Ibrahim of Johor - Knowledge

1586: 1247: 1574: 1275: 1478: 516:, who was aware of Johor's financial difficulties and withheld decision. Sultan Ibrahim then sent his adviser Abdul Rahman Andak the following May to London to negotiate with the Colonial Office, and in April 1901, Sultan Ibrahim made a year-long trip to London to seek private English financiers to fund the construction of the railway line and negotiated with the Colonial Office for a railway loan. He managed to obtain a loan for the construction of the railway and the Johor Railway Convention was signed in July 1904 by his adviser, Abdul Rahman Andak, that gave provisions for an extension of the Malayan railway line to be extended into Johor. 1546: 1697: 1436: 1409: 1313: 1613: 1425: 1641: 1369: 1452: 1381: 1234: 1510: 1286: 1463: 1393: 1353: 1341: 924: 1669: 1123: 719: 3362: 1328: 612: 1044: 1491: 3350: 1628: 3374: 455:(JMF) during his teenage years and was formally installed as the first Tunku Mahkota of Johor on 23 May 1891 and was brought to Europe by his father where he was introduced to the European royal families. During his term as the Tunku Mahkota, Tunku Ibrahim occasionally acted as the state's regent and was delegated a few state duties whenever the Sultan was travelling overseas. In his free time, Tunku Ibrahim spent most of his time in hunting and horseracing. 3326: 1600: 1300: 1684: 1561: 1533: 1262: 637:, who served as the governor of the Straits Settlements as well as the high commissioner of the Malay States from 1930 to 1934, remarked in December 1932 that Sultan Ibrahim was too independent in state affairs and proposed to the Sultan that he should approach Clementi in future under the capacity of the high commissioner instead of the Straits Governor. Clementi's proposals apparently angered the Sultan, who boycotted the 948:

accustomed to working with Chinese businessmen. Sultan Ibrahim also became increasingly disappointed in Onn's work commitment, whom he saw as neglecting state affairs as a result of his commitments towards the UMNO. In early 1950, Sultan Ibrahim approached Onn, who was asked to choose between committing his efforts to the state or the UMNO. Onn chose to the latter, and resigned as the Menteri Besar of Johor in May.

1656: 512:. Sultan Ibrahim welcomed Swettenham's plan but was weary of British influence in Johor and insisted on financing the construction of the railway line himself. Swettenham was comfortable with Sultan Ibrahim's prospect of financing the railway line using the state's revenue, and submitted his proposals to the Colonial Office in England. The proposals drew scepticism from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 575:. Campbell was particularly unhappy with the way the prisoners were incarcated and lobbied to the British authorities to take charge of the administrative affairs of the prison which caused protest from the Sultan. Grievances between the Sultan's administration and the colonial government over the administrative control of the state railway remained unabated during this period, and the Menteri Besar of Johor, 520: 645: 1198:

Ismail succeeded his father as the Sultan of Johor, and many Malay and British leaders who worked with him publicly expressed their condolences to the late Sultan within the first two weeks of his death. The Sultan's body was shipped back to Johor Bahru and arrived the following month, where he was given a state funeral and with body laying in state between 4 and 6 June at the

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possibility of the British enacting constitutional changes to the state administration. In 1910, Sultan Ibrahim accepted a British adviser for Johor after immense pressure from the colonial government. The British were extremely unhappy with the condition of Johor's finances, which was depleted as a result of Sultan Ibrahim's extensive overseas travels. The British-Resident of

542:, who was not very favourable with Sultan Ibrahim's intents to detach Johor's economic dependence from Singapore. He successfully pressured Sultan Ibrahim to dispense with the services of Abdul Rahman Andak as well as ceding the administrative powers of the railway line to the colonial government the following year after reports of the state's troubled finances were revealed. 3338: 971:(PKMJ) the following month, a secessionist movement led by Ungku Abdullah bin Omar, a relative of Sultan Ibrahim who was serving as one of Johor's state executive councillor. The Sultan voiced public support for the PKMJ during a public gathering in mid-December 1955, and the PKMJ courted considerable grassroot support from in first half of 1956. 998:) to decide on the matter. Ungku Abdullah then called upon Tunku Ismail not to sign the constitution, but his calls were ignored and Tunku Ismail proceeded to sign the constitution at the ruler's meeting. Following the ordeal, Ungku Abdullah formally disbanded the party a few days before Malaya's declaration of independence on 31 August. 675:. Onn became very popular after he continued to cover issues on Malay grievances, and Sultan Ibrahim invited Onn to return to Johor in 1936. Sultan Ibrahim became an active patron of the state's forestry department around 1930, and encouraged the state forestry department to designate some of the remaining virgin forests in the state as 481:

