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410:, typically erupt with explosive force because the magma is too viscous to allow easy escape of volcanic gases. As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the vent and the opening of the crater, the magma degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force.
567:
425:, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine ash, fragmented lava, and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over 160 km/h (100 mph). Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the 1902 eruption of
1203:
800:
736:. The Mount Tambora eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures by as much as 3.5 °C (6.3 °F). In the year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced sharply cooler temperatures during the summer. In parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, 1816 was known as the "
324:. Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of the flank of a volcano collapses in a massive landslide) can trigger eruption only of a very shallow magma chamber. Magma differentiation and thermal expansion also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers.
593:
has an unusually low silica content, making it quite fluid. Fluid lavas are typically associated with the formation of broad shield volcanoes such as those of Hawaii, but
Nyiragongo has very steep slopes down which lava can flow at up to 100 km/h (60 mph). Lava flows could melt down ice and
543:
flew into the ash cloud, causing it to sustain temporary engine failure and structural damage. During the past two decades, more than 60 airplanes, mostly commercial airliners, have been damaged by in-flight encounters with volcanic ash. Some of these encounters have resulted in the loss of power in
675:
As per the above examples, while the Unzen eruptions have caused deaths and considerable local damage in the historic past, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo was global. Slightly cooler-than-usual temperatures were recorded worldwide, with brilliant sunsets and intense sunrises
639:
term for volcanic mudflows) are mixtures of volcanic debris and water. Lahars usually come from two sources: rainfall, or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic elements, such as lava. Depending on the proportion and temperature of water to volcanic material, lahars can range from thick, gooey
300:
Injection of fresh magma into the magma chamber, which mixes and heats the cooler magma already present. This could force volatiles out of solution and lower the density of the cooler magma, both of which increase pressure. There is considerable evidence for magma mixing just before many eruptions,
620:
ranging from the size of books to small cars, that are explosively ejected from stratovolcanoes during their climactic eruptive phases. These "bombs" can travel over 20 km (12 mi) away from the volcano, and present a risk to buildings and living beings while shooting at very high speeds
469:
at its summit. Beginning in June, the repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as 200 km/h (120 mph). Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people—the
124:
Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite stratified structure, built up from sequential outpourings of erupted materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes. Two examples of stratovolcanoes
640:
flows that have the consistency of wet concrete to fast-flowing, soupy floods. As lahars flood down the steep sides of stratovolcanoes, they have the strength and speed to flatten or drown everything in their paths. Hot ash clouds, lava flows and pyroclastic surges ejected during
716:
and ground. The cooling in some regions is thought to have been as much as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F). An eruption the size of Mount
Pinatubo tends to affect the weather for a few years; the material injected into the stratosphere gradually drops into the
254:
above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths. The water freed from the rock lowers the
301:
including magnesium-rich olivine crystals in freshly erupted silicic lava that show no reaction rim. This is possible only if the lava erupted immediately after mixing since olivine rapidly reacts with silicic magma to form a rim of pyroxene.
493:. Although the death toll has been estimated at between 13,000 and 26,000 people, the exact number is still unclear. Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most dangerous of the world's volcanoes, due to its capacity for
282:
Magma differentiation, in which the lightest, most silica-rich magma and volatiles such as water, halogens, and sulfur dioxide accumulate in the uppermost part of the magma chamber. This can dramatically increase
441:
in southeastern Mexico caused the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history. Villages within 8 km (5 mi) of the volcano were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, killing more than 2,000 people.
449:
that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On 15 June, Mount
Pinatubo spewed an ash cloud 40 km (25 mi) into the air and produced huge pyroclastic surges and
585:
lava moves slowly enough for everyone to flee away from the path of flow. The lava flows are more of a threat to property. However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava.
259:
of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting, rises (due to its lighter density relative to the surrounding mantle rock), and pools temporarily at the base of the
621:(hundreds of kilometers/miles per hour) through the air. Most bombs do not themselves explode on impact, but rather carry enough force to have destructive effects as if they exploded.
548:
are a threat to health when inhaled and ash is also a threat to property with enough accumulation. Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash can be expelled due to the collapse of an
552:, or laterally due to the partial collapse of a volcanic edifice or lava dome during explosive eruptions. These clouds can generate devastating pyroclastic flows or surges.
531:
In addition to potentially affecting the climate, volcanic clouds from explosive eruptions pose a serious hazard to aviation. For example, during the 1982 eruption of
398:, explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as
740:", which caused a considerable agricultural crisis and a brief but bitter famine, which generated a series of distresses across much of the affected continents.
1099:
Wech, Aaron G.; Thelen, Weston A.; Thomas, Amanda M. (15 May 2020). "Deep long-period earthquakes generated by second boiling beneath Mauna Kea volcano".
598:
flows. Rarely, generally fluid lava could also generate massive lava fountains, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a
97:. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often
461:, had been dormant for six centuries before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century. Also in 1991, Japan's
863:
544:
all engines, necessitating emergency landings. As of 1999, no crashes have happened because of jet aircraft flying into volcanic ash.
465:, located on the island of Kyushu about 40 km (25 mi) east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new
1013:
Schmidt, A.; Rüpke, L. H.; Morgan, J. P.; Hort, M. (2001). "How Large a
Feedback Effect Does Slab Dewatering Have on Itself ?".
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mass in this cloud—about 22 million tons—combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) formed droplets of
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melted snow and ice atop the 5,321 m (17,457 ft) high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar flooded the city of
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that causes a gas phase (carbon dioxide or water) to separate from the liquid magma and raise magma chamber pressures.
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The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a question for further research. Possible mechanisms include:
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Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans or animals because the highly
893:
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A similar but extraordinarily more powerful phenomenon occurred in the cataclysmic April 1815 eruption of
242:). The magma forming stratovolcanoes rises when water trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous
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871:
498:
118:
1638:
1605:
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85:, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and periodic intervals of
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crystallize out of the magma, this concentrates volatiles in the remaining liquid, which can lead to
177:
134:
121:
magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have traveled as far as 15 km (9 mi).
1684:
1052:
Cañón-Tapia, Edgardo (February 2014). "Volcanic eruption triggers: A hierarchical classification".
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321:
268:
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has not been conclusively demonstrated. One possible exception is the existence of some isolated
28:, a 4,392 m (14,411 ft) stratovolcano, the highest point in the US state of Washington
305:
223:
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417:, nearly 300,000 people have been killed by volcanic eruptions. Most deaths were caused by
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glaciers that accumulated on the volcano's crater and upper slopes, generating massive
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Teide
Volcano: Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano
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781: – Shield volcano formed mostly of pyroclastic and highly explosive eruptions
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959:"Ancient Martian volcanoes in the Aeolis region: New evidence from MOLA data"
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floods that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo, located in
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in the
Caribbean. During March and April 1982, three explosive eruptions of
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842:. Active Volcanoes of the World. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
769: – Geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains
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These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as
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206:, forming chains and clusters along plate tectonic boundaries where
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1509:
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Mars : an introduction to its interior, surface and atmosphere
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763: – Steep hill of pyroclastic fragments around a volcanic vent
589:, near Lake Kivu in central Africa, is very dangerous because its
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Cross-section of subduction zone and associated stratovolcanoes
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110:
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98:
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149:; both eruptions claimed thousands of lives. In modern times,
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267:, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, leading to a final
231:
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Type of conical volcano composed of layers of lava and tephra
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extruding lava flows during its eruption on 29 December 2009
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coupled with the high population density of the surrounding
1539:
1312:
991:
721:, where it is washed away by rain and cloud precipitation.
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74:
37:
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874:. 1 April 2009. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009
1033:
836:
Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Troll, Valentin R., eds. (2013).
864:"Garibaldi volcanic belt: Garibaldi Lake volcanic field"
168:
The existence of stratovolcanoes on other bodies of the
1155:
1143:
1080:
712:, blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the
1012:
271:. When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a
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have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths.
704:), and other gases dispersed around the world. The SO
93:, although some have collapsed summit craters called
659:
501:
area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants).
36:
Exposed internal structure of alternating layers of
957:Stewart, Emily M.; Head, James W. (1 August 2001).
477:completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of
470:worst volcanic disaster in the nation's history.
246:rock of the upper oceanic crust is released into
1676:
1098:
602:which can result in highly explosive eruptions.
680:; this eruption lofted particles high into the
656:and nearby settlements, killing 25,000 people.
457:just 90 km (56 mi) west-northwest of
835:
289:of the magma. When anhydrous minerals such as
1245:
936:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
73:built up by many layers (strata) of hardened
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275:within the crust below the stratovolcano.
1212:Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I.
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775: – The formation of mountain ranges
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523:'s ashfall deposits in a parking lot on
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101:, having high to intermediate levels of
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304:Progressive melting of the surrounding
117:), with lesser amounts of less viscous
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125:famous for catastrophic eruptions are
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1633:
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263:. The magma then rises through the
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660:Effects on climate and atmosphere
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214:(continental arc volcanism, e.g.
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1206: This article incorporates
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911:. Berlin: Springer. p. 71.
803: This article incorporates
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475:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
359:
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1220:United States Geological Survey
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1074:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.011
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963:Journal of Geophysical Research
907:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
868:Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes
816:United States Geological Survey
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202:Stratovolcanoes are common at
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616:Volcanic bombs are extrusive
322:interactions with groundwater
811:Principal Types of Volcanoes
495:powerful explosive eruptions
336:Mount Etna on the island of
226:) or another oceanic plate (
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872:Geological Survey of Canada
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671:eruption as seen from space
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1215:Plate tectonics and people
1015:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
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287:Fractional crystallization
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892:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
176:on Mars, for example the
1295:Cryptovolcanic structure
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541:British Airways Flight 9
269:intermediate composition
1576:Eruptions by death toll
1121:10.1126/science.aba4798
932:Barlow, Nadine (2008).
750:List of stratovolcanoes
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485:with thick deposits of
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805:public domain material
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1054:Earth-Science Reviews
738:Year Without a Summer
688:that formed from the
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519:Snow-like blanket of
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984:10.1029/2000JE001322
145:, having erupted in
1113:2020Sci...368..775W
1066:2014ESRv..129..100C
1027:2001AGUFM.T41C0871S
1003:, pp. 113–126.
975:2001JGR...10617505S
499:Metropolitan Naples
340:, in southern Italy
133:, which erupted in
87:explosive eruptions
1690:Volcanic landforms
1571:Lists of volcanoes
1358:Subglacial volcano
1333:Pyroclastic shield
779:Pyroclastic shield
767:Mountain formation
676:attributed to the
673:
579:
529:
487:pyroclastic surges
388:'s stratovolcanoes
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91:effusive eruptions
62:, also known as a
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1425:Basaltic andesite
1363:Submarine volcano
1107:(6492): 775–779.
1042:, pp. 51–56.
849:978-3-642-25892-3
429:on the island of
419:pyroclastic flows
384:(bottom), two of
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64:composite volcano
51:stratovolcano in
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1581:Decade Volcanoes
1559:Lists and groups
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1545:Pyroclastic fall
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447:Decade Volcanoes
437:in the State of
400:Mount St. Helens
396:recorded history
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240:Aleutian Islands
230:volcanism, e.g.
204:subduction zones
155:Washington State
151:Mount St. Helens
83:shield volcanoes
42:pyroclastic rock
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1383:Harmonic tremor
1285:Complex volcano
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560:Main article:
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527:(15 June 1991)
525:Clark Air Base
521:Mount Pinatubo
509:Main article:
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1384:
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1379:
1378:Volcanic cone
1376:
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1354:
1353:Stratovolcano
1351:
1349:
1348:Somma volcano
1346:
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1338:Rootless cone
1336:
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1021:: T41C–0871.
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1016:
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969:(E8): 17505.
