7497: 7493:Harmonic tremor 7395:Complex volcano 7373: 7368: 7338: 7333: 7285: 7271:Volcanic winter 7239: 7234: 7204: 7199: 7196: 7183: 7119:Artificial reef 7102: 7064: 7040:Volcanic island 7025:Volcanic crater 6983: 6979:Volcanic island 6959:Mid-ocean ridge 6895: 6888: 6840: 6718: 6687: 6629: 6620: 6611: 6570: 6561:Wayback Machine 6543: 6524: 6523: 6522: 6507: 6506: 6502: 6495: 6490: 6483: 6464: 6445: 6426: 6405: 6403:Further reading 6400: 6399: 6389: 6387: 6383: 6382: 6378: 6323: 6319: 6309: 6307: 6294: 6290: 6275: 6271: 6234: 6230: 6223: 6209: 6194: 6187: 6172: 6166: 6162: 6123: 6119: 6088: 6084: 6074: 6072: 6060: 6053: 6049: 6010: 6006: 5996: 5994: 5975: 5971: 5961: 5959: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5931: 5929: 5915: 5911: 5901: 5899: 5884: 5883: 5879: 5870: 5868: 5866: 5840: 5836: 5826: 5824: 5811: 5810: 5806: 5796: 5794: 5785: 5784: 5777: 5746: 5742: 5711: 5707: 5686:(S1): 459–467. 5676: 5672: 5662: 5660: 5652: 5651: 5647: 5637: 5635: 5626: 5625: 5621: 5611: 5609: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5553: 5549: 5543:Wayback Machine 5534: 5530: 5524:Wayback Machine 5515: 5511: 5474: 5470: 5464:Wayback Machine 5455: 5451: 5411: 5405: 5394: 5384: 5382: 5372: 5363: 5353:Wayback Machine 5343: 5339: 5310: 5306: 5296: 5294: 5283: 5279: 5273: 5269: 5254: 5250: 5229: 5225: 5206: 5202: 5192: 5190: 5185: 5184: 5180: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5152: 5150: 5135: 5133: 5129: 5115: 5111: 5096: 5092: 5052: 5046: 5042: 5010: 5006: 4996: 4994: 4989: 4988: 4984: 4974: 4972: 4945: 4939: 4935: 4888: 4879: 4832: 4825: 4815: 4813: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4789: 4787: 4774: 4773: 4769: 4759: 4757: 4750: 4746: 4740:Wayback Machine 4731: 4724: 4718:Wayback Machine 4709: 4705: 4695: 4693: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4659:. Vol. 1. 4653: 4649: 4639: 4637: 4612: 4608: 4598: 4596: 4571: 4567: 4559: 4526: 4520: 4516: 4501: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4478:, pp. 132. 4474: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4450: 4446: 4438: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4385: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4323: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4258: 4249: 4248: 4244: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4207: 4203: 4166: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4120: 4113: 4098:, ed. (1911). " 4083: 4081: 4080: 4073: 4063: 4061: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4010: 4006: 3965: 3961: 3951: 3949: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3887: 3883: 3875: 3871: 3860: 3856: 3846: 3844: 3827: 3823: 3813: 3811: 3794: 3790: 3743:(7383): 77–80. 3733: 3729: 3690: 3686: 3678: 3674: 3664: 3662: 3645: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3608: 3604: 3566: 3562: 3531: 3527: 3496: 3492: 3469: 3465: 3448: 3444: 3434: 3432: 3423: 3422: 3415: 3407: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3321: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3295: 3293: 3283: 3279: 3272: 3256: 3252: 3242: 3240: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3217: 3215: 3200: 3196: 3169: 3165: 3114: 3110: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3004: 2997: 2994: 2962:phreatomagmatic 2938:Johannes Kepler 2858: 2852: 2811:Cassini–Huygens 2799:liquid nitrogen 2786:Cassini–Huygens 2590: 2584:Volcanism on Io 2568: 2540:risk management 2531: 2497: 2487: 2437:volcanic winter 2308: 2306:Volcanic hazard 2302: 2267: 2256: 2252: 2235: 2118:, Sicily, Italy 2072: 2064:Main articles: 2040: 2031: 1998:Zuidwal volcano 1955: 1931:Soufrière Hills 1894:Chaitén volcano 1881:Mount Edgecumbe 1858: 1842: 1836: 1828: 1752: 1645: 1639: 1631:volcaniclastics 1599: 1593: 1558:[ˈʔaʔa] 1471:tectonic plates 1428:eruption column 1363:If the erupted 1335: 1329: 1313:carbon monoxide 1277: 1271: 1251: 1243: 1149: 1147: 1138: 1132: 1124:Yukon Territory 1076: 1070: 998: 992: 986: 978: 907: 901: 895: 828: 820: 819: 756: 686: 678:Main articles: 676: 664: 648: 642: 614: 608: 577: 571: 477: 476: 452: 450: 444: 415: 409: 378: 372: 320: 314: 290:partial melting 278:tectonic plates 270: 264: 220: 218:Plate tectonics 214: 212:Plate tectonics 198:Roman mythology 190:Aeolian Islands 178: 130:, of which the 116:Rio Grande rift 96:mid-ocean ridge 84:tectonic plates 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7843: 7833: 7832: 7827: 7825:Volcanic rocks 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7780: 7779: 7777: 7776: 7764: 7752: 7740: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7720: 7719: 7718: 7713: 7706:Volcanic field 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7672: 