salaries; which were often paid in instalments. Sultan Ibrahim then took charge of closely supervising the state treasury, and personally witnessed the payment of the state's employees during payment day. In the same year, he also took on the task of appointing the committee members of the Johor Gambier and Pepper Society (also known as

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drafted by the propaganda department. In particular, Sultan Ibrahim was once publicly criticised, for leaning on his walking stick before Japanese officers. Shortly before the Japanese surrendered in 1945, Sultan Ibrahim was expelled from his residence at the Istana Bukit Serene and was forced to reside at the

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proposals as the British adviser would have more direct control over the state affairs, but Young assured the Sultan that he would be available for consultation in the event that they had differing opinions. A treaty was signed on 12 May 1914, which formalised the powers of the state's General Adviser.

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on 5 September 1945. A former Malayan Civil Service legal officer, H.C. Willan, was ordered to interview the Malay rulers and Willan approached Sultan Ibrahim on 8 September. Sultan Ibrahim was living at the Istana Pasir Pelangi with his Romanian wife, and reportedly warmed up to Willan when he first

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Sultan Ibrahim spent much of his time residing in England, often dealing with the colonial office in London over state affairs. His relations with the United Kingdom were often strained over both state and personal matters, especially with leading figures from the colonial office. From the mid-1930s

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was proclaimed as his heir-apparent. A formal coronation ceremony took place on 2 November 1895. He took over the state government the following year, and one of his first reports was the financial difficulties which the state was facing. Many of his employees complained of delays in receiving their

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reacted strongly to the events which motivated the formation of the PKMJ, and called for the Alliance-dominated Johor state executive council to vet all future state-policy speeches that will be made by the Sultan or members of the royal family. In particular, the Alliance Party reacted with great

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proposal. MacMichael made several visits to the Malay rulers, beginning with Sultan Ibrahim in October 1945. The Sultan quickly consented to MacMichael's proposal, which was motivated by his strong desire to visit England at the end of the year. MacMichael paid further visits to other Malay rulers

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for the rest of the 1910s. Campbell served as its General Adviser until his death in June 1918, and between June 1918 until December 1920, five General Advisers were appointed in succession, each of whom only took office for a few months. As the colonial government lacked decisiveness in the state

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Sultan Ibrahim returned to Johor the following year, and expanded the state's military forces, JMF. He instituted the Johor Volunteer Forces, which consisted of young Malay boys and served as the state's reservist soldiers. In 1906, he granted land concessions to English capitalists and financiers

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in April 1895. The following month, Tunku Ibrahim accompanied Abu Bakar to London, who had the intent of seeking further negotiations with the Colonial Office on state affairs. Abu Bakar was by then very ill when he reached England, and Tunku Ibrahim spent much of his time by his father's bedside

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Sultan Ibrahim, on his part, became resentful of the Japanese military government during the later part of the occupation. The Japanese gave orders to the Malay Sultans to contribute an annual stipend of $ 10,000 to support the Japanese war efforts, and public speeches which the rulers made were

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and myocardial degeneration. He would often visit London and frequented the Colonial Office whenever he had grievances with the state administration. As a result of his frequent complaints of maladministration of state affairs by the local British government, Sultan Ibrahim's relations with each

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to appeal for greater British administrative control over the state. Young gave provisions to Campbell with the power similar to a British Resident-General from other states, but kept the title of "General Adviser" to show protocol deference to the Sultan. Sultan Ibrahim was unhappy with the new

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had met Sultan Ibrahim in 1906 and advised him to administer the state in favour of British interests and to cut down on his overseas travels to Europe. Sultan Ibrahim was adamant about Elgin's advice and was indignant to accept British advice, and was warned two years later by Lord Elgin on the