968:
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943:9780521852265
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918:9783540436508
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666:
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642:1985 eruption
638:
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619:
618:igneous rocks
613:
612:Volcanic bomb
603:
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600:volcanic plug
597:
592:
588:
584:
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571:Mayon Volcano
568:
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463:Unzen Volcano
460:
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455:Central Luzon
452:
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257:melting point
253:
252:asthenosphere
249:
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216:Cascade Range
213:
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208:oceanic crust
205:
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60:stratovolcano
54:
50:
47:
43:
39:
34:
27:
26:Mount Rainier
23:
19:
1661:
1649:
1637:
1625:
1586:Volcanic arc
1530:Trachybasalt
1368:Supervolcano
1352:
1300:Fissure vent
1214:
1145:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1082:
1057:
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1047:
1035:
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1008:
966:
962:
952:
933:
927:
908:
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876:. Retrieved
867:
858:
838:
831:
819:. Retrieved
810:
794:
723:
682:stratosphere
678:particulates
674:
634:
615:
580:
530:
511:Volcanic ash
472:
444:
412:
393:
311:
306:country rock
294:
277:
250:rock of the
201:
190:Igneous rock
170:Solar System
167:
123:
63:
59:
57:
18:
1663:WikiProject
1606:polygenetic
1601:monogenetic
1480:Nephelinite
1435:Blairmorite
1410:Agglomerate
1318:Mud volcano
1290:Cryovolcano
1280:Cinder cone
1060:: 100–119.
761:Cinder cone
719:troposphere
714:troposphere
575:Philippines
483:Herculaneum
427:Mount Pelée
413:Since 1600
378:Mount Unzen
318:earthquakes
261:lithosphere
236:Philippines
163:Philippines
1679:Categories
1505:Rhyodacite
1455:Ignimbrite
1430:Benmoreite
821:19 January
786:References
732:island in
587:Nyiragongo
533:Galunggung
491:lava flows
435:El Chichón
431:Martinique
404:Mount Etna
376:(top) and
370:Mount Fuji
283:pressures.
228:island arc
188:See also:
157:, US, and
49:Broken Top
1490:Phonolite
1475:Leucitite
1460:Komatiite
1308:Lava dome
1304:Lava cone
1261:Volcanoes
1137:218648557
909:Volcanism
734:Indonesia
467:lava dome
131:Indonesia
81:. Unlike
1627:Category
1535:Trachyte
1510:Rhyolite
1485:Obsidian
1415:Andesite
1129:32409477
888:cite web
755:See also
686:aerosols
650:Colombia
637:Javanese
546:Ashfalls
291:feldspar
224:Campania
184:Creation
139:Vesuvius
127:Krakatoa
115:andesite
107:rhyolite
95:calderas
1639:Commons
1566:Hotspot
1465:Lapilli
1450:Felsite
1275:Caldera
1109:Bibcode
1101:Science
1062:Bibcode
1023:Bibcode
971:Bibcode
878:27 June
773:Orogeny
730:Sumbawa
669:Paluweh
583:viscous
479:Pompeii
439:Chiapas
328:Hazards
174:massifs
161:in the
105:(as in
71:volcano
68:conical
66:, is a
44:in the
1651:Portal
1515:Tephra
1500:Pumice
1470:Latite
1445:Dacite
1440:Cinder
1420:Basalt
1373:Tossol
1135:
1127:
940:
915:
846:
684:. The
654:Armero
459:Manila
423:lahars
382:Kyushu
374:Honshu
338:Sicily
248:mantle
244:basalt
137:, and
111:dacite
103:silica
99:felsic
79:tephra
53:Oregon
46:eroded
1268:Types
1210:from
1133:S2CID
807:from
631:Lahar
625:Lahar
596:lahar
591:magma
451:lahar
386:Japan
320:, or
265:crust
232:Japan
220:Andes
143:Italy
119:mafic
113:, or
1540:Tuff
1313:Maar
1125:PMID
1019:2001
938:ISBN
913:ISBN
894:link
880:2010
844:ISBN
823:2009
744:List
562:Lava
556:Lava
537:Java
489:and
481:and
473:The
445:Two
421:and
406:and
135:1883
89:and
77:and
75:lava
40:and
38:lava
1117:doi
1105:368
1070:doi
1058:129
979:doi
967:106
728:on
700:(CO
696:),
692:(SO
648:in
644:of
573:in
535:in
505:Ash
394:In
380:on
372:on
153:in
141:in
129:in
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1172:^
1157:^
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993:^
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890:}}
886:{{
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415:CE
402:,
316:,
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218:,
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1119::
1111::
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1072::
1064::
1029:.
1025::
987:.
981::
973::
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896:)
882:.
852:.
825:.
706:2
702:2
694:2
308:.
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