7670: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7635:Trachyandesite 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7516: 7514: 7512:Volcanic rocks 7508: 7507: 7500: 7498: 7496: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7453:Shield volcano 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7433:Parasitic cone 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7381: 7379: 7375: 7374: 7367: 7366: 7359: 7352: 7344: 7335: 7334: 7332: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7319:Earth timeline 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7295: 7293: 7287: 7286: 7284: 7283: 7278: 7276:Volcano Number 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7240: 7237:Volcano topics 7233: 7232: 7225: 7218: 7210: 7201: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7188: 7185: 7184: 7182: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7110: 7108: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7074: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7063: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6964:Oceanic trench 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6900: 6898: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6850: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6817: 6816: 6811: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6775: 6774: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6728: 6726: 6720: 6719: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6695: 6693: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6637: 6635: 6631: 6630: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6610: 6609: 6602: 6595: 6587: 6581: 6580: 6568: 6563: 6551: 6521: 6520: 6515: 6509: 6508: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6493:External links 6491: 6489: 6488: 6481: 6468: 6462: 6449: 6443: 6430: 6424: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6376: 6317: 6288: 6269: 6248:(2): 105–120. 6228: 6221: 6192: 6185: 6160: 6117: 6082: 6047: 6004: 5969: 5939: 5909: 5877: 5864: 5834: 5804: 5775: 5740: 5705: 5670: 5645: 5619: 5593: 5566:(1): 221–364. 5547: 5528: 5509: 5468: 5449: 5392: 5380:WorldAtlas.com 5361: 5337: 5324:(3): 485–510. 5304: 5293:. 19–21132: 96 5277: 5267: 5248: 5223: 5200: 5178: 5160: 5127: 5109: 5090: 5040: 5004: 4982: 4956:(3): 200–203. 4933: 4877: 4823: 4797: 4767: 4744: 4722: 4703: 4680: 4673: 4647: 4606: 4565: 4514: 4511:. p. 246. 4492: 4480: 4476:Schmincke 2003 4468: 4464:Schmincke 2003 4456: 4444: 4432: 4430:, p. 377. 4420: 4379: 4377:, p. 143. 4375:Schmincke 2003 4367: 4365:, p. 378. 4355: 4343: 4341:, p. 229. 4339:Schmincke 2003 4331: 4305: 4293: 4286: 4268: 4242: 4230: 4223: 4201: 4160: 4111: 4096:Chisholm, Hugh 4071: 4045: 4004: 3959: 3928:(9): 560–570. 3906: 3899: 3881: 3869: 3854: 3821: 3788: 3727: 3684: 3672: 3638: 3629: 3622: 3602: 3560: 3525: 3490: 3463: 3442: 3431:. July 5, 2023 3413: 3401: 3397:Schmincke 2003 3389: 3382: 3364: 3357: 3339: 3335:Schmincke 2003 3327: 3323:Schmincke 2003 3315: 3311:Schmincke 2003 3303: 3277: 3270: 3250: 3238:Dictionary.com 3225: 3194: 3163: 3108: 3064: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3055: 3049: 3046:Volcano Number 3043: 3038: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3009: 2993: 2990: 2980:, and by 1928 2974:Alfred Lacroix 2942:René Descartes 2854:Main article: 2851: 2848: 2744:Galilean moons 2727:sulfur dioxide 2688:Hecates Tholus 2567: 2564: 2552:Mount Pinatubo 2530: 2527: 2486: 2483: 2453:End-Ordovician 2399:carbon dioxide 2304:Main article: 2301: 2298: 2282:Sulfur dioxide 2266: 2263: 2254: 2250: 2234: 2233: 2223: 2213: 2203: 2197: 2187: 2177: 2171: 2161: 2151: 2145: 2135: 2129: 2119: 2113: 2099: 2084: 2057:, Far Eastern 2039: 2036: 2030: 2027: 1954: 1951: 1857: 1854: 1840:Active volcano 1838:Main article: 1835: 1832: 1827: 1824: 1763:Mount Vesuvius 1751: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1736: 1722: 1711: 1704: 1696: 1680: 1673:lava fountains 1669: 1641:Main article: 1638: 1635: 1595:Main article: 1592: 1589: 1553: 1552: 1534: 1533: 1497: 1496: 1479: 1450: 1449: 1440: 1439: 1395: 1394: 1331:Main article: 1328: 1325: 1293:sulfur dioxide 1289:carbon dioxide 1281:volcanic gases 1273:Main article: 1270: 1269:Volcanic gases 1267: 1266: 1265: 1259: 1253: 1249: 1241: 1238:sulfur dioxide 1234:carbon dioxide 1226:Volcanic gases 1195:Fagradalsfjall 1193:Litli-Hrútur ( 1146: 1143: 1134:Main article: 1131: 1128: 1120:Jennings River 1072:Main article: 1069: 1066: 1022:volcanic gases 988:Main article: 985: 982: 977: 974: 950:Valles Caldera 897:Main article: 894: 893:Supervolcanoes 891: 887:volcanic bombs 848:Mount Vesuvius 824:Main article: 818: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 804:Parasitic cone 802: 799: 796: 793: 790: 787: 784: 781: 780:Conduit (pipe) 778: 775: 771: 770: 755: 752: 745:volcanic field 727:in Mexico and 693:Izalco volcano 675: 672: 663: 660: 644:Main article: 641: 638: 612:Shield volcano 610:Main article: 607: 604: 573:Main article: 570: 567: 526:on a flank of 493:and poisonous 467:Fagradalsfjall 443: 440: 411:Main article: 408: 405: 374:Main article: 371: 368: 354:, such as the 316:Main article: 313: 310: 266:Main article: 263: 260: 216:Main article: 213: 210: 177: 174: 98:, such as the 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7842: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7792: 7790: 7775: 7774: 7765: 7763: 7762: 7757: 7753: 7751: 7750: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7729: 7728: 7725: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7708: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7701:Volcanic belt 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7667: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7605:Phonotephrite 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7517: 7515: 7513: 7509: 7504: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7488:Volcanic cone 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7463:Stratovolcano 7461: 7459: 7458:Somma volcano 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7448:Rootless cone 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7382: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7365: 7360: 7358: 7353: 7351: 7346: 7345: 7342: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7294: 7292: 7288: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7231: 7226: 7224: 7219: 7217: 7212: 7211: 7208: 7195: 7190: 7189: 7186: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7109: 7105: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7075: 7073: 7071: 7067: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7050:Volcanic plug 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6986: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6901: 6899: 6897: 6891: 6885: 6884:Tunnel valley 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6806: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6721: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6694: 6690: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6603: 6601: 6596: 6594: 6589: 6588: 6585: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6567: 6566:Volcano World 6564: 6562: 6558: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6537: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6525: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6484: 6478: 6474: 6469: 6465: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6440: 6436: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6416: 6415: 6408: 6407: 6386: 6380: 6372: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6321: 6305: 6301: 6300: 6292: 6284: 6280: 6273: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6224: 6222:9780123859396 6218: 6214: 6207: 6205: 6203: 6201: 6199: 6197: 6188: 6186:9781315425177 6182: 6178: 6171: 6164: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6133:(1): 137–66. 6132: 6128: 6121: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6098:(3): 427–31. 6097: 6093: 6086: 6071:(1–2): 131–40 6070: 6066: 6059: 6051: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6020:(2): 104–10. 6019: 6015: 6008: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5973: 5957: 5953: 5952:New Scientist 5949: 5943: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5897: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5881: 5867: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5780: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5721:(E6): 11755. 5720: 5716: 5709: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5674: 5659: 5655: 5649: 5633: 5632:Volcano World 5629: 5623: 5607: 5606:Volcano World 5603: 5597: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5532: 5525: 5521: 5518: 5513: 5504: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5472: 5465: 5461: 5458: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5416:Geology Today 5410: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5397: 5381: 5377: 5370: 5368: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5308: 5297:September 29, 5292: 5288: 5281: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5246: 5245:0-691-05081-3 5242: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5188: 5182: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5148: 5142: 5141:public domain 5131: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5008: 4992: 4986: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4944: 4937: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4828: 4812:. May 9, 2022 4811: 4807: 4801: 4785: 4781: 4780:Volcano World 4777: 4771: 4755: 4748: 4741: 4737: 4734: 4729: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4707: 4691: 4684: 4676: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4651: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4610: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4533: 4525: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4497: 4490:, p. 89. 