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in London. He spent most of his time watching television and visiting theatres and enjoyed the company of his sixth wife, Marcella Mendl and their beloved daughter, Tunku Meriam. The Sultan died on 8 May 1959 at his apartment, with his wife reportedly at his bedside during his last hours. Tunku

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in London. Sultan Ibrahim approached the colonial office and withdrew his support of the proposal, but this did not appease the political dissidents and Onn continued to organise more rallies in the other Malay states to muster further support for his calls against the Malayan Union, and formed

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Sultan Ibrahim took on the role of a ceremonial monarch from the 1920s onwards, and his duties were largely limited to gracing various opening ceremonies around Johor. He occasionally expressed his views on the state administration and economic developments whenever he had grievances, which the

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Relations between Sultan Ibrahim and Campbell were excellent within Campbell's first year as an adviser, and Sultan Ibrahim gave him support to improve the state administrative system. However, a tenacious relationship was develop as Campbell proposed numerous administrative reforms which were

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In recent years, efforts have been made by the Sultan's heirs to rehabilitate his image and paint him as a benevolent ruler. Critics calim that he is largely remembered as an anti-independence figure, a wastrel and a close ally of the British. Even with that view, he is viewed as the man whom

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who frequently raised grievances over the citizenship terms that were set when the federation was established. As a result, communal tensions between the Malays and Chinese surfaced, and Onn kept his distance from Tan. Tan encountered initial difficulties with meeting the Sultan, who was not

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were high, and the prospect of granting citizenship to non-Malays was deemed unacceptable to the Malays. In particular, politicians in Johor were extremely unhappy with the willingness of Sultan Ibrahim to sign the treaties with MacMichael, and voiced that the Sultan Ibrahim had violated the

54: 769:. Tokugawa was appointed as its political adviser at the recommendation of Sultan Ibrahim. Relations between the military government and the monarchy were initially cordial throughout the Japanese occupation, and Tokugawa briefly envisioned a plan for a united Malay Sultanate over the 1034:

hunting, as well as Tokugawa's ability to communicate in fluent Malay. Tokugawa's personal friendship with the Sultan encouraged Japanese businessmen to invest in the state's rubber plantations from the 1920s onwards. The Sultan visited Japan in 1934, at the invitation of Tokugawa.

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from 1943 onwards, these plans were dropped and the military government channelled its efforts towards state agriculture. The Japanese continued the British policy of appointing a state adviser in Johor, and Sultan Ibrahim spent most of his time doing leisure activities.

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was established the following January, which restored the rulers' powers. Shortly before Sultan Ibrahim left for England in May, he personally donated $ 5,000 to UMNO, hoping to improve relations with UMNO leaders and Onn himself, who had been appointed the

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During his reign, the Sultan was considered to be "fabulously wealthy." He also had a reputation as a wild international playboy. His exploits included changing the colour of his racing horse to present it as an unknown with better odds and going to the

906:. Although many Johorean politicians still held critical opinions of Sultan Ibrahim over the treaties with MacMichael, the UMNO delegates gave him a rousing welcome when he arrived at the palace. Critical opinions against the Sultan waned after the 979:

hostility to the existence of the PKMJ, and actively attempted to suppress and discredit the party. The PKMJ rapidly lost most of its members to UMNO, and by mid-1957 Ungku Abdullah only had ten members left in the party. Meanwhile, at the

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Sultan Ibrahim became increasingly uncomfortable with the idea of Johor as a state within the Federation of Malaya, particularly when the prospect of an independent federation free from British interference became increasingly clear under

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over the proposal, and sought their consent on it. Many Malay rulers expressed strong reluctance to signing the treaties with MacMichael, partly because they feared losing their royal status and the prospect of their states falling under

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saw him. During the interview with Willan, Sultan Ibrahim spoke bitterly of his experiences during the Japanese occupation, and offered to serve under the British Military Administration. The Sultan asked Willan's permission to fly the

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Sultan Ibrahim was also facing political challenges from the British colonial government, who were ostensibly unhappy about his negligence in his state affairs and were seeking to extend greater political influence into the state. The