4489: 4484: 4477: 4472: 4465: 4460: 4454:, p. 24. 4453: 4448: 4442:, p. 16. 4441: 4436: 4429: 4424: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4383: 4376: 4371: 4364: 4359: 4352: 4347: 4340: 4335: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4302: 4297: 4289: 4283: 4279: 4272: 4256: 4252: 4246: 4239: 4234: 4226: 4220: 4215: 4214: 4205: 4196: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4153:September 27, 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4116: 4107: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4091:public domain 4078: 4076: 4059: 4055: 4049: 4040: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4008: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3922: 3917: 3910: 3902: 3900:9780199653065 3896: 3892: 3885: 3879:, p. 66. 3878: 3873: 3865: 3858: 3843: 3839: 3837: 3832: 3825: 3810: 3806: 3804: 3799: 3792: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3682:, p. 77. 3681: 3676: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3633: 3625: 3619: 3615: 3614: 3606: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3564: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3479:: 1370–1372. 3478: 3474: 3467: 3460: 3459:0-631-20473-3 3456: 3452: 3446: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3418: 3410: 3405: 3398: 3393: 3385: 3383:9780521880060 3379: 3375: 3368: 3360: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3336: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3312: 3307: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3271:9783540436508 3267: 3263: 3262: 3254: 3239: 3235: 3234:"Vulcanology" 3229: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3069: 3065: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3001: 2996: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2982:Arthur Holmes 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2857: 2847: 2845: 2844:tidal heating 2841: 2837: 2834: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2769:cryovolcanoes 2766: 2765: 2761:In 1989, the 2759: 2757: 2753: 2752:cryovolcanism 2749: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2703: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2684:Ascraeus Mons 2681: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2563: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2547: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2515: 2513: 2512:Easter Island 2509: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2492: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2471:Mount Tambora 2467: 2465: 2462: 2461:Late Devonian 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2441:supereruption 2438: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2367:sulfuric acid 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2307: 2297: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2271: 2262: 2260: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2196:, Philippines 2195: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2154:Mount Rainier 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2035: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2010:Monte Vulture 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1963: 1959: 1950: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1841: 1831: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1780: 1776: 1773:, as seen in 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1744: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1681: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1667: 1662: 1661: 1660: 1658: 1649: 1644: 1634: 1632: 1627: 1625: 1621: 1612: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1541: 1536: 1535: 1531: 1530:flood basalts 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1385:) are highly 1384: 1380: 1376: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1342:Mount Rinjani 1339: 1334: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1247: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1220: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1196: 1191: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1168: 1164: 1161:Timelapse of 1142: 1137: 1130:Mud volcanoes 1127: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1075: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1058:oceanographic 1055: 1051: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1007: 1002: 997: 991: 981: 973: 972:in Tanzania. 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 934: 932: 928: 923: 921: 920:flood basalts 917: 913: 910:catastrophic 906: 900: 890: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 867: 863: 859: 855: 853: 849: 845: 844:Mayon Volcano 841: 837: 833: 827: 826:Stratovolcano 815: 812: 809: 806: 803: 800: 797: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 779: 776: 773: 772: 768: 766: 765:stratovolcano 760: 751: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 729:Sunset Crater 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 694: 690: 685: 681: 680:volcanic cone 671: 669: 659: 657: 653: 647: 637: 635: 631: 622: 621:Skjaldbreiður 618: 613: 603: 601: 593: 589: 585: 581: 576: 569:Fissure vents 566: 564: 560: 559:mud volcanoes 556: 552: 548: 544: 543:cryovolcanoes 539: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 500: 496: 492: 488: 483: 481: 468: 449: 439: 437: 433: 429: 425: 420: 419:flood basalts 414: 404: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 385:mantle plumes 382: 377: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 348:volcanic arcs 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 324: 319: 309: 307: 303: 302:Black smokers 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 282:oceanic crust 279: 275: 269: 259: 257: 256: 251: 250: 243: 241: 237: 233: 224: 219: 209: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 173: 171: 167: 162: 160: 156: 155:cryovolcanism 150: 148: 144: 140: 139:sulfuric acid 135: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 80: 78: 74: 73:magma chamber 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 46: 38: 34: 30: 26: 22: 7771: 7759: 7747: 7735: 7696:Volcanic arc 7640:Trachybasalt 7478:Supervolcano 7410:Fissure vent 7370: 7236: 7054: 7035:Volcanic dam 6732:Alluvial fan 6533: 6503: 6472: 6453: 6434: 6413: 6390:November 12, 6388:. Retrieved 6379: 6334: 6330: 6320: 6308:. Retrieved 6298: 6291: 6285:. p. 6. 6279:Morning Calm 6278: 6272: 6245: 6241: 6231: 6212: 6176: 6163: 6130: 6126: 6120: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6075:November 11, 6073:. Retrieved 6068: 6064: 6050: 6017: 6013: 6007: 5995:. Retrieved 5991:the original 5982: 5972: 5960:. Retrieved 5956:the original 5951: 5942: 5930:. Retrieved 5922: 5912: 5900:. Retrieved 5896:the original 5889: 5880: 5869:, retrieved 5847: 5837: 5825:. Retrieved 5821:the original 5816: 5807: 5795:. Retrieved 5753: 5749: 5743: 5718: 5714: 5708: 5683: 5679: 5673: 5661:. Retrieved 5657: 5648: 5638:November 17, 5636:. Retrieved 5631: 5622: 5612:November 12, 5610:. Retrieved 5605: 5596: 5563: 5557: 5550: 5531: 5512: 5485: 5481: 5471: 5452: 5422:(4): 141–9. 5419: 5415: 5385:November 27, 5383:. Retrieved 5379: 5359:, pp.150-151 5356: 5340: 5321: 5318:Archaeometry 5317: 5307: 5295:. Retrieved 5290: 5280: 5270: 5262:the original 5251: 5230: 5226: 5218:the original 5213: 5203: 5191:. Retrieved 5181: 5173:ScienceDaily 5172: 5163: 5151:. Retrieved 5130: 5121: 5112: 5104:ScienceDaily 5103: 5093: 5060: 5056: 5043: 5018: 5014: 5007: 4995:. Retrieved 4985: 4973:. Retrieved 4953: 4949: 4936: 4899: 4895: 4839: 4835: 4814:. Retrieved 4809: 4800: 4790:September 5, 4788:. Retrieved 4784:the original 4779: 4770: 4760:September 5, 4758:. Retrieved 4747: 4706: 4696:November 27, 4694:. Retrieved 4683: 4656: 4650: 4638:. Retrieved 4619: 4609: 4597:. Retrieved 4578: 4568: 4557:the original 4536: 4530: 4517: 4505:Volcanic Ash 4504: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4447: 4435: 4423: 4399:(1): 63–75. 4396: 4392: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4346: 4334: 4324:November 27, 4322:. Retrieved 4317: 4308: 4296: 4277: 4271: 4261:November 27, 4259:. Retrieved 4254: 4245: 4233: 4212: 4204: 4177: 4173: 4163: 4151:. Retrieved 4131: 4127: 4103: 4062:. Retrieved 4057: 4048: 4021: 4017: 4007: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3952:November 27, 3950:. Retrieved 3946:the original 3925: 3919: 3909: 3890: 3884: 3872: 3857: 3847:November 18, 3845:. Retrieved 3834: 3824: 3814:November 18, 3812:. Retrieved 3801: 3791: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3700:(6): 60–73. 3697: 3693: 3687: 3675: 3663:. Retrieved 3650: 3641: 3632: 3612: 3605: 3578: 3574: 3563: 3538: 3534: 3528: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3476: 3472: 3466: 3450: 3445: 3433:. Retrieved 3404: 3392: 3373: 3367: 3348: 3342: 3330: 3318: 3306: 3294:. Retrieved 3290: 3280: 3260: 3253: 3243:November 27, 3241:. Retrieved 3237: 3228: 3216:. Retrieved 3212:the original 3207: 3197: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3125: 3121: 3111: 3081:(1): 73–99. 