1725:, who served as Johor's Acting General Adviser from 1931–1933. Sultan Ibrahim had high regards for Winstedt, and requested for Winstedt to continue to serve as the Johor's General Adviser. Winstedt served in that capacity until 1935. 1114:-based Danish businessman and his Chinese wife, Nonna Sang Nio (born Ong Sang Nio). Nonna, who was born in Southern China, lived in East Java for a time prior to her marriage to Lange. He had one sister, Mariam (born 1871). 1180:(1940–1955) and Her Highness Sultana Fawzia binti 'Abdu'llah (1955–1982). Married in 1940, they had one daughter, Tunku Meriam (18 September 1950–4 July 2014) (married, 1976–1980, to British rock star Barry Sapherson, aka 435:. However, he became highly unpopular later in his native land for his opposition to Malayan independence. This led him to spend most of his time away from Johor, traveling extensively in Europe, particularly to Britain. 962:

in 1953, "Straits Settlement Forever", Sultan Ibrahim expressed a sceptical opinion of Johor's future as part of an independent Malaya, and voiced support for the continuation of British Adviser system in Johor. At his

431:, Sultan Ibrahim continued the policy of friendly relations with the crown of the United Kingdom, often manipulating his friendship with the reigning kings of Britain to thwart the expansionist ambitions of the British 624:

administration, Sultan Ibrahim attempted to extend his influence in the state administration. Hayes Marriot was appointed as the state's new General Adviser in December 1920 and reorganised the state administration.

679:, as Johor had gone through a reduction in timber supplies due to extensive logging before. Nature reserves covered about 15 per cent of the state's land area by 1934, mainly in the northern regions of the state. 825:

Willan made further interviews with other Malay rulers over the next few days, and made assessments of the political situation in each state. His studies were forwarded to the military administration, and Sir

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British colonial government often took into account as a result of his political influence in the state. He began to take time off to travel abroad from 1928, after he began to suffer from chronic

3459: 750:'s troops and was warmly received by Sultan Ibrahim when they reached Johor Bahru at the end of January 1942. Yamashita and his officers then stationed themselves at the Sultan's residence, the 667:. Some of Onn's articles were critical of Sultan Ibrahim's policies, which strained their personal relations. Sultan Ibrahim expelled Onn from Johor after he published an article in the 3449: 2689: 935:

The establishment of the federation did not go down well with the Chinese, as favourable conditions for obtaining citizenship for the Chinese and other non-Malays were withdrawn. The

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continued his father's legacy of investing in pepper, gambier and rubber, which largely improved the economic situation of Johor. The posthumous title of "the Great" (in Malay,

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broke out in 1939, Thomas introduced the Pan-Malayan war tax scheme to fund for Britain's war efforts. Sultan Ibrahim's rejected the proposals, and made a £250,000 cash gift to

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Sultan Ibrahim also became a close acquaintance with Yoshichika Tokugawa after the latter visited Johor in 1921. They became friends, partly due to their shared interest in

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celebrations in September 1955, Sultan Ibrahim publicly called for Johor's secession from the Federation. Sultan Ibrahim's calls for secession inspired the formation of the

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and spent much of his life away from Johor, preferring the more liberal delights of Europe. He sent his sons, by his Malay wives, to be educated in Britain.

406: 1784: 590:) to oversee the administration of state agricultural and mining activities. The Sultan distanced himself from the Campbell and the state's legal adviser, 1148:

Enche' Hasnah Binti Dato' Ja'afar: Hasnah was the daughter of Dato' Ja'afar bin Haji Muhammad, the first Johor Menteri Besar, and the younger sister of

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and took administrative matters into his own hands. This incited worry and unhappiness in Campbell and Whitley, and they submitted a memorandum to the

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a spectacular jewel collection, reputedly giving her an emerald on her birthday and a diamond on their wedding anniversary, even after the divorce.

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Enche' Rogayah (died 1926); married in 1920, they had one son, Tunku Haris Abu Bakar (Tunku Aris Bendahara of Johor) (17 February 1898–1 May 1956).