3078: 3074: 3068: 2966:hydrothermal 2946:James Hutton 2927: 2898: 2878:supernatural 2875: 2871:Mount Merapi 2859: 2830: 2810: 2793:, a moon of 2784: 2762: 2760: 2756:Solar System 2706: 2701:Mars Express 2699: 2696:Pavonis Mons 2692:Olympus Mons 2673: 2668:Solar System 2660:Olympus Mons 2630: 2611: 2560: 2548: 2544: 2532: 2524: 2516: 2505: 2498: 2468: 2434: 2414:jet aircraft 2411: 2371:Huaynaputina 2364: 2322:lava (e.g., 2309: 2295: 2236: 2190:Taal Volcano 2142:Central Java 2138:Mount Merapi 2134:, Hawaii, US 2073: 2032: 1967: 1923: 1890: 1878: 1874: 1845: 1843: 1829: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1783: 1771:Agathodaemon 1743:country rock 1735:groundwater. 1654: 1628: 1616: 1611:thin section 1578: 1554: 1538: 1512:, including 1482: 1460: 1454: 1436:stratosphere 1372: 1358: 1354: 1278: 1275:Volcanic gas 1216: 1183:lava channel 1139: 1077: 1047: 1043:pumice rafts 1010: 979: 935: 924: 908: 899:Supervolcano 866:historically 856: 829: 762: 749: 741:Caja del Rio 705:pyroclastics 698: 674:Cinder cones 665: 649: 626: 597: 575:Fissure vent 540: 484: 475: 472: 432:carbonatites 416: 379: 328:flux melting 321: 271: 253: 247: 244: 229: 205: 181: 179: 163: 151: 136: 81: 65:volcanic ash 44: 42: 29: 7830:Volcanology 7773:WikiProject 7716:polygenetic 7711:monogenetic 7590:Nephelinite 7545:Blairmorite 7520:Agglomerate 7428:Mud volcano 7400:Cryovolcano 7390:Cinder cone 6894:Oceanic and 6634:Mountainous 6528:‹ The 5962:October 24, 5756:: 433–441. 5488:(1): 1–14. 4975:January 20, 4640:January 12, 4599:January 12, 4251:"Volcanoes" 4174:Solid Earth 4064:November 8, 3998:10852/61234 3435:November 3, 3218:January 11, 2809:compounds. 2805:, dust, or 2631:The planet 2536:probability 2510:statues in 2429:VEI 7 and 8 2379:ozone layer 2348:hot springs 2216:Mount Unzen 2210:New Britain 2176:, Guatemala 2144:, Indonesia 2018:Castle Rock 2002:Netherlands 1915:Herculaneum 1899:Yellowstone 1733:superheated 1729:groundwater 1708:Mount Pelée 1609:as seen in 1549:Proterozoic 1520:), on both 1404:ignimbrites 1391:Lassen Peak 1317:halocarbons 1285:Water vapor 1167:El Salvador 1136:Mud volcano 1039:chemotrophs 1026:Pillow lava 1018:hydrophones 721:flank vents 684:Cinder cone 662:Cryptodomes 656:Lassen Peak 636:, as well. 530:in Hawaii. 428:alkali lava 395:, with the 255:monogenetic 249:polygenetic 232:lithosphere 206:vulcanology 202:volcanology 170:cryovolcano 143:troposphere 7789:Categories 7615:Rhyodacite 7565:Ignimbrite 7540:Benmoreite 7192:See also: 7107:Artificial 7015:Lava field 6934:Coral reef 6762:Floodplain 6362:2292/59681 6337:: 107552. 6310:August 30, 5871:January 6, 5663:January 6, 5239:. p. 155. 5193:January 5, 4997:August 22, 4287:3540127569 3975:: 81–112. 3766:10220/7536 3665:August 22, 3581:(4): 615. 3506:(2): 487. 3060:References 2952:of magma. 2916:Mount Etna 2901:Anaxagoras 2894:Hephaistos 2890:Çatalhöyük 2680:Arsia Mons 2641:Lava flows 2570:See also: 2556:Mount Etna 2489:See also: 2164:Sakurajima 2158:Washington 2128:, Colombia 2116:Mount Etna 2088:Avachinsky 1986:New Mexico 1974:Hohentwiel 1943:ghost town 1935:Montserrat 1685:a gas slug 1624:sand-sized 1545:komatiites 1540:ultramafic 1508:(such the 1438:for years. 1327:Lava flows 1104:Tuya Range 1100:Tuya River 1096:Tuya Butte 1084:palagonite 1054:earthquake 994:See also: 958:Lake Taupō 954:New Mexico 903:See also: 854:in Italy. 842:in Japan, 840:Mount Fuji 737:New Mexico 717:tuff rings 640:Lava domes 536:Lake Taupō 504:lava domes 323:Subduction 236:convection 114:, and the 92:converging 55:, such as 7805:Volcanism 7795:Volcanoes 7600:Phonolite 7585:Leucitite 7570:Komatiite 7418:Lava dome 7414:Lava cone 7371:Volcanoes 7169:Reservoir 7060:Wall rock 7010:Lava dome 6969:Peninsula 6879:Ice field 6836:Waterfall 6699:Ice sheet 6678:Tableland 6618:landforms 6545:Volcanoes 6454:Volcanoes 6371:248111450 6155:129186824 6042:259423377 5997:March 11, 5588:130734866 5444:238802288 5153:August 9, 4148:128375559 4134:: 41–43. 3775:0028-0836 3541:(1): 88. 3261:Volcanism 3204:"Volcano" 3158:257745255 3150:2169-9097 3103:0084-6597 2920:Stromboli 2833:exoplanet 2815:Saturnian 2764:Voyager 2 2650:ash flows 2646:Maat Mons 2445:Lake Toba 2391:livestock 2387:acid rain 2352:fumaroles 2180:Santorini 2132:Mauna Loa 2096:Kamchatka 2092:Koryaksky 2047:Koryaksky 1693:Stromboli 1581:Rhyolitic 1514:Mauna Loa 1489:magnesium 1462:andesitic 1416:Novarupta 1383:rhyolites 1350:Indonesia 1333:Lava flow 1207:Stromboli 1116:Tuya Lake 1037:based on 962:Lake Toba 852:Stromboli 816:Ash cloud 807:Lava flow 725:Parícutin 646:Lava dome 602:emerges. 584:Lakagigar 524:Puʻu ʻŌʻō 508:landscape 424:aulacogen 364:Indonesia 286:adiabatic 180:The word 176:Etymology 122:from the 88:diverging 77:volcanism 7737:Category 7645:Trachyte 7620:Rhyolite 7595:Obsidian 7525:Andesite 7129:Building 7093:Sandhill 7083:Dry lake 6988:Volcanic 6974:Seamount 6656:Mountain 6557:Archived 6530:template 6304:Archived 6264:33943407 6014:Elements 5797:July 21, 5539:Archived 5520:Archived 5460:Archived 5349:Archived 5120:(1970). 5085:53005926 4864:19812671 4736:Archived 4714:Archived 3783:22297973 3722:24968920 3659:Archived 3296:July 21, 3291:Futurity 2992:See also 2924:Vesuvius 2886:demigods 2862:hominina 2836:COROT-7b 2731:silicate 2612:Earth's 2604:'s moon 2598:Tvashtar 2502:Rapa Nui 2485:Benefits 2356:mud pots 2324:rhyolite 2226:Vesuvius 2186:, Greece 2184:Cyclades 2112:, Mexico 2098:, Russia 2022:calderas 2008:such as 1982:Shiprock 1939:Plymouth 1926:Pinatubo 1907:Vesuvius 1826:Erupting 1808:erupting 1794:Holocene 1585:obsidian 1573:Hawaiian 1571:), both 1563:pāhoehoe 1493:basaltic 1469:between 1321:volatile 1309:hydrogen 1108:landform 1080:ice caps 1013:Holocene 520:landform 512:plateaus 381:Hotspots 370:Hotspots 298:seafloor 7749:Commons 7676:Hotspot 7575:Lapilli 7560:Felsite 7385:Caldera 7070:Aeolian 7055:Volcano 6995:Caldera 6949:Isthmus 6939:Estuary 6919:Channel 6874:Glacier 6846:Glacial 6784:Meander 6752:Channel 6724:Fluvial 6668:Plateau 6532:below ( 6504:Volcano 6339:Bibcode 6255:7939598 6135:Bibcode 6100:Bibcode 6022:Bibcode 5932:July 4, 5902:July 4, 5758:Bibcode 5723:Bibcode 5688:Bibcode 5568:Bibcode 5490:Bibcode 5424:Bibcode 5291:Lanl-Ur 5065:Bibcode 5023:Bibcode 5015:Geology 4958:Bibcode 4950:Geology 4904:Bibcode 4872:4339493 4844:Bibcode 4816:June 2, 4541:Bibcode 4401:Bibcode 4182:Bibcode 4128:Geology 4093:: 4026:Bibcode 3977:Bibcode 3930:Bibcode 3745:Bibcode 3702:Bibcode 3583:Bibcode 3543:Bibcode 3508:Bibcode 3481:Bibcode 3185:Bibcode 3130:Bibcode 3083:Bibcode 2840:transit 2807:methane 2803:ammonia 2781:Neptune 2708:Jupiter 2602:Jupiter 2418:turbine 2360:geysers 2300:Hazards 2232:, Italy 2222:, Japan 2170:, Japan 2122:Galeras 2106:Jalisco 2000:in the 1994:Capulin 1978:Germany 1953:Extinct 1941:into a 1919:Pompeii 1820:extinct 1816:dormant 1775:Pompeii 1767:Bacchus 1765:behind 1701:Vulcano 1522:oceanic 1518:Kilauea 1387:viscous 1379:dacites 1062:Mayotte 1050:seismic 966:Sumatra 912:caldera 777:Bedrock 733:Arizona 634:Iceland 588:Iceland 563:igneous 555:Neptune 547:Jupiter 528:Kīlauea 497:from a 487:conical 358:or the 336:viscous 306:Iceland 272:At the 186:Vulcano 182:volcano 120:diapirs 45:volcano 7761:Portal 7625:Tephra 7610:Pumice 7580:Latite 7555:Dacite 7550:Cinder 7530:Basalt 7483:Tossol 7244:Topics 7179:Tunnel 7164:Quarry 7159:Polder 7124:Bridge 7098:Tundra 7078:Desert 7000:Geyser 6954:Lagoon 6944:Island 6859:Cirque 6831:Valley 6821:Strait 6799:Rapids 6772:island 6742:Canyon 6714:Tundra 6709:Steppe 6683:Valley 6549:Curlie 6535:Curlie 6501:about 6479: 6460: 6441: 6422: 6369: 6262: 6252: 6219: 6183: 6153: 6040: 5862: 5827:May 2, 5750:Icarus 5602:"Mare" 5586: 5442: 5243: 5143:: 5083: 4902:(96). 4870: 4862: 4836:Nature 4671: 4284: 4221: 4146: 4087: 3897: 3866:. CNN. 3781: 3773: 3737:Nature 3720: 3620: 3535:Icarus 3500:Icarus 3457: 3380: 3355: 3268: 3156: 3148: 3101: 2986:mantle 2934:sulfur 2909:Jesuit 2826:Quaoar 2795:Saturn 2773:Triton 2740:Europa 2723:sulfur 2694:, and 2637:basalt 2622:rilles 2586:, and 2479:famine 2459:, and 2403:carbon 2340:lahars 2328:basalt 2320:silica 2230:Naples 2206:Ulawun 2126:Nariño 2110:Colima 2059:Russia 1945:) and 1846:active 1834:Active 1812:active 1759:Fresco 1689:scoria 1597:Tephra 1591:Tephra 1561:) and 1426:as an 1420:Katmai 1408:Alaska 1374:felsic 1369:silica 1346:Lombok 1303:, and 1262:Tephra 1211:Sicily 1179:Hawaii 931:sulfur 883:lahars 879:tephra 836:strata 832:tephra 813:Crater 801:Throat 701:scoria 557:; and 553:, and 551:Saturn 499:crater 340:silica 276:, two 240:mantle 194:Vulcan 110:, the 67:, and 7378:Types 7291:Lists 7154:Levee 7144:Ditch 7134:Canal 7005:Guyot 6924:Coast 6904:Atoll 6869:Fjord 6864:Esker 6854:Arête 6826:Swamp 6814:mouth 6809:delta 6804:River 6789:Oasis 6779:Levee 6757:Cliff 6737:Beach 6704:Plain 6673:Ridge 6661:range 6641:Butte 6614:Earth 6367:S2CID 6173:(PDF) 6151:S2CID 6061:(PDF) 6038:S2CID 5891:PPARC 5584:S2CID 5440:S2CID 5412:(PDF) 5081:S2CID 5053:(PDF) 4946:(PDF) 4868:S2CID 4560:(PDF) 4527:(PDF) 4144:S2CID 3718:JSTOR 3154:S2CID 3128:(4). 2819:Titan 2817:moon 2719:tidal 2664:Latin 2633:Venus 2626:domes 2618:maria 2200:Teide 2194:Luzon 2006:Italy 1818:, or 1797:Epoch 1761:with 1484:mafic 1418:near 1365:magma 1244:, or 1230:steam 1088:tuyas 916:tuffs 795:Flank 743:is a 495:gases 332:magma 159:magma 69:gases 57:Earth 51:of a 49:crust 7650:Tuff 7423:Maar 7174:Road 7088:Dune 6914:Cape 6794:Pond 6767:Lake 6747:Cave 6651:Hill 6646:Flat 6477:ISBN 6458:ISBN 6439:ISBN 6420:ISBN 6392:2023 6312:2023 6260:PMID 6217:ISBN 6181:ISBN 6077:2023 5999:2010 5964:2010 5934:2014 5927:NASA 5904:2014 5873:2024 5860:ISBN 5829:2018 5799:2024 5665:2024 5640:2023 5614:2023 5387:2020 5299:2020 5241:ISBN 5195:2007 5155:2014 4999:2011 4977:2010 4860:PMID 4818:2022 4792:2018 4762:2018 4698:2020 4669:ISBN 4642:2023 4601:2023 4326:2020 4282:ISBN 4263:2020 4219:ISBN 4155:2020 4100:Tuff 4066:2023 3954:2020 3895:ISBN 3849:2020 3816:2020 3779:PMID 3771:ISSN 3667:2017 3655:USGS 3618:ISBN 3455:ISBN 3437:2023 3378:ISBN 3353:ISBN 3298:2023 3266:ISBN 3245:2020 3220:2016 3181:2009 3146:ISSN 3099:ISSN 2970:dyke 2964:and 2918:and 2882:gods 2867:Pele 2777:moon 2775:, a 2729:and 2712:moon 2676:Mars 2624:and 2614:Moon 2596:The 2507:moai 2493:and 2405:for 2358:and 2237:The 2160:, US 2108:and 2068:and 1917:and 1903:Toba 1769:and 1607:tuff 1524:and 1516:and 1475:slab 1432:tuff 1291:and 1256:Lava 1240:, SO 1205:The 1102:and 948:and 850:and 810:Vent 789:Dike 786:Sill 783:Base 713:maar 703:and 682:and 600:lava 491:lava 413:Rift 168:and 86:are 61:lava 23:and 7139:Dam 6909:Bay 6616:'s 6547:at 6357:hdl 6347:doi 6335:427 6250:PMC 6143:doi 6108:doi 6096:176 6030:doi 5852:doi 5766:doi 5754:277 5731:doi 5719:100 5696:doi 5576:doi 5498:doi 5432:doi 5326:doi 5275:73. 5073:doi 5061:130 5031:doi 4966:doi 4922:hdl 4912:doi 4900:178 4852:doi 4840:461 4661:doi 4631:doi 4590:doi 4549:doi 4409:doi 4190:doi 4136:doi 4102:". 4034:doi 3993:hdl 3985:doi 3973:168 3938:doi 3926:245 3761:hdl 3753:doi 3741:482 3710:doi 3698:248 3591:doi 3579:118 3551:doi 3539:218 3516:doi 3504:194 3138:doi 3126:128 3091:doi 2884:or 2779:of 2748:ice 2710:'s 2443:of 2330:), 2253:/SO 2053:on 1984:in 1976:in 1788:'s 1777:'s 1721:AD. 1459:or 1410:'s 1381:or 1248:, H 964:in 952:in 944:in 858:Ash 731:in 516:ash 430:or 90:or 7791:: 6574:. 6365:. 6355:. 6345:. 6333:. 6329:. 6258:. 6244:. 6240:. 6195:^ 6149:. 6141:. 6131:97 6129:. 6106:. 6094:. 6067:. 6063:. 6036:. 6028:. 6018:19 6016:. 5985:. 5981:. 5950:. 5925:. 5921:. 5888:. 5858:, 5815:. 5789:. 5778:^ 5764:. 5752:. 5729:. 5717:. 5694:. 5684:33 5682:. 5656:. 5630:. 5604:. 5582:. 5574:. 5564:60 5562:. 5496:. 5484:. 5480:. 5438:. 5430:. 5420:37 5418:. 5414:. 5395:^ 5378:. 5364:^ 5355:. 5322:47 5320:. 5316:. 5289:. 5212:. 5171:. 5102:. 5079:. 5071:. 5059:. 5055:. 5029:. 5019:35 5017:. 4964:. 4954:19 4952:. 4948:. 4920:. 4910:. 4898:. 4894:. 4880:^ 4866:. 4858:. 4850:. 4838:. 4826:^ 4808:. 4778:. 4725:^ 4667:. 4629:. 4622:. 4618:. 4588:. 4581:. 4577:. 4547:. 4537:87 4535:. 4529:. 4507:. 4495:^ 4407:. 4395:. 4391:. 4316:. 4253:. 4188:. 4176:. 4172:. 4142:. 4130:. 4126:. 4114:^ 4074:^ 4056:. 4032:. 4022:42 4020:. 4016:. 3991:. 3983:. 3971:. 3936:. 3924:. 3918:. 3840:. 3833:. 3807:. 3800:. 3777:. 3769:. 3759:. 3751:. 3739:. 3716:. 3708:. 3696:. 3653:. 3649:. 3589:. 3577:. 3573:. 3549:. 3537:. 3514:. 3502:. 3475:. 3427:. 3416:^ 3289:. 3236:. 3206:. 3183:. 3179:. 3175:. 3152:. 3144:. 3136:. 3124:. 3120:. 3097:. 3089:. 3079:16 3077:. 2972:. 2828:. 2801:, 2758:. 2735:Io 2725:, 2715:Io 2690:, 2686:, 2682:, 2628:. 2606:Io 2582:, 2578:, 2574:, 2522:. 2514:. 2466:. 2455:, 2435:A 2409:. 2354:, 2350:, 2338:, 2334:, 2288:, 2261:. 2228:, 2218:, 2208:, 2192:, 2182:, 2166:, 2156:, 2140:, 2124:, 2104:, 2012:. 1992:, 1990:US 1988:, 1980:, 1921:. 1814:, 1810:, 1587:. 1504:; 1348:, 1315:, 1311:, 1299:, 1232:, 1126:. 1064:. 1045:. 1024:. 922:. 769:: 739:, 549:, 438:. 366:. 308:. 300:. 208:. 79:. 63:, 43:A 7363:e 7356:t 7349:v 7229:e 7222:t 7215:v 6606:e 6599:t 6592:v 6578:. 6485:. 6466:. 6447:. 6428:. 6394:. 6373:. 6359:: 6349:: 6341:: 6314:. 6266:. 6246:1 6225:. 6189:. 6157:. 6145:: 6137:: 6114:. 6110:: 6102:: 6079:. 6069:6 6054:, 6044:. 6032:: 6024:: 6001:. 5966:. 5936:. 5906:. 5854:: 5831:. 5801:. 5772:. 5768:: 5760:: 5737:. 5733:: 5725:: 5702:. 5698:: 5690:: 5667:. 5642:. 5616:. 5590:. 5578:: 5570:: 5506:. 5500:: 5492:: 5486:3 5446:. 5434:: 5426:: 5389:. 5334:. 5328:: 5301:. 5197:. 5157:. 5106:. 5087:. 5075:: 5067:: 5037:. 5033:: 5025:: 5001:. 4979:. 4968:: 4960:: 4930:. 4924:: 4914:: 4906:: 4874:. 4854:: 4846:: 4820:. 4794:. 4764:. 4700:. 4677:. 4663:: 4644:. 4633:: 4603:. 4592:: 4551:: 4543:: 4417:. 4411:: 4403:: 4397:5 4328:. 4290:. 4265:. 4227:. 4198:. 4192:: 4184:: 4178:5 4157:. 4138:: 4132:9 4068:. 4042:. 4036:: 4028:: 4001:. 3995:: 3987:: 3979:: 3956:. 3940:: 3932:: 3903:. 3851:. 3818:. 3785:. 3763:: 3755:: 3747:: 3724:. 3712:: 3704:: 3669:. 3626:. 3599:. 3593:: 3585:: 3557:. 3553:: 3545:: 3522:. 3518:: 3510:: 3487:. 3483:: 3477:X 3461:. 3439:. 3386:. 3361:. 3300:. 3274:. 3247:. 3222:. 3191:. 3187:: 3160:. 3140:: 3132:: 3105:. 3093:: 3085:: 2670:. 2662:( 2608:. 2255:2 2251:2 2090:- 1871:. 1710:. 1703:. 1695:. 1679:. 1565:( 1532:. 1402:( 1250:2 1242:2 1185:. 27:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.