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which explicitly forbade any foreign powers to assume legitimate control over the state. In early February 1946, seven political dissidents led by

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in Malay). Sultan Ibrahim was inexperienced in public administration skills and heavily relied on his private secretary, Dato Amar DiRaja

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Tunku Ibrahim was proclaimed as the Sultan of Johor on the day of Abu Bakar's burial on 7 September 1895, while his one-year-old son,

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on his 44th birthday in 1939 during his trip to Europe in 1939. From 1934 to 1940 the Sultan's name was associated with that of the

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proposed to Sultan Ibrahim in November 1899 the construction of a railway line into Johor, in conjunction with his plan for the

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This article is about the second modern Sultan of Johor. For the incumbent Sultan of Johor and Yang di-Pertuan Agong XVII, see

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The treaties provided that United Kingdom had full administrative powers over the Malay states except in areas pertaining to

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onwards, Sultan Ibrahim fostered personal friends with the British monarchs, and made a cash donation of £500,000 for the

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on his car to attend the surrender ceremony on 12 September, and the British military government granted his requests.

447:, Singapore, and received his education at a boarding school in England during his formative years. He was appointed a 2621: 3249: 3217: 3175: 3154: 3140: 3119: 3101: 3087: 3073: 3055: 3041: 3027: 3013: 2999: 2981: 2967: 2953: 2935: 2921: 2907: 2893: 2448: 1397: 1357: 987:

of Malaysia, but Sultan Ibrahim declined on grounds of his old age and desire to lead his final years in retirement.

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Red Star Over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict during and after the Japanese occupation of Malaya, 1941–1946

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Red Star Over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict during and after the Japanese occupation of Malaya, 1941–1946

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declined by the Sultan. A political scandal erupted in 1912 after Campbell publicly revealed malpractices in the

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Ungku Intan Binti Ungku Ahmad: Married in 1926, Ungku Intan was the daughter of Ungku Ahmad bin Ungku Muhammad.

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At the time of his death, Sultan Ibrahim was the longest reigning Sultan of Johor, having ruled for 64 years.

663:, whom the Sultan had treated as an adopted son, became a journalist and wrote articles on the welfare of the 1550: 936: 883: 649: 2740: 1645: 1106:

of Johor by Che Puan Besar Zubaidah (née Cecilia Catharina Lange, 1848–1936). Zubaidah was the daughter of

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Sultan Ibrahim returned to Johor in early September 1947 and attended UMNO's second general meeting at the

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by signing the treaties. News of the rally reached Sultan Ibrahim on 22 February, who was then residing at

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Four months later in July 1957, Ungku Abdullah made one last call to urge Sultan Ibrahim not to sign the

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of the Malay rulers, which the Malays held in high regard. Communal tensions between the Malays and

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and was briefly detained by the French police following the visit when they mistook him for a spy.

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Stockwell, British policy and Malay politics during the Malayan Union Experiment, 1945–1948, pg 99

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From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia region, 1945–65

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From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia region, 1945–65

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From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia region, 1945–65

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strongly protested the treaties, as the treaties had the effect of restricting the spiritual and

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The Japanese established a military government in February, shortly after they settled down in

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Shortly after his fallout with Campbell, Sultan Ibrahim implemented a state executive council (

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Ungku Maimunah Binti Ungku Abdul Majid (died 1909); married 5 October 1892, they had one son,

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The Portrayal of Foreigners in Indonesian and Malay Literatures: Essays on the Ethnic "other"

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in March 1957, Tunku Abdul Rahman expressed his desire to elect Sultan Ibrahim as the first

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Sultan Ibrahim leading as Colonel of the Johor Military Forces at King's Birthday Parade of

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Tunku Ibrahim acted as one of the three signatories when Sultan Abu Bakar promogulated the

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Prince of Pirates: The Temenggongs and the Development of Johor and Singapore, 1784–1885

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Patrons, Clients, and Empire: Chieftaincy and Over-rule in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific

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In Praise of Kuta: From Slave Port to Fishing Village to the Most Popular Resort in Bali

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In Praise of Kuta: From Slave Port to Fishing Village to the Most Popular Resort in Bali

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Patrons, Clients, and Empire: Chieftaincy and Over-rule in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific

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Prince of Pirates: The Temenggongs and the Development of Johor and Singapore, 1784–1885

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organised a rally to protest against the Sultan's decision to sign the treaties, and

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Sultan Sir Ibrahim Al-Masyhur ibni Almarhum Sultan Abu Bakar Al-Khalil Ibrahim Shah

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British policy and Malay Politics during the Malayan Union Experiment, 1945–1948

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British policy and Malay Politics during the Malayan Union Experiment, 1945–1948

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Sultan Abu Bakar Ibni Al-Marhum Dato' Temenggong Sri Maharaja Tun Daeng Ibrahim

283: 236: 3267: 923: 3388: 2674: 1633: 1490: 1122: 1073: 835: 731: 718: 687: 611: 555: 420:; 17 September 1873 – 8 May 1959) was a Malaysian sultan and the 2nd modern 348:

Sultan Sir Ibrahim ibni Almarhum Sultan Sir Abu Bakar Al-Khalil Ibrahim Shah

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Knight Grand Commander (SPMJ) (23 May 1891) and Grand Master (1895) of the

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and 22nd Sultan of Johor overall. He was considered "fabulously wealthy."

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for development purposes. This drew the concern of the Straits Governor,

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Video: Sultan Ibrahim assists Frank Buck in capturing a man eating tiger

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Journal of Malaysian and Comparative Law (Jernal Undang-undang), Vol. 14

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Rulers and Residents: Influence and Power in the Malay States, 1870–1920

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Journal of Malaysian and Comparative Law (Jernal Undang-undang), Vol. 14

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Rulers and Residents: Influence and Power in the Malay States, 1870–1920

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Sultan Ibrahim spent the last two years of his life at his apartment at

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for centralised control over the Malay states within days after British

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was empowered to sign official treaties with the Malay rulers over the

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Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch,

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Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch,

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Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George

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Straits Settlements. Statistical Office, Malayan Information Agency,

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Treasure Hunting?: Collectors and Collections of Indonesian Artefacts

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Straits Settlements. Statistical Office, Malayan Information Agency,

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Grand Commander (DK I) (23 May 1891) and Grand Master (1895) of the

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Nature and Nation: Forests and Development in Peninsular Malaysia

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Nature and Nation: Forests and Development in Peninsular Malaysia

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The state economy experienced a budget surplus as a result of an

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Inche Besar Zubaidah binti Abdullah (née Cecilia Catharina Lange)

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Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire

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Sultan Ibrahim married at least four official wives who became

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on advice and assistance in running the affairs of the state.

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Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

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The Other Malaysia: Writings on Malaysia's Subaltern History

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Mads Lange fra Bali: Og Hans Efterslaegt Sultanerne af Johor

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Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

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The Other Malaysia: Writings on Malaysia's Subaltern History

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did not fare well as Thomas attempted to form a centralised

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and often assisted Buck in his animal collecting endeavours.

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under the direct authority of the Straits Governor. As the

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took root in Johor during the 1920s as a Malay aristocrat,

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Abdullah bin Jaafar was delegated to handle these matters.

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Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Johor

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Braginsky, Vladimir, Murtagh, Ben, Harrison, Rachel (FRW,

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Sultan Ibrahim's relations with Clementi's successor, Sir

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Marcella Mendl (1915–1982), daughter of Edgar Mendl from

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The Politics of Administration: The Malaysian Experience

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Forgotten wars: freedom and revolution in Southeast Asia

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Andresen, pp 7, 42, 48, 184; Schefold, Vermeulen, pp 118

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Forgotten wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia

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Forgotten wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia

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Forgotten wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia

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Forgotten wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia

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Forgotten wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia

2256:

Forgotten wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia

2092: 2090: 1814:

The Politics of Administration: The Malaysian Experience

1744:

Basri, Johor, 1855–1917: Pentadbiran dan Perkembangannya

3094:

One Man's Will: A Portrait of Dato' Sir Onn bin Ja'afar

2372:

One Man's Will: A Portrait of Dato' Sir Onn bin Ja'afar

2287: 1102:

Sultan Ibrahim was the only son of Che Wan Abu Bakar,

918: 615:

Sultan Ibrahim as depicted on a postage stamp of 1921.

3314: 2942:

Forgotten armies: the fall of British Asia, 1941–1945

2465:

Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945

2243:

Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945

2217:

Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945

2087: 3048: