6554:
1193:, which he had designed to modify his equations of general relativity to allow them to produce a static solution, which he thought was the correct state of the universe. The Einstein equations in their simplest form model either an expanding or contracting universe, so Einstein's cosmological constant was artificially created to counter the expansion or contraction to get a perfect static and flat universe. After Hubble's discovery that the universe was, in fact, expanding, Einstein called his faulty assumption that the universe is static his "biggest mistake". On its own, general relativity could predict the expansion of the universe, which (through
6545:, or dark matter that decays into dark radiation. A problem faced by all these theories is that both early-universe and late-universe measurements rely on multiple independent lines of physics, and it is difficult to modify any of those lines while preserving their successes elsewhere. The scale of the challenge can be seen from how some authors have argued that new early-universe physics alone is not sufficient; while other authors argue that new late-universe physics alone is also not sufficient. Nonetheless, astronomers are trying, with interest in the Hubble tension growing strongly since the mid 2010s.
877:
833:, in a 1927 article, independently derived that the universe might be expanding, observed the proportionality between recessional velocity of, and distance to, distant bodies, and suggested an estimated value for the proportionality constant; this constant, when Edwin Hubble confirmed the existence of cosmic expansion and determined a more accurate value for it two years later, came to be known by his name as the Hubble constant. Hubble inferred the recession velocity of the objects from their
13109:; Carr, Anthony; Zuntz, Joe; Kessler, Rick; Davis, Tamara M.; Hinton, Samuel; Jones, David; Kenworthy, W. D'Arcy; Peterson, Erik R.; Said, Khaled; Taylor, Georgie; Ali, Noor; Armstrong, Patrick; Charvu, Pranav; Dwomoh, Arianna; Meldorf, Cole; Palmese, Antonella; Qu, Helen; Rose, Benjamin M.; Sanchez, Bruno; Stubbs, Christopher W.; Vincenzi, Maria; Wood, Charlotte M.; Brown, Peter J.; Chen, Rebecca; Chambers, Ken; Coulter, David A.; Dai, Mi; Dimitriadis, Georgios;
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582:
59:
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6424:" for stars (Population I and Population II) in a galaxy. The same observations led him to discover that there are two types of Cepheid variable stars with different luminosities. Using this discovery, he recalculated Hubble constant and the size of the known universe, doubling the previous calculation made by Hubble in 1929. He announced this finding to considerable astonishment at the 1952 meeting of the
16016:
594:
31:
16052:
16028:
1011:, "the 1927 discovery of the expansion of the universe by LemaĂźtre was published in French in a low-impact journal. In the 1931 high-impact English translation of this article, a critical equation was changed by omitting reference to what is now known as the Hubble constant." It is now known that the alterations in the translated paper were carried out by LemaĂźtre himself.
1158:âthe 'Hubble flow' is used to refer to the region of space far enough out that the recession velocity is larger than local peculiar velocities), Hubble was able to plot a trend line from the 46 galaxies he studied and obtain a value for the Hubble constant of 500 (km/s)/Mpc (much higher than the currently accepted value due to errors in his distance calibrations; see
6375:'s data) to determine the Hubble constant. The challenge of using this method is that its result varies depending on the cosmology models used. Due to the different values of Hubble constant estimated using different techniques, the determination of Hubble constant is an active research field (Hubble tension). The high accuracy measurement using
6339:
4276:
6260:â the speed of light multiplied by the Hubble time. It is equivalent to 4,420 million parsecs or 14.4 billion light years. (The numerical value of the Hubble length in light years is, by definition, equal to that of the Hubble time in years.) The Hubble distance would be the distance between the Earth and the galaxies which are
6515:
effects regardless of whether early-universe or late-universe observations are incorrect, and there are no obvious candidates. Furthermore, any such systematic error would need to affect multiple different instruments, since both the early-universe and late-universe observations come from several different telescopes.
4953:
4506:
6526:), then the existing interpretations of the Hubble constant and the Hubble tension have to be revised, which might resolve the Hubble tension. In particular, we would need to be located within a very large void, up to about a redshift of 0.5, for such an explanation to not be in tension with supernovae and
6459:(Sandage's research colleague) formally acknowledged the shortcomings of confirming the systematic error of their method in 1975, Vaucouleurs responded "It is unfortunate that this sober warning was so soon forgotten and ignored by most astronomers and textbook writers". In 1996, a debate moderated by
2177:
From this perspective, Hubble's law is a fundamental relation between (i) the recessional velocity contributed by the expansion of space and (ii) the distance to an object; the connection between redshift and distance is a crutch used to connect Hubble's law with observations. This law can be related
1457:
Since the Hubble "constant" is a constant only in space, not in time, the radius of the Hubble sphere may increase or decrease over various time intervals. The subscript '0' indicates the value of the Hubble constant today. Current evidence suggests that the expansion of the universe is accelerating
6106:
This is slightly different from the age of the universe, which is approximately 13.8 billion years. The Hubble time is the age it would have had if the expansion had been linear, and it is different from the real age of the universe because the expansion is not linear; it depends on the energy
11716:
Zhao, Gong-Bo; Raveri, Marco; Pogosian, Levon; Wang, Yuting; Crittenden, Robert G.; Handley, Will J.; Percival, Will J.; Beutler, Florian; Brinkmann, Jonathan; Chuang, Chia-Hsun; Cuesta, Antonio J.; Eisenstein, Daniel J.; Kitaura, Francisco-Shu; Koyama, Kazuya; l'Huillier, Benjamin; Nichol, Robert
6514:
The cause of the Hubble tension is unknown, and there are many possible proposed solutions. The most conservative is that there is an unknown systematic error affecting either early-universe or late-universe observations. Although intuitively appealing, this explanation requires multiple unrelated
3369:
Since the 17th century, astronomers and other thinkers have proposed many possible ways to resolve this paradox, but the currently accepted resolution depends in part on the Big Bang theory, and in part on the Hubble expansion: in a universe that existed for a finite amount of time, only the
6359:
per million parsecs. Since then, Hubble constant has been actively measured using various methods. In the early days, Hubble, for example, used bright stars and the light of the "nebula" to estimate the redshift and determined the constant. Later, after type Ia supernova was found to be a better
2732:
is commonly called the "Hubble constant", but that is a misnomer since it is constant in space only at a fixed time; it varies with time in nearly all cosmological models, and all observations of far distant objects are also observations into the distant past, when the "constant" had a different
2715:
In using Hubble's law to determine distances, only the velocity due to the expansion of the universe can be used. Since gravitationally interacting galaxies move relative to each other independent of the expansion of the universe, these relative velocities, called peculiar velocities, need to be
1170:
Hubble's law can be easily depicted in a "Hubble diagram" in which the velocity (assumed approximately proportional to the redshift) of an object is plotted with respect to its distance from the observer. A straight line of positive slope on this diagram is the visual depiction of Hubble's law.
2434:
7822:
directly estimated the luminosity distance out to cosmological scales. An estimate of fifty similar detections in the next decade may arbitrate tension of other methodologies. Detection and analysis of a neutron star-black hole merger (NSBH) may provide greater precision than BNS could allow.
1485:
Redshift can be measured by determining the wavelength of a known transition, such as hydrogen α-lines for distant quasars, and finding the fractional shift compared to a stationary reference. Thus, redshift is a quantity unambiguous for experimental observation. The relation of redshift to
1694:
6364:" of distant galaxies, supernova were used to determine the redshift. These measurements need to determine the distance of the target stars or galaxies first. Uncertainties in the physical assumptions used to determine these distances have caused varying estimates of the Hubble constant.
6102:
7925:
Baryon acoustic oscillations. An extended survey (eBOSS) began in 2014 and is expected to run through 2020. The extended survey is designed to explore the time when the universe was transitioning away from the deceleration effects of gravity from 3 to 8 billion years after the Big Bang.
3927:
10897:
Riess, Adam G.; Anand, Gagandeep S.; Yuan, Wenlong; Casertano, Stefano; Dolphin, Andrew; Macri, Lucas M.; Breuval, Louise; Scolnic, Dan; Perrin, Marshall (2023-07-28), "Crowded No More: The
Accuracy of the Hubble Constant Tested with High Resolution Observations of Cepheids by JWST",
1570:
between redshift velocity and redshift: they are rigidly proportional, and not related by any theoretical reasoning. The motivation behind the "redshift velocity" terminology is that the redshift velocity agrees with the velocity from a low-velocity simplification of the so-called
6654:
In
February 2020, the Megamaser Cosmology Project published independent results that confirmed the distance ladder results and differed from the early-universe results at a statistical significance level of 95%. In July 2020, measurements of the cosmic background radiation by the
5496:
3370:
light of a finite number of stars has had enough time to reach us, and the paradox is resolved. Additionally, in an expanding universe, distant objects recede from us, which causes the light emanated from them to be redshifted and diminished in brightness by the time we see it.
4091:
12801:
Freeman & Madore make the point that
Cepheid variable stars are young stars, necessarily located close to star-forming regions deep inside galaxies, where nearby stars complicate their observation. TRGB and JAGB stars are old stars which have had time to migrate to the
12819:; Madore, Barry F.; Jang, In Sung; Hoyt, Taylor J.; Lee, Abigail J.; Owens, Kayla A. (12 August 2024). "Status Report on the Chicago-Carnegie Hubble Program (CCHP): Three Independent Astrophysical Determinations of the Hubble Constant Using the James Webb Space Telescope".
4072:
is the density of matter today. From the
Friedmann equation and thermodynamic principles we know for non-relativistic particles that their mass density decreases proportional to the inverse volume of the universe, so the equation above must be true. We can also define (see
6223:
9834:
5866:
4795:
4349:
8047:
technology to measure the CMB at a smaller scale than WMAP. On 21 March 2013, the
European-led research team behind the Planck cosmology probe released the mission's data including a new CMB all-sky map and their determination of the Hubble constant.
4686:
1369:
Hubble's law is considered a fundamental relation between recessional velocity and distance. However, the relation between recessional velocity and redshift depends on the cosmological model adopted and is not established except for small redshifts.
6940:
Use Type II supernovae as standardisable candles to obtain an independent measurement of the Hubble constantâ13 SNe II with host-galaxy distances measured from
Cepheid variables, the tip of the red giant branch, and geometric distance (NGC 4258).
1725:
is not so simply related to real velocity at larger velocities, however, and this terminology leads to confusion if interpreted as a real velocity. Next, the connection between redshift or redshift velocity and recessional velocity is discussed.
12888:
SPT-3G Collaboration; Balkenhol, L.; Dutcher, D.; Spurio
Mancini, A.; Doussot, A.; Benabed, K.; Galli, S.; Ade, P. A. R.; Anderson, A. J.; Ansarinejad, B.; Archipley, M.; Bender, A. N.; Benson, B. A.; Bianchini, F.; Bleem, L. E. (2023-07-13).
3703:, which was determined in 1998 to be negative, surprised many astronomers with the implication that the expansion of the universe is currently "accelerating" (although the Hubble factor is still decreasing with time, as mentioned above in the
5345:
2191:
1579:
5965:
6666:. Due to the blackbody nature of early kilonova spectra, such systems provide strongly constraining estimators of cosmic distance. Using the kilonova AT2017gfo, these measurements indicate a local-estimate of the Hubble constant of
5624:
3786:
2544:
8369:
believed he had improved the accuracy of Hubble's constant from
Sandage's because he used 5x more primary indicators, 10Ă more calibration methods, 2Ă more secondary indicators, and 3Ă as many galaxy data points to derive his
1006:
In 1927, two years before Hubble published his own article, the
Belgian priest and astronomer Georges LemaĂźtre was the first to publish research deriving what is now known as Hubble's law. According to the Canadian astronomer
828:
had, in two publications dating 1922 and 1924, already deduced with his own data that galaxies that appeared smaller and dimmer had larger redshifts and thus that more distant galaxies recede faster from the observer. Then
15485:
Bonamente, M.; Joy, M. K.; Laroque, S. J.; Carlstrom, J. E.; et al. (2006). "Determination of the cosmic distance scale from
SunyaevâZel'dovich effect and Chandra X-ray measurements of high-redshift galaxy clusters".
6705:), and the traditional Cepheid variable stars. The TRGB amd JAGB distances agreed with each other within 1%, while the Cepheid-measured distances are a few percent shorter, resulting in computed Hubble constant values of
5382:
1035:
over this issue. Shapley argued for a small universe the size of the Milky Way galaxy, and Curtis argued that the universe was much larger. The issue was resolved in the coming decade with Hubble's improved observations.
1052:
stars in "spiral nebulae" enabled him to calculate the distances to these objects. Surprisingly, these objects were discovered to be at distances which placed them well outside the Milky Way. They continued to be called
11355:
Abdalla, Elcio; AbellĂĄn, Guillermo Franco; Aboubrahim, Amin (11 Mar 2022), "Cosmology Intertwined: A Review of the Particle Physics, Astrophysics, and Cosmology Associated with the Cosmological Tensions and Anomalies",
1514:, and because the velocities involved are too large to use a non-relativistic formula for Doppler shift). This redshift velocity can easily exceed the speed of light. In other words, to determine the redshift velocity
3076:
Any two points which are moving away from the origin, each along straight lines and with speed proportional to distance from the origin, will be moving away from each other with a speed proportional to their distance
6129:
1124:
The parameters that appear in Hubble's law, velocities and distances, are not directly measured. In reality we determine, say, a supernova brightness, which provides information about its distance, and the redshift
7286:
Use Type II supernovae as standardisable candles to obtain an independent measurement of the Hubble constantâ7 SNe II with host-galaxy distances measured from Cepheid variables or the tip of the red giant branch.
5675:
1239:; a variety of possible shapes from theories related to general relativity; and a curve that does not permit speeds faster than light in accordance with special relativity. All curves are linear at low redshifts.
3081:
In fact, this applies to non-Cartesian spaces as long as they are locally homogeneous and isotropic, specifically to the negatively and positively curved spaces frequently considered as cosmological models (see
4054:
3543:
1869:
652:
are moving away from Earth at speeds proportional to their distance. In other words, the farther they are, the faster they are moving away from Earth. The velocity of the galaxies has been determined by their
14490:
The LIGO Scientific Collaboration and The Virgo Collaboration; The 1M2H Collaboration; The Dark Energy Camera GW-EM Collaboration and the DES Collaboration; The DLT40 Collaboration; et al. (2017-10-16).
8341:
Determined relationship between luminosity of SN 1a's and their Light Curve Shapes. Riess et al. used this ratio of the light curve of SN 1972E and the Cepheid distance to NGC 5253 to determine the constant.
936:" (the obsolete term for spiral galaxies) and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was
13633:
Anderson, Lauren; Aubourg, Ăric; Bailey, Stephen; Beutler, Florian; Bhardwaj, Vaishali; Blanton, Michael; Bolton, Adam S.; Brinkmann, J.; Brownstein, Joel R.; Burden, Angela; Chuang, Chia-Hsun (2014-04-21).
14489:
2950:
12303:"New measurement of universe's expansion rate is 'stuck in the middle' â Red giant stars observed by Hubble Space Telescope used to make an entirely new measurement of how fast the universe is expanding"
6486:
In the 21st century, multiple methods have been used to determine the Hubble constant. "Late universe" measurements using calibrated distance ladder techniques have converged on a value of approximately
4342:
3254:
13219:
Riess, Adam G.; Yuan, Wenlong; Macri, Lucas M.; Scolnic, Dan; Brout, Dillon; Casertano, Stefano; Jones, David O.; Murakami, Yukei; Breuval, Louise; Brink, Thomas G.; Filippenko, Alexei V. (2021-12-08).
15195:
2078:
1979:
6590:
In October 2018, scientists presented a new third way (two earlier methods, one based on redshifts and another on the cosmic distance ladder, gave results that do not agree), using information from
3089:
An observation stemming from this theorem is that seeing objects recede from us on Earth is not an indication that Earth is near to a center from which the expansion is occurring, but rather that
1469:
is increasing over time as the galaxy moves to greater and greater distances; however, the Hubble parameter is actually thought to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some
5178:
5387:
4800:
4544:
4354:
4096:
1453:
13117:; Möller, Anais; Muir, Jessie; Nadathur, Seshadri; Pan, Yen-Chen; Rest, Armin; Rojas-Bravo, Cesar; Sako, Masao; Siebert, Matthew R.; Smith, Mat; Stahl, Benjamin E.; Wiseman, Phil (2022-02-08).
11717:
C.; Pieri, Matthew M.; Rodriguez-Torres, Sergio; Ross, Ashley J.; Rossi, Graziano; SĂĄnchez, Ariel G.; Shafieloo, Arman; Tinker, Jeremy L.; Tojeiro, Rita; Vazquez, Jose A.; Zhang, Hanyu (2017).
4769:
4271:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\rho _{c}&={\frac {3H_{0}^{2}}{8\pi G}};\\\Omega _{m}&\equiv {\frac {\rho _{m_{0}}}{\rho _{c}}}={\frac {8\pi G}{3H_{0}^{2}}}\rho _{m_{0}};\end{aligned}}}
8036:
Planck Surveyor was launched in May 2009. Over a four-year period, it performed a significantly more detailed investigation of cosmic microwave radiation than earlier investigations using
2818:
10944:
7081:
is 1.8%, which is expected to be reduced to 1.3% with a larger sample of type Ia supernovae in galaxies that are known Cepheid hosts. Continuation of a collaboration known as Supernovae,
3022:
2130:
6605:
In July 2019, astronomers reported that a new method to determine the Hubble constant, and resolve the discrepancy of earlier methods, has been proposed based on the mergers of pairs of
5027:
3113:
can be determined by measuring the Hubble constant today and extrapolating with the observed value of the deceleration parameter, uniquely characterized by values of density parameters (
38:
in a rising loaf of bread in place of galaxies. If a raisin is twice as far away from a place as another raisin, then the farther raisin would move away from that place twice as quickly.
2612:
2878:
decreases with time. (The recession velocity of one chosen galaxy does increase, but different galaxies passing a sphere of fixed radius cross the sphere more slowly at later times.)
1150:'s measurements of the redshifts associated with the galaxies, Hubble discovered a rough proportionality between redshift of an object and its distance. Though there was considerable
1562:
5198:
978:
of Hubble's law. Georges LemaĂźtre independently found a similar solution in his 1927 paper discussed in the following section. The Friedmann equations are derived by inserting the
11290:
7503:
Updated observations of multiply imaged quasars, now using six quasars, independent of the cosmic distance ladder and independent of the cosmic microwave background measurements.
11333:
6499:. (This is accounting for the change in the expansion rate since the early universe, so is comparable to the first number.) Initially, this discrepancy was within the estimated
5085:
13685:
Mukherjee, S.; Ghosh, A.; Graham, M. J.; Karathanasis, C.; et al. (29 September 2020). "First measurement of the Hubble parameter from bright binary black hole GW190521".
7630:
6697:, the standard candle used for the third rung. They used three different types of standard candle: tip of the red-giant branch stars, J-region asymptotic giant branch stars (
2173:
13859:
Dutta, Koushik; Roy, Anirban; Ruchika, Ruchika; Sen, Anjan A.; Sheikh-Jabbari, M. M. (20 August 2019). "Cosmology With Low-Redshift Observations: No Signal For New Physics".
8604:
8097:
These values arise from fitting a combination of WMAP and other cosmological data to the simplest version of the ÎCDM model. If the data are fit with more general versions,
5509:
2438:
If the distance is not too large, all other complications of the model become small corrections, and the time interval is simply the distance divided by the speed of light:
9400:"Have Dark Forces Been Messing With the Cosmos? â Axions? Phantom energy? Astrophysicists scramble to patch a hole in the universe, rewriting cosmic history in the process"
4948:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {\rho }}+3{\frac {\dot {a}}{a}}\left(\rho +{\frac {P}{c^{2}}}\right)=0;\\{\frac {d\rho }{\rho }}=-3{\frac {da}{a}}(1+w).\end{aligned}}}
4501:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Omega _{k}&\equiv {\frac {-kc^{2}}{(a_{0}H_{0})^{2}}}\\\Omega _{\Lambda }&\equiv {\frac {\Lambda c^{2}}{3H_{0}^{2}}},\end{aligned}}}
7638:
Quasar angular size and baryon acoustic oscillations, assuming a flat ÎCDM model. Alternative models result in different (generally lower) values for the Hubble constant.
12972:
Kelly, P. L.; Rodney, S.; Treu, T.; Oguri, M.; Chen, W.; Zitri, A.; et al. (2023-05-11). "Constraints on the Hubble constant from Supernova Refsdal's reappearance".
2443:
14859:"The clustering of galaxies in the completed SDSS-III Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey: Cosmological implications of the Fourier space wedges of the final sample"
2870:
1284:
13407:"Cosmic Distances Calibrated to 1% Precision with Gaia EDR3 Parallaxes and Hubble Space Telescope Photometry of 75 Milky Way Cepheids Confirm Tension with LambdaCDM"
9370:
7410:
979:
953:
183:
13035:
Contarini, Sofia; Pisani, Alice; Hamaus, Nico; Marulli, Federico; Moscardini, Lauro; Baldi, Marco (2024). "The perspective of voids on rising cosmology tensions".
11993:"Large Magellanic Cloud Cepheid Standards Provide a 1% Foundation for the Determination of the Hubble Constant and Stronger Evidence for Physics Beyond LambdaCDM"
15798:
Lemaßtre, Georges (1927). "Un Univers homogÚne de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques".
13636:"The clustering of galaxies in the SDSS-III Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey: baryon acoustic oscillations in the Data Releases 10 and 11 Galaxy samples"
12752:
2840:
2699:
changes with time. The redshift is not even directly related to the recession velocity at the time the light set out, but it does have a simple interpretation:
15375:
Hinshaw, G.; et al. (WMAP Collaboration) (2009). "Five-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe observations: Data processing, sky maps, and basic results".
15205:
14094:"Baryon acoustic oscillation, Hubble parameter, and angular size measurement constraints on the Hubble constant, dark energy dynamics, and spatial curvature"
6797:
Due to the blackbody spectra of the optical counterpart of neutron-star mergers, these systems provide strongly constraining estimators of cosmic distance.
14463:
13222:"A Comprehensive Measurement of the Local Value of the Hubble Constant with 1 km/s/Mpc Uncertainty from the Hubble Space Telescope and the SH0ES Team"
7205:
estimate is corrected for the effects of peculiar velocities in the supernova environments, as estimated from the galaxy density field. The result assumes
6470:
model of the universe in the late 1990s. Incorporating the ÎCDM model, observations of high-redshift clusters at X-ray and microwave wavelengths using the
1205:) could be experimentally observed and compared to his theoretical calculations using particular solutions of the equations he had originally formulated.
8825:
7170:
to a precision of 5%, in agreement with both "early" and "late" universe estimates. Independent of distance ladders and the cosmic microwave background.
15284:
Jarosik, N.; et al. (2011). "Seven-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: Sky maps, systematic errors, and basic results".
7601:
level (P=99.999% for Gaussian errors), raising the discrepancy beyond a plausible level of chance. Continuation of a collaboration known as Supernovae,
3980:
3474:
3060:
The mathematical derivation of an idealized Hubble's law for a uniformly expanding universe is a fairly elementary theorem of geometry in 3-dimensional
2429:{\displaystyle z={\frac {R(t_{0})}{R(t_{e})}}-1\approx {\frac {R(t_{0})}{R(t_{0})\left(1+(t_{e}-t_{0})H(t_{0})\right)}}-1\approx (t_{0}-t_{e})H(t_{0}),}
1773:
15430:
Spergel, D. N.; et al. (WMAP Collaboration) (2007). "Three-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Implications for cosmology".
13348:"The Parallax of Omega Centauri Measured from Gaia EDR3 and a Direct, Geometric Calibration of the Tip of the Red Giant Branch and the Hubble Constant"
12115:
Chen, Hsin-Yu; Fishbach, Maya; Holz, Daniel E. (17 October 2018). "A two per cent Hubble constant measurement from standard sirens within five years".
9130:"Expansion of the universe, A homogeneous universe of constant mass and increasing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extra-galactic nebulae"
554:
6743:
Estimated values of the Hubble constant, 2001â2020. Estimates in black represent calibrated distance ladder measurements which tend to cluster around
3052:
will approach from above to a constant value of â 57 (km/s)/Mpc, and the scale factor of the universe will then grow exponentially in time.
9134:
6503:
and thus no cause for concern. However, as techniques have improved the estimated measurement uncertainties have shrunk, but the discrepancies have
15973:
7691:
Observations of multiply imaged quasars, independent of the cosmic distance ladder and independent of the cosmic microwave background measurements.
6553:
4695:
If the universe is both matter-dominated and dark energy-dominated, then the above equation for the Hubble parameter will also be a function of the
1689:{\displaystyle z={\frac {\lambda _{\text{o}}}{\lambda _{\text{e}}}}-1={\sqrt {\frac {1+{\frac {v}{c}}}{1-{\frac {v}{c}}}}}-1\approx {\frac {v}{c}}.}
14378:
7951:, the uncertainty is expected to go down by a factor of more than two with upcoming Gaia measurements and other improvements. SHoES collaboration.
6097:{\displaystyle t_{H}\equiv {\frac {1}{H_{0}}}={\frac {1}{67.8\mathrm {~(km/s)/Mpc} }}=4.55\times 10^{17}\mathrm {~s} =14.4{\text{ billion years}}.}
6463:
between Sidney van den Bergh and Gustav Tammann was held in similar fashion to the earlier ShapleyâCurtis debate over these two competing values.
4285:
3190:
14574:
12958:
10945:"Webb Confirms Accuracy of Universe's Expansion Rate Measured by Hubble, Deepens Mystery of Hubble Constant Tension â James Webb Space Telescope"
9903:
8669:
14557:
10557:
6736:
values may be correct and that higher measurements could be due to some unknown systematic error in the measurement of Cepheid variable stars.
3922:{\displaystyle H^{2}\equiv \left({\frac {\dot {a}}{a}}\right)^{2}={\frac {8\pi G}{3}}\rho -{\frac {kc^{2}}{a^{2}}}+{\frac {\Lambda c^{2}}{3}},}
3291:
was positive, indicating that the expansion is slowing down due to gravitational attraction. This would imply an age of the universe less than
2009:
15347:
and other cosmological parameters obtained by fitting a variety of models to several combinations of WMAP and other data are available at the
9108:(1927). "Un univers homogÚne de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques".
1909:
1477:
and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.
11323:
15355:
12678:
Sneppen, Albert; Watson, Darach; Bauswein, Andreas; Just, Oliver; Kotak, Rubina; Nakar, Ehud; Poznanski, Dovi; Sim, Stuart (February 2023).
6662:
In July 2023, an independent estimate of the Hubble constant was derived from the optical counterpart of a neutron-star merger, a so-called
824:, showing that the universe might be expanding, and presenting the expansion speed if that were the case. Before Hubble, German astronomer
16094:
3048:
will tend to â1 from above in the distant future as the cosmological constant becomes increasingly dominant over matter; this implies that
624:
8557:
In standard ÎCDM, dark energy only comes into play in the late universe â its effect in the early universe is too small to have an effect.
15905:
15432:
15286:
15228:
15056:
Tully, R. Brent; Courtois, Helene M.; Dolphin, Andrew E.; Fisher, J. Richard; et al. (5 September 2013). "Cosmicflows-2: The Data".
12384:"The Carnegie-Chicago Hubble Program. VIII. An Independent Determination of the Hubble Constant Based on the Tip of the Red Giant Branch"
10973:
1405:
735:
15168:
11300:
5491:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\rho _{de0}&={\frac {\Lambda c^{2}}{8\pi G}}\,,\\\Omega _{de}&=\Omega _{\Lambda }.\end{aligned}}}
13081:
11655:
Poulin, Vivian; Smith, Tristan L.; Karwal, Tanvi; Kamionkowski, Marc (2019-06-04). "Early Dark Energy can Resolve the Hubble Tension".
6557:
The landscape of H0 measurements around 2021, with the Planck (2018) and SH0ES (2020) values highlighted in pink and cyan respectively.
4704:
10114:
966:, showing that the universe might expand at a rate calculable by the equations. The parameter used by Friedmann is known today as the
7495:
6114:
We currently appear to be approaching a period where the expansion of the universe is exponential due to the increasing dominance of
14035:"A new measurement of the Hubble constant and matter content of the Universe using extragalactic background light Îł-ray attenuation"
10351:
7309:
Geometric distance measurements to megamaser-hosting galaxies. Independent of distance ladders and the cosmic microwave background.
15117:
4790:, and if this is substituted into the fluid equation, which describes how the mass density of the universe evolves with time, then
3598:
2888:
15226:
Bennett, C. L.; et al. (2013). "Nine-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: Final maps and results".
6218:{\displaystyle H\equiv {\frac {\dot {a}}{a}}={\textrm {constant}}\quad \Longrightarrow \quad a\propto e^{Ht}=e^{\frac {t}{t_{H}}}}
2959:
2087:
10511:
9744:
Freedman, W. L.; et al. (2001). "Final results from the Hubble Space Telescope Key Project to measure the Hubble constant".
7567:
Gamma ray attenuation due to extragalactic light. Independent of the cosmic distance ladder and the cosmic microwave background.
6518:
Alternatively, it could be that the observations are correct, but some unaccounted-for effect is causing the discrepancy. If the
4966:
7744:
of galactic Cepheids with early Gaia parallax measurements. The revised value increases tension with CMB measurements at the 3.8
7360:
Modelling three galactically lensed objects and their lenses using ground-based adaptive optics and the Hubble Space Telescope.
2553:
11963:
11193:"One Number Shows Something Is Fundamentally Wrong with Our Conception of the Universe â This fight has universal implications"
8586:
3686:
1208:
In 1931, Einstein went to Mount Wilson Observatory to thank Hubble for providing the observational basis for modern cosmology.
805: = 7%/Gyr, meaning that at the current rate of expansion it takes a billion years for an unbound structure to grow by 7%.
14405:"New parallaxes of galactic Cepheids from spatially scanning the Hubble Space Telescope: Implications for the Hubble constant"
14312:"Milky Way Cepheid Standards for Measuring Cosmic Distances and Application to Gaia DR2: Implications for the Hubble Constant"
7778:
level. The uncertainty is expected to be reduced to below 1% with the final release of the Gaia catalog. SHoES collaboration.
6581:
has been determined using an improved procedure involving the Hubble Space Telescope. The two measurements disagree at the 4.4
5861:{\displaystyle H^{2}(z)=H_{0}^{2}\left(\Omega _{m}a^{-3}+\Omega _{de}a^{-3\left(1+w_{0}+w_{a}\right)}e^{-3w_{a}(1-a)}\right).}
845:'s intergalactic distance calculations and methodology allowed Hubble to better calculate an expansion rate for the universe.
15886:
15863:
14204:"H0LiCOW â IX. Cosmographic analysis of the doubly imaged quasar SDSS 1206+4332 and a new measurement of the Hubble constant"
11041:
10784:
10539:
10432:
10322:
10293:
10264:
10233:
10202:
10006:
9814:
9725:
9318:
8775:
6541:
could potentially resolve the tension, as can a dark energy component in the early universe, dark energy with a time-varying
6355:, tells the rate at which the universe is expanding. In 1929, Edwin Hubble determined for the first time this constant to be
3178:
The value of the Hubble parameter changes over time, either increasing or decreasing depending on the value of the so-called
1768:. (The co-moving points are not moving relative to each other except as a result of the expansion of space.) In other words:
1528:
12240:
Hotokezaka, K.; et al. (8 July 2019). "A Hubble constant measurement from superluminal motion of the jet in GW170817".
6523:
2653:
of a galaxy, whereas our observations refer to the galaxy in the past, at the time that the light we currently see left it.
15377:
12333:
12215:
12183:"New method may resolve difficulty in measuring universe's expansion â Neutron star mergers can provide new 'cosmic ruler'"
12178:
8733:
8065:
3346:
The expansion of space summarized by the Big Bang interpretation of Hubble's law is relevant to the old conundrum known as
358:
10665:
Tawfik, A. (2011). "The Hubble parameter in the early universe with viscous QCD matter and finite cosmological constant".
8548:, suggesting that systematic errors in Hubble's Cepheid photometry are not significant enough to cause the Hubble tension.
5097:
2629:
is an approximation valid at low redshifts, to be replaced by a relation at large redshifts that is model-dependent. See
7129:
5036:
1243:
The discovery of the linear relationship between redshift and distance, coupled with a supposed linear relation between
16089:
14661:
Vitale, Salvatore; Chen, Hsin-Yu (12 July 2018). "Measuring the Hubble Constant with Neutron Star Black Hole Mergers".
11002:
Baade, W. (1944) The resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and the central region of the Andromeda nebula. ApJ 100 137â146
9585:
8799:
15142:
6587:
level, beyond a plausible level of chance. The resolution to this disagreement is an ongoing area of active research.
2139:
14153:"First Cosmological Results using Type Ia Supernovae from the Dark Energy Survey: Measurement of the Hubble Constant"
10817:
8037:
6747:; red represents early universe CMB/BAO measurements with ÎCDM parameters which show good agreement on a figure near
5923:
3764:
567:
6967:
6912:
6530:
observations. Yet another possibility is that the uncertainties in the measurements could have been underestimated.
15023:
12777:
Triple measurement of the Hubble constant using JWST suggests unidentified biases may account for disparate results
10555:
Heneka, C.; Amendola, L. (2018). "General modified gravity with 21cm intensity mapping: simulations and forecast".
8639:
7453:
using its supermassive black hole, combined with measurements of eclipsing binaries in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
6471:
6425:
5901:
3742:
2753:
1202:
617:
12559:
Sneppen, Albert; Watson, Darach; Poznanski, Dovi; Just, Oliver; Bauswein, Andreas; Wojtak, RadosĆaw (2023-10-01).
7412:
is obtained analysing low-redshift cosmological data within ÎCDM model. The datasets used are type-Ia supernovae,
6963:
6533:
Finally, another possibility is new physics beyond the currently accepted cosmological model of the universe, the
6455:, who claimed the value was near 50. In one demonstration of vitriol shared between the parties, when Sandage and
5349:
If the dark energy derives from a cosmological constant such as that introduced by Einstein, it can be shown that
16104:
12298:
9518:
7890:, Cepheid variable, and Type Ia supernovae. A restrictive estimate from the data implies a more precise value of
7708:
7560:
3624:
1397:
200:
17:
11897:
Ryan E. Keeley and Arman Shafieloo (August 2023). "Ruling Out New Physics at Low Redshift as a Solution to the H
8008:
Comparing redshift to other distance methods, including TullyâFisher, Cepheid variable, and Type Ia supernovae.
7072:, reducing the uncertainty in calibration of Cepheid luminosities to 1.0%. Overall uncertainty in the value for
6690:
6409:
1252:
15596:"First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters"
10314:
10285:
5905:
3746:
562:
286:
276:
12753:"Space telescope data reignite debate over how fast universe is expandingâand whether 'new physics' is needed"
7811:
11539:"The KBC void and Hubble tension contradict LCDM on a Gpc scale â Milgromian dynamics as a possible solution"
7799:
7593:
reduce the uncertainty in the distance to the LMC from 2.5% to 1.3%. The revision increases the tension with
7524:
7475:
Distances to red giant stars are calculated using the tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) distance indicator.
6814:
6542:
6305:
4696:
3110:
975:
718:
205:
128:
9835:"Damn You, Little h! (Or, Real-World Applications of the Hubble Constant Using Observed and Simulated Data)"
9399:
8282:
7814:
measurement independent of normal "standard candle" techniques; the gravitational wave analysis of a binary
4681:{\displaystyle H^{2}(z)=H_{0}^{2}\left(\Omega _{m}(1+z)^{3}+\Omega _{k}(1+z)^{2}+\Omega _{\Lambda }\right).}
3167:
expands forever and has an age that is closer to its Hubble age. For the accelerating universe with nonzero
13802:"A SHARP view of H0LiCOW: H0 from three time-delay gravitational lens systems with adaptive optics imaging"
13751:"STRIDES: A 3.9 per cent measurement of the Hubble constant from the strongly lensed system DES J0408-5354"
12560:
8236:
8025:
7968:
7849:
7413:
10720:
Tawfik, A.; Wahba, M.; Mansour, H.; Harko, T. (2011). "Viscous quark-gluon plasma in the early universe".
6751:, while blue are other techniques, whose uncertainties are not yet small enough to decide between the two.
3566:
Occasionally a reference value other than 100 may be chosen, in which case a subscript is presented after
3423:. The dimensionless Hubble constant is often used when giving distances that are calculated from redshift
16099:
12382:; Madore, Barry F.; Hatt, Dylan; Hoyt, Taylor J.; Jang, In-Sung; Beaton, Rachael L.; et al. (2019).
11192:
9965:
9489:
8609:
8524:
7594:
7116:
7002:
6656:
6636:
6538:
6527:
6492:
6475:
6368:
3061:
1572:
1194:
610:
586:
133:
12210:
7427:
measurements using cosmic chronometers and growth measurements from large scale structure observations.
16006:
10453:
10256:
10225:
10051:
9306:
8541:
6686:
6376:
2717:
1229:
A variety of possible recessional velocity vs. redshift functions including the simple linear relation
546:
352:
332:
140:
85:
14492:
12792:
The Status of the Chicago-Carnegie Hubble Program (with JWST data) - Wendy Freedman & Barry Madore
12088:
2707:
is the factor by which the universe has expanded while the photon was traveling towards the observer.
15732:
15653:
15488:
15146:
14202:
Birrer, S.; Treu, T.; Rusu, C. E.; Bonvin, V.; Fassnacht, C. D.; Chan, J. H. H.; et al. (2018).
12891:"Measurement of the CMB temperature power spectrum and constraints on cosmology from the SPT-3G 2018
12302:
12182:
10150:
9746:
9070:
8868:
8497:
8298:
based upon SunyaevâZel'dovich effect observations of many galaxy clusters having a similar accuracy.
8228:
7887:
7254:
6508:
6342:
The value of the Hubble constant in (km/s)/Mpc, including measurement uncertainty, for recent surveys
6119:
1511:
1211:
The cosmological constant has regained attention in recent decades as a hypothetical explanation for
937:
673:
178:
14588:
Feeney, Stephen M; Peiris, Hiranya V; Williamson, Andrew R; Nissanke, Samaya M; et al. (2019).
10083:
9547:
15997:
11775:
10498:
7918:
6884:
1319:
1045:
1024:
967:
963:
893:
347:
112:
11991:
Riess, Adam G.; Casertano, Stefano; Yuan, Wenlong; Macri, Lucas M.; Scolnic, Dan (18 March 2019).
10382:
8366:
8359:
8289:
This project established the most precise optical determination, consistent with a measurement of
6448:
4524:. Substituting all of this into the Friedmann equation at the start of this section and replacing
1327:
15352:
14403:
Riess, Adam G.; Casertano, Stefano; Yuan, Wenlong; Macri, Lucas; et al. (22 February 2018).
10022:
9998:
9806:
6500:
5894:
3940:
3735:
315:
195:
15651:
Riess, Adam G. (January 1995). "Using SN Ia Light Curve Shapes to Measure The Hubble Constant".
14941:
Riess, Adam G.; Macri, Lucas M.; Hoffmann, Samantha L.; Scolnic, Dan; et al. (2016-04-05).
13466:"Determining the Hubble constant without the sound horizon scale: measurements from CMB lensing"
12503:
Castelvecchi, Davide (2020-07-15). "Mystery over Universe's expansion deepens with fresh data".
9336:"Slipher's redshifts as support for de Sitter's model and the discovery of the dynamic universe"
9310:
6537:. There are very many theories in this category, for example, replacing general relativity with
6478:
radiation, and optical surveys all gave a value of around 50â70 km/s/Mpc for the constant.
5356:. The equation then reduces to the last equation in the matter-dominated universe section, with
5182:
If this is substituted into the Friedman equation in a similar way as before, but this time set
2846:
10493:
10078:
8545:
8393:
7771:
7741:
7590:
7065:
6628:
6519:
6466:
This previously wide variance in estimates was partially resolved with the introduction of the
6456:
6447:
The value of the Hubble constant was the topic of a long and rather bitter controversy between
6416:(much larger than the value astronomers currently calculate). Later observations by astronomer
6380:
6361:
5340:{\displaystyle H^{2}(z)=H_{0}^{2}\left(\Omega _{m}(1+z)^{3}+\Omega _{de}(1+z)^{3(1+w)}\right).}
3948:
3179:
3069:
2882:
1159:
901:
842:
11409:
10981:
10610:
Tawfik, A.; Harko, T. (2012). "Quark-hadron phase transitions in the viscous early universe".
10219:
8761:
8635:
8614:
796:. The Hubble constant can also be interpreted as the relative rate of expansion. In this form
16084:
15121:
14568:
12952:
11848:"Seven Hints That Early-Time New Physics Alone Is Not Sufficient to Solve the Hubble Tension"
10424:
10250:
10188:
9800:
9667:'Georges Lemaitre and Stigler's law of eponymy' in Georges LemaĂźtre: Life, Science and Legacy
9438:
9346:
8917:
8033:
7158:
7112:
6314:. The exact definition varies: it is sometimes defined as the volume of a sphere with radius
6243:
5190:
3083:
1462:
1190:
1180:
1020:
520:
322:
264:
15928:
15564:
14288:
13058:
12586:
10867:
9711:
7986:, Italy. A full set of papers detailing the mission results were released in February 2015.
6242:
Over long periods of time, the dynamics are complicated by general relativity, dark energy,
4780:
is the mass density of the dark energy. By definition, an equation of state in cosmology is
1247:
and redshift, yields a straightforward mathematical expression for Hubble's law as follows:
15924:
15878:
15807:
15741:
15672:
15617:
15560:
15507:
15451:
15396:
15305:
15247:
15075:
14964:
14880:
14821:
14762:
14680:
14611:
14517:
14426:
14333:
14284:
14225:
14115:
14056:
13935:
13878:
13823:
13546:
13487:
13428:
13369:
13302:
13243:
13140:
13054:
12993:
12924:
12701:
12639:
12582:
12512:
12467:
12405:
12261:
12136:
12014:
11920:
11869:
11797:
11740:
11674:
11619:
11560:
11503:
11431:
11375:
11253:
11157:
11088:
10917:
10863:
10841:
10809:
10741:
10686:
10631:
10576:
10485:
10356:
10159:
10122:
10070:
9912:
9856:
9765:
9717:
9689:
9647:
9594:
9556:
9527:
9498:
9279:
9244:
9189:
9143:
9117:
9079:
9042:
8994:
8958:
8931:
8887:
8844:
8678:
8520:
7803:
7528:
7388:
3968:
3602:
1244:
1008:
909:
755:
533:
505:
327:
15770:, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 168-173, March 1929
6404:
Hubble's original estimate of the constant now bearing his name, based on observations of
676:, and today it serves as one of the pieces of evidence most often cited in support of the
8:
16068:
15780:
15595:
13800:
Chen, G.C.-F.; Fassnacht, C.D.; Suyu, S.H.; Rusu, C.E.; et al. (12 September 2019).
11295:
9994:
8528:
6729:, respectively. While not yet conclusive, this hints at the posssibility that the lower
6595:
6562:
6372:
6327:
3778:
3322:
3106:
3072:(properties do not vary with location or direction). Simply stated, the theorem is this:
1749:
of the universe, and increases as the universe expands in a manner that depends upon the
1315:
995:
959:
821:
817:
425:
395:
342:
298:
190:
80:
15936:
15811:
15745:
15712:
15676:
15621:
15511:
15455:
15400:
15309:
15251:
15079:
14968:
14884:
14825:
14766:
14684:
14615:
14521:
14430:
14337:
14229:
14119:
14060:
13939:
13882:
13827:
13550:
13491:
13432:
13373:
13306:
13247:
13144:
12997:
12928:
12705:
12643:
12516:
12471:
12444:
Pesce, D. W.; Braatz, J. A.; Reid, M. J.; Riess, A. G.; et al. (26 February 2020).
12409:
12265:
12140:
12018:
11924:
11873:
11801:
11744:
11678:
11623:
11564:
11507:
11435:
11379:
11257:
11169:
11161:
11092:
10921:
10745:
10690:
10635:
10588:
10580:
10489:
10163:
10074:
9916:
9860:
9769:
9693:
9651:
9598:
9560:
9531:
9502:
9283:
9248:
9193:
9147:
9121:
9105:
9083:
9046:
8998:
8962:
8935:
8891:
8848:
8682:
8489:
3174:
that we inhabit, the age of the universe is coincidentally very close to the Hubble age.
2716:
accounted for in the application of Hubble's law. Such peculiar velocities give rise to
830:
465:
16056:
16044:
15940:
15914:
15688:
15662:
15633:
15607:
15576:
15550:
15523:
15497:
15467:
15441:
15412:
15386:
15321:
15295:
15263:
15237:
15099:
15065:
14982:
14954:
14898:
14870:
14839:
14811:
14780:
14752:
14712:
14670:
14643:
14601:
14549:
14507:
14444:
14416:
14359:
14323:
14274:
14243:
14215:
14184:
14164:
14133:
14105:
14074:
14046:
14015:
13995:
13953:
13925:
13894:
13868:
13841:
13813:
13782:
13762:
13719:
13686:
13595:
13564:
13536:
13505:
13477:
13446:
13418:
13387:
13359:
13328:
13292:
13261:
13233:
13189:
13158:
13130:
13044:
13017:
12983:
12940:
12914:
12890:
12820:
12733:
12691:
12629:
12572:
12536:
12485:
12457:
12423:
12395:
12351:
12277:
12251:
12160:
12126:
12059:
12032:
12004:
11944:
11910:
11859:
11813:
11787:
11756:
11730:
11698:
11664:
11609:
11598:"A simultaneous solution to the Hubble tension and observed bulk flow within 250/h Mpc"
11550:
11519:
11493:
11474:
11455:
11421:
11391:
11365:
11271:
11243:
11147:
10907:
10879:
10853:
10757:
10731:
10722:
10702:
10676:
10667:
10647:
10621:
10592:
10566:
10468:
10096:
10060:
9987:
9872:
9846:
9781:
9755:
9637:
9610:
9572:
9442:
9404:
9350:
9299:
9215:
9068:
Wirtz, C. W. (1924). "De Sitters Kosmologie und die Radialbewegungen der Spiralnebel".
9010:
8974:
8921:
8877:
8834:
8531:
all provide independent measurements of the Hubble parameter during the early universe.
7655:
7250:
6591:
6582:
6421:
6118:. In this regime, the Hubble parameter is constant, and the universe grows by a factor
5619:{\displaystyle \rho _{de}(a)=\rho _{de0}e^{-3\int {\frac {da}{a}}\left(1+w(a)\right)},}
3347:
3341:
2825:
1750:
1322:) in the Friedmann equations taken at the time of observation denoted by the subscript
1198:
1032:
897:
825:
813:
680:
model. The motion of astronomical objects due solely to this expansion is known as the
645:
485:
455:
420:
390:
337:
281:
50:
15958:
15408:
13584:"The effects of peculiar velocities in SN Ia environments on the local H0 measurement"
10023:"Einstein's Biggest Blunder? Dark Energy May Be Consistent With Cosmological Constant"
9935:
9898:
8701:
8664:
7536:
Uses radio counterpart of GW170817, combined with earlier gravitational wave (GW) and
6659:
predict that the Universe should be expanding more slowly than is currently observed.
6609:, following the detection of the neutron star merger of GW170817, an event known as a
1019:
Before the advent of modern cosmology, there was considerable talk about the size and
15944:
15882:
15859:
15852:
15838:
15692:
15580:
15317:
15267:
15259:
15103:
15091:
15087:
14986:
14977:
14942:
14843:
14834:
14799:
14784:
14704:
14635:
14553:
14541:
14533:
14351:
14310:
Riess, Adam G.; Casertano, Stefano; Yuan, Wenlong; Macri, Lucas; et al. (2018).
14247:
14188:
14137:
14019:
13957:
13898:
13845:
13786:
13667:
13615:
13568:
13509:
13450:
13391:
13332:
13320:
13265:
13176:
de Jaeger, T.; Galbany, L.; Riess, A. G.; Stahl, Ben E.; et al. (17 June 2022).
13162:
13021:
13009:
12974:
12944:
12768:
12737:
12725:
12717:
12679:
12657:
12598:
12561:"Measuring the Hubble constant with kilonovae using the expanding photosphere method"
12540:
12528:
12489:
12427:
12355:
12338:
12281:
12152:
11948:
11936:
11832:
11817:
11760:
11702:
11690:
11637:
11578:
11523:
11459:
11447:
11395:
11275:
11173:
11116:
11111:
11076:
11037:
10883:
10813:
10780:
10761:
10706:
10612:
10596:
10535:
10428:
10417:
10411:
10318:
10289:
10260:
10229:
10198:
10100:
10002:
9940:
9876:
9810:
9785:
9721:
9614:
9576:
9314:
9219:
9207:
9014:
8978:
8771:
8706:
8442:
7948:
7733:
6702:
6694:
4074:
3700:
1352:
1337:
1155:
876:
515:
15637:
15527:
15325:
15000:
14902:
14716:
14647:
14448:
14363:
14078:
13582:
Sedgwick, Thomas M; Collins, Chris A; Baldry, Ivan K; James, Philip A (2020-11-07).
12164:
12036:
11718:
10651:
9427:
9335:
8906:
8791:
8595: â Scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe
6338:
6254:
The Hubble length or Hubble distance is a unit of distance in cosmology, defined as
2539:{\displaystyle z\approx (t_{0}-t_{\text{e}})H(t_{0})\approx {\frac {D}{c}}H(t_{0}),}
16020:
15968:
15932:
15749:
15680:
15625:
15568:
15515:
15471:
15459:
15416:
15404:
15313:
15255:
15083:
15031:
14972:
14888:
14829:
14770:
14696:
14692:
14688:
14627:
14623:
14619:
14525:
14434:
14341:
14292:
14233:
14174:
14123:
14064:
14005:
13943:
13886:
13831:
13772:
13729:
13706:
de Jaeger, T.; Stahl, B.; Zheng, W.; Filippenko, A.V.; et al. (18 June 2020).
13657:
13647:
13605:
13554:
13495:
13436:
13377:
13310:
13251:
13199:
13148:
13062:
13001:
12932:
12760:
12709:
12647:
12590:
12520:
12475:
12413:
12343:
12269:
12242:
12144:
12117:
12069:
12022:
11932:
11928:
11877:
11805:
11748:
11686:
11682:
11627:
11568:
11511:
11439:
11383:
11261:
11165:
11106:
11096:
10925:
10871:
10805:
10749:
10694:
10639:
10584:
10503:
10167:
10088:
9961:
9930:
9920:
9864:
9773:
9602:
9564:
9252:
9197:
9180:
9151:
9087:
9050:
9002:
8966:
8696:
8686:
8470:
7069:
6534:
6467:
6405:
3362:, then every line of sight in the sky would end on a star, and the sky would be as
3281:
3041:
1049:
971:
925:
864:, of which the Hubble constant is the current value, varies with time, so the term
812:, the notion of the universe expanding at a calculable rate was first derived from
662:
598:
400:
236:
105:
15963:
15572:
15541:
Planck Collaboration (2013). "Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters".
14589:
14296:
13178:"A 5 per cent measurement of the HubbleâLemaĂźtre constant from Type II supernovae"
13066:
12887:
12594:
10875:
9462:
9031:"Einiges zur Statistik der Radialbewegungen von Spiralnebeln und Kugelsternhaufen"
8636:"IAU members vote to recommend renaming the Hubble law as the HubbleâLemaĂźtre law"
6326:. Some cosmologists even use the term Hubble volume to refer to the volume of the
3955:
is the normalised spatial curvature of the universe and equal to â1, 0, or 1, and
410:
385:
15834:
15359:
13749:
Shajib, A. J.; Birrer, S.; Treu, T.; Agnello, A.; et al. (14 October 2019).
13114:
13110:
10844:) (2013). "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific Results".
10529:
8446:
7848:
Uses time delays between multiple images of distant variable sources produced by
7537:
6460:
3696:
3378:
Instead of working with Hubble's constant, a common practice is to introduce the
3355:
1186:
913:
525:
460:
445:
430:
415:
405:
269:
15985:
14464:"Improved Hubble Yardstick Gives Fresh Evidence for New Physics in the Universe"
13890:
12936:
12073:
11833:"Solving the Hubble tension might require more than changing the early Universe"
11515:
11387:
11324:"JWST Just Measured The Expansion Rate of The Universe. Astronomers Are Stumped"
11135:
11064:. Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring Observatories, Australian National University.
9628:
van den Bergh, Sydney (2011). "The Curious Case of LemaĂźtre's Equation No. 24".
6627:
Also in July 2019, astronomers reported another new method, using data from the
3280:
of the Friedmann equations backwards from the present time to the time when the
15730:
Sandage, A. R. (1958). "Current problems in the extragalactic distance scale".
15173:
14439:
14404:
14346:
14311:
14262:
14069:
14034:
13948:
13914:"An Improved Distance to NGC 4258 and its Implications for the Hubble Constant"
13913:
13441:
13406:
13382:
13347:
13315:
13280:
13256:
13221:
13153:
13118:
12816:
12713:
12652:
12617:
12524:
12480:
12445:
12418:
12383:
12379:
12027:
11992:
11809:
11443:
11266:
11231:
11081:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
10930:
10643:
10049:
Davis, T. M.; Lineweaver, C. H. (2001). "Superluminal Recessional Velocities".
9395:
8738:
8729:
8240:
7039:
6995:
6678:
3302:
of 1/2 (once favoured by most theorists) would give the age of the universe as
3034:
3026:
From this it is seen that the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, unless
1716:
are the observed and emitted wavelengths respectively. The "redshift velocity"
1507:
1390:
1147:
1048:, home to the world's most powerful telescope at the time. His observations of
1028:
510:
470:
15035:
14730:
Bonvin, Vivien; Courbin, Frédéric; Suyu, Sherry H.; et al. (2016-11-22).
12790:
12273:
12148:
11752:
9606:
9006:
8665:"A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae"
7196:< 0.05 Type Ia supernovae used as standard candle distance indicators. The
1077:
to Hubble's law. Various estimates for the Hubble constant exist. The HST Key
16078:
15095:
14537:
14355:
13734:
13707:
13671:
13619:
13610:
13583:
13559:
13524:
13500:
13465:
13324:
13204:
13177:
12721:
12661:
12602:
12446:"The Megamaser Cosmology Project. XIII. Combined Hubble Constant Constraints"
11641:
11632:
11597:
11582:
11573:
11538:
11451:
11177:
11029:
11011:
Baade, W. (1956) The period-luminosity relation of the Cepheids. PASP 68 5â16
10476:
10027:
9428:"The Contribution of V.M. Slipher to the discovery of the expanding universe"
9235:
9156:
9129:
9091:
9054:
8413:
6452:
6299:
6115:
2183:
1378:
933:
929:
889:
838:
495:
480:
380:
15768:
A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae
14893:
14858:
14775:
14731:
14128:
14093:
14010:
13972:
13836:
13801:
13777:
13750:
13005:
12764:
12347:
12050:
Millea, Marius; Knox, Lloyd (2019-08-10). "Hubble constant hunter's guide".
11882:
11847:
9925:
3314:
is apparently negative means that the universe could actually be older than
16032:
14857:
Grieb, Jan N.; SĂĄnchez, Ariel G.; Salazar-Albornoz, Salvador (2016-07-13).
14708:
14639:
14545:
14238:
14203:
14179:
14152:
13652:
13635:
13013:
12803:
12772:
12729:
12532:
12156:
11940:
11694:
11328:
11197:
11120:
11101:
10974:"Section 2: The Great Debate and the Great Mistake: Shapley, Hubble, Baade"
10753:
10698:
9944:
9211:
8710:
8466:
7815:
7770:
Parallax measurements of galactic Cepheids for enhanced calibration of the
6880:
6698:
6606:
6417:
3962:
3628:
3258:
In a universe with a deceleration parameter equal to zero, it follows that
3065:
1116: = 62.3 ± 1.3 (statistical) ± 5 (systematic)
809:
666:
500:
475:
450:
435:
291:
15196:"Planck probe's cosmic 'baby picture' revises universe's vital statistics"
14590:"Prospects for resolving the Hubble constant tension with standard sirens"
14265:; et al. (2018). "Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters".
13405:
Riess, A. G.; Casertano, S.; Yuan, W.; Bowers, J. B.; et al. (2021).
8691:
6304:
The Hubble volume is sometimes defined as a volume of the universe with a
2745:
Another common source of confusion is that the accelerating universe does
2680:
is the speed of light. This gives the empirical relation found by Hubble.
15993:
15667:
15612:
15502:
15446:
14700:
12307:
12187:
10065:
9868:
9760:
8863:
8598:
7450:
3708:
3649:
3151:
and is considerably younger than its Hubble age. An "open universe" with
1502:, which is the recessional velocity that would produce the same redshift
1212:
1139:
of its spectrum of radiation. Hubble correlated brightness and parameter
1044:
Edwin Hubble did most of his professional astronomical observing work at
730:
248:
241:
14529:
14493:"A gravitational-wave standard siren measurement of the Hubble constant"
13523:
Denzel, P.; Coles, J. P.; Saha, P.; Williams, L. L. R. (February 2021).
12089:"Gravitational waves could soon provide measure of universe's expansion"
11776:"Reconciling Planck results with low redshift astronomical measurements"
9270:
Slipher, V.M. (1917). "Radial velocity observations of spiral nebulae".
7034:, using the tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) distance indicator, with
6739:
6693:
stars to measure the distances to ten nearby galaxies which have hosted
6231:
means that (at the current rate) the universe would grow by a factor of
3386:
and commonly referred to as "little h", then to write Hubble's constant
2749:
imply that the Hubble parameter is actually increasing with time; since
14798:
Tully, R. Brent; Courtois, HĂ©lĂšne M.; Sorce, Jenny G. (3 August 2016).
14631:
13662:
13106:
9568:
8970:
8920:. Vol. 471. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 97â132.
8040:
7261:. Independent of distance ladders and the cosmic microwave background.
6851:
6639:(TRGB) distance indicator. Their measurement of the Hubble constant is
6610:
6491:. Since 2000, "early universe" techniques based on measurements of the
6264:
receding from us at the speed of light, as can be seen by substituting
5908: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3749: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3363:
3148:
3093:
observer in an expanding universe will see objects receding from them.
1099: = 71 ± 2 (statistical) ± 6 (systematic)
885:
726:
490:
12374:
12372:
10507:
10092:
9487:
Slipher, V. M. (1913). "The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula".
9441:. Vol. 471. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 49â62.
9349:. Vol. 471. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 25â38.
9256:
7982:
s full mission were made public on 1 December 2014 at a conference in
3101:
1510:(which, however, is not the case, as the shift is caused in part by a
1146:
Combining his measurements of galaxy distances with Vesto Slipher and
892:
had established a consistent theory of an expanding universe by using
14916:
12211:"New Method May Resolve Difficulty in Measuring Universe's Expansion"
10194:
8767:
8592:
8044:
7031:
7023:
6971:
6632:
6236:
1087:
776:
747:
440:
14379:"The answer to life, the universe and everything might be 73. Or 67"
12177:
11077:"Scaling the universe: Gravitational lenses and the Hubble constant"
10534:(illustrated ed.). San Francisco: Addison-Wesley. p. 328.
9202:
9175:
9030:
8820:
5883:
3724:
3272:
is the time since the Big Bang. A non-zero, time-dependent value of
2649:
in the formula are directly observable, because they are properties
1900:, it is redshifted due to the expansion of space, and this redshift
1225:
15753:
15684:
15629:
15519:
15463:
15200:
14959:
14875:
14816:
14757:
14739:
to 3.8 per cent precision from strong lensing in a flat ÎCDM model"
14675:
14606:
14512:
14421:
14328:
14279:
14220:
14169:
14110:
14051:
14000:
13930:
13873:
13818:
13767:
13724:
13691:
13600:
13541:
13482:
13423:
13364:
13297:
13238:
13194:
13135:
13049:
12988:
12919:
12825:
12806:, where their relative isolation makes them much easier to ovserve.
12696:
12634:
12577:
12462:
12400:
12369:
12256:
12131:
12093:
12064:
12009:
11915:
11864:
11792:
11735:
11669:
11614:
11555:
11498:
11426:
11370:
11248:
11152:
10912:
10835:
10571:
10172:
10145:
9777:
7819:
7774:; the value suggests a discrepancy with CMB measurements at the 3.7
7258:
7035:
6689:
to re-measure the second rung of the cosmic distance ladder, using
6682:
6663:
6599:
3351:
3277:
1151:
991:
990:. This idea of an expanding spacetime would eventually lead to the
987:
905:
834:
677:
654:
649:
173:
75:
68:
15919:
15555:
15429:
15391:
15374:
15300:
15242:
15070:
11896:
11596:
Mazurenko, S.; Banik, I.; Kroupa, P.; Haslbauer, M. (2024-01-21).
10858:
10736:
10681:
10626:
9851:
9642:
9447:
9355:
8926:
8882:
8839:
4049:{\displaystyle \rho =\rho _{m}(a)={\frac {\rho _{m_{0}}}{a^{3}}},}
3538:{\displaystyle cz/H_{0}\approx (2998\times z){\text{ Mpc }}h^{-1}}
3366:
as the surface of a star. However, the night sky is largely dark.
1882:
is some reference time. If light is emitted from a galaxy at time
1864:{\displaystyle {\frac {D(t)}{D(t_{0})}}={\frac {R(t)}{R(t_{0})}},}
1069:
9516:
Slipher, V. M. (1915). "Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae".
7983:
6573:, although, even more recently, in March 2019, a higher value of
1064:
983:
941:
837:, many of which were earlier measured and related to velocity by
672:
Hubble's law is considered the first observational basis for the
15842:
14943:"A 2.4% Determination of the Local Value of the Hubble Constant"
13684:
13082:"How (Nearly) Nothing Might Solve Cosmology's Biggest Questions"
8243:. Adjusted uncertainty in table from Planck Collaboration 2013.
6524:
Lambda-CDM model § Violations of the cosmological principle
6399:
736:
Comoving and proper distances § Uses of the proper distance
15977:
13281:"Measurements of the Hubble Constant: Tensions in Perspective*"
12297:
10779:(2nd ed.). Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 304.
8566:
In standard ÎCDM, dark energy has a constant equation of state
7335:
7334:
Modelling the mass distribution & time delay of the lensed
6330:, although this has a radius approximately three times larger.
3406:
3402:
3121:
1348:
1341:
1336:
is the proper distance (which can change over time, unlike the
1039:
751:
35:
15903:
Freedman, W. L.; Madore, B. F. (2010). "The Hubble Constant".
14917:"The Extended Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (eBOSS)"
14587:
13708:"A measurement of the Hubble constant from Type II supernovae"
9233:
Livio, M.; Riess, A. (2013). "Measuring the Hubble constant".
8949:
Friedman, A. (December 1922). "Ăber die KrĂŒmmung des Raumes".
8734:"Cosmos Controversy: The Universe Is Expanding, but How Fast?"
7132:, providing an alternative method to analyze the Planck data.
6431:
For most of the second half of the 20th century, the value of
5960:
is simply defined as the inverse of the Hubble constant, i.e.
2945:{\textstyle q\equiv -{\frac {{\ddot {a}}\,a}{{\dot {a}}^{2}}}}
758:, thus giving the speed in km/s of a galaxy 1 megaparsec (3.09
30:
14743:
14462:
Weaver, Donna; Villard, Ray; Hille, Karl (22 February 2018).
13705:
11654:
11595:
10531:
Spacetime and Geometry: An Introduction to General Relativity
10352:"Gravitational Waves Show How Fast The Universe is Expanding"
8617:- a similar problem from another parameter of the ÎCDM model.
8605:
List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants
5089:
Therefore, for dark energy with a constant equation of state
4690:
3298:(which is about 14 billion years). For instance, a value for
1480:
1465:), meaning that for any given galaxy, the recession velocity
1345:
1326:. This value is the same throughout the universe for a given
912:
solution that conflicted with the then-prevalent notion of a
780:
658:
15484:
14856:
13632:
13034:
4337:{\displaystyle \rho ={\frac {\rho _{c}\Omega _{m}}{a^{3}}}.}
3249:{\displaystyle q=-\left(1+{\frac {\dot {H}}{H^{2}}}\right).}
1753:
selected. Its meaning is that all measured proper distances
58:
15348:
14468:
14260:
11719:"Dynamical dark energy in light of the latest observations"
11225:
11223:
11221:
11219:
11217:
11215:
10115:"Is the universe expanding faster than the speed of light?"
8985:
Friedman, A. (December 1999). "On the Curvature of Space".
8429:, but it would be decades before a consensus was achieved.
6228:
3359:
2710:
820:. Friedmann published a set of equations, now known as the
16027:
15055:
14732:"H0LiCOW â V. New COSMOGRAIL time delays of HE 0435â1223:
14092:
Ryan, Joseph; Chen, Yun; Ratra, Bharat (8 February 2019).
13912:
Reid, M. J.; Pesce, D. W.; Riess, A. G. (15 August 2019).
13581:
13175:
12558:
11232:"In the realm of the Hubble tensionâa review of solutions"
9680:
Sandage, Allan (December 1989). "Edwin Hubble 1889â1953".
5500:
If dark energy does not have a constant equation-of-state
5365:
set to zero. In that case the initial dark energy density
1995:. We call this rate of recession the "recession velocity"
884:
A decade before Hubble made his observations, a number of
14940:
13525:"The Hubble constant from eight time-delay galaxy lenses"
12677:
11774:
Berezhiani, Zurab; Dolgov, A. D.; Tkachev, I. I. (2015).
9176:"Lost in translation: Mystery of the missing text solved"
8106:
tends to be smaller and more uncertain: typically around
5873:
2073:{\displaystyle v_{\text{r}}=d_{t}D={\frac {d_{t}R}{R}}D.}
1295:
is the recessional velocity, typically expressed in km/s.
982:
into Einstein's field equations for a fluid with a given
13404:
13104:
11354:
11212:
11136:"Progress in direct measurements of the Hubble constant"
10469:"Supernovae, Dark Energy, and the Accelerating Universe"
8796:
The Swinburne Astronomy Online Encyclopedia of Astronomy
7886:
Comparing redshift to other distance methods, including
6685:
a meaurement of the Hubble constant using data from the
3963:
Matter-dominated universe (with a cosmological constant)
3096:
1974:{\displaystyle z={\frac {R(t_{0})}{R(t_{\text{e}})}}-1.}
14402:
14370:
14309:
13748:
13522:
12680:"Spherical symmetry in the kilonova AT2017gfo/GW170817"
11990:
11773:
10896:
10719:
9669:(Holder and Mitton ed.). Springer. pp. 89â96.
7919:
SDSS-III Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS)
7253:, assuming that the transient ZTF19abanrh found by the
6495:
have become available, and these agree on a value near
6108:
2733:
value. "Hubble parameter" is a more correct term, with
739:
for discussion of the subtleties of this definition of
15534:
12815:
12378:
11715:
10804:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 225.
8496:
First measurement and interpretation as a sign of the
3469:
is not precisely known, the distance is expressed as:
2891:
2723:
944:
were "island universes" outside the Milky Way galaxy.
16004:
14151:
Macaulay, E; et al. (DES collaboration) (2018).
13799:
13218:
12334:"Debate intensifies over speed of expanding universe"
9839:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
9545:
Friedman, A. (1922). "Ăber die KrĂŒmmung des Raumes".
7391:
6379:
in 2023 has confirmed the earlier observation of the
6132:
5968:
5678:
5512:
5385:
5201:
5189:, which assumes a spatially flat universe, then (see
5100:
5039:
4969:
4798:
4707:
4547:
4352:
4288:
4094:
3983:
3789:
3714:
3477:
3193:
3033:; the latter can only occur if the universe contains
2962:
2849:
2828:
2756:
2556:
2446:
2194:
2142:
2090:
2012:
1912:
1776:
1582:
1531:
1408:
1306:
is Hubble's constant and corresponds to the value of
1255:
15959:
NASA's WMAP B ig Bang Expansion: the Hubble Constant
15540:
15022:
Cowen, Ron; Castelvecchi, Davide (2 December 2014).
14201:
13345:
12971:
12443:
11536:
11291:"The universe is expanding faster than it should be"
9371:"1912: Henrietta Leavitt Discovers the Distance Key"
7610:, for the Equation of State of Dark Energy (SHoES).
7090:, for the Equation of State of Dark Energy (SHoES).
6854:. Independent of cosmic distance ladder or the CMB.
6227:
Likewise, the generally accepted value of 2.27
5173:{\displaystyle \rho _{de}(a)=\rho _{de0}a^{-3(1+w)}}
3627:
of Hubble's constant, usually expressed in terms of
3410:, all the relative uncertainty of the true value of
3064:/Newtonian coordinate space, which, considered as a
1764:
between co-moving points increase proportionally to
717:
to a galaxy (which can change over time, unlike the
15279:
15277:
11537:Haslbauer, M.; Banik, I.; Kroupa, P. (2020-12-21).
11134:Freedman, Wendy L.; Madore, Barry F. (2023-11-01).
9682:
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
9630:
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
9583:Friedmann, A. (1999). "On the Curvature of Space".
8826:
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
6511:. This discrepancy is called the "Hubble tension".
6507:, to the point that the disagreement is now highly
1448:{\displaystyle r_{\text{HS}}={\frac {c}{H_{0}}}\ .}
868:is sometimes thought of as somewhat of a misnomer.
15851:
14797:
14461:
13858:
13119:"The Pantheon+ Analysis: Cosmological Constraints"
12759:. Vol. 385, no. 6710. pp. 698â699.
11964:"Best-Yet Measurements Deepen Cosmological Crisis"
10831:
10829:
10416:
10410:
10376:
10374:
10146:"The redshift-distance and velocity-distance laws"
9986:
9425:
9298:
8866:(2011). "Who discovered the expanding universe?".
8763:Routledge Critical Dictionary of the New Cosmology
7404:
6333:
6217:
6096:
5860:
5618:
5490:
5339:
5172:
5079:
5021:
4947:
4763:
4680:
4500:
4336:
4270:
4048:
3921:
3547:In other words, one calculates 2998 Ă
3537:
3248:
3016:
2944:
2864:
2834:
2812:
2606:
2538:
2428:
2167:
2124:
2072:
1973:
1863:
1688:
1556:
1447:
1278:
1174:
746:The Hubble constant is most frequently quoted in (
15785:Skywise Unlimited â Western Washington University
15143:"Planck Mission Brings Universe Into Sharp Focus"
15021:
14863:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
14729:
14254:
14208:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
14157:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
14098:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
14033:DomĂnguez, Alberto; et al. (28 March 2019).
13988:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13806:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13755:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13640:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13588:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13529:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13470:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
13113:; Foley, Ryan J.; Jha, Saurabh W.; Kelsey, Lisa;
11602:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
11543:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
11062:The cosmic distance scale and the Hubble constant
9135:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
9110:Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles A
8204:WMAP (3 years), combined with other measurements
8156:WMAP (5 years), combined with other measurements
8092:WMAP (7 years), combined with other measurements
6850:Timing delay of gravitationally lensed images of
4764:{\displaystyle \rho =\rho _{m}(a)+\rho _{de}(a),}
3037:, regarded as theoretically somewhat improbable.
665:. The discovery of Hubble's law is attributed to
16076:
15274:
13346:Soltis, J.; Casertano, S.; Riess, A. G. (2021).
12874:1.86 (stat) ± 3.10 (sys) km/s/Mpc
12114:
8821:"The Curious Case of Lemaitre's Equation No. 24"
7748:level. Continuation of the SHoES collaboration.
7416:, time-delay measurements using strong-lensing,
3680:
3373:
1987:, and this distance changes with time at a rate
15974:Coming to terms with different Hubble Constants
15800:Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles
15024:"European probe shoots down dark-matter claims"
15015:
14654:
14032:
13984:tension between early and late-Universe probes"
13970:
13464:Baxter, E. J.; Sherwin, B. D. (February 2021).
12327:
12325:
12235:
12233:
11408:Rameez, Mohamed; Sarkar, Subir (15 July 2021).
10826:
10775:Hawley, John F.; Holcomb, Katherine A. (2005).
10371:
10048:
9904:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
9739:
9737:
8861:
8670:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1400:for a discussion of the significance of this):
980:metric for a homogeneous and isotropic universe
15902:
15710:
15135:
14993:
14791:
14455:
14303:
14150:
13911:
13678:
13105:Brout, Dillon; Scolnic, Dan; Popovic, Brodie;
12673:
12671:
12293:
12291:
12239:
11140:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
11133:
11059:
10558:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
10554:
8724:
8722:
8720:
7666:method based on baryon acoustic oscillations.
6613:. Their measurement of the Hubble constant is
2636:
1065:Combining redshifts with distance measurements
34:An analogy for explaining Hubble's law, using
15187:
15160:
15110:
15049:
14091:
13699:
13463:
13169:
12809:
12202:
12080:
10774:
10404:
10402:
10217:
9627:
8818:
7861:Lenses in COSMOGRAIL's Wellspring (H0LiCOW).
7225:, a value taken from Anderson et al. (2014).
6420:led him to realize that there were distinct "
6400:Earlier measurement and discussion approaches
2813:{\displaystyle H(t)\equiv {\dot {a}}(t)/a(t)}
857:is constant at any given moment in time, the
841:in 1917. Combining Slipher's velocities with
618:
15370:
15368:
13964:
12554:
12552:
12550:
12502:
12439:
12437:
12322:
12230:
12108:
11986:
11984:
11961:
11407:
11230:di Valentino, Eleonora; et al. (2021).
11229:
9734:
9435:Origins of the Expanding Universe: 1912-1932
9388:
9343:Origins of the Expanding Universe: 1912â1932
8914:Origins of the Expanding Universe: 1912-1932
8068:(9 years), combined with other measurements
7589:Precision HST photometry of Cepheids in the
6565:published in 2018 indicate a lower value of
6548:
6451:, who claimed the value was around 100, and
3358:, and filled with a uniform distribution of
3017:{\displaystyle {\frac {dH}{dt}}=-H^{2}(1+q)}
2695:without specifying a detailed model for how
2125:{\displaystyle H\equiv {\frac {d_{t}R}{R}},}
1040:Cepheid variable stars outside the Milky Way
15906:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
15600:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
15433:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
15287:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
15229:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
15118:"Planck reveals an almost perfect universe"
14573:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
13516:
13457:
13339:
12957:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
12668:
12288:
12171:
11830:
11315:
11184:
10609:
10343:
10248:
10242:
9341:. In Michael J. Way; Deidre Hunter (eds.).
9290:
8912:. In Michael J. Way; Deidre Hunter (eds.).
8717:
5022:{\displaystyle \ln {\rho }=-3(1+w)\ln {a};}
3131:for dark energy). A "closed universe" with
1389:, objects recede at a rate faster than the
1318:and which can be expressed in terms of the
766:. However, crossing out units reveals that
15983:
15001:"Planck Publications: Planck 2015 Results"
14909:
14660:
13398:
12049:
11348:
11019:
11017:
10466:
10399:
9333:
9232:
9061:
9022:
7005:(TRGB) distance indicator (HST+Gaia EDR3)
4691:Matter- and dark energy-dominated universe
2607:{\displaystyle cz\approx DH(t_{0})=v_{r}.}
1481:Redshift velocity and recessional velocity
1057:, and it was only gradually that the term
954:FriedmannâLemaĂźtreâRobertsonâWalker metric
625:
611:
57:
15918:
15666:
15611:
15554:
15501:
15445:
15390:
15365:
15299:
15241:
15169:"An infant universe, born before we knew"
15069:
14976:
14958:
14892:
14874:
14833:
14815:
14774:
14756:
14674:
14605:
14511:
14438:
14420:
14345:
14327:
14278:
14237:
14219:
14178:
14168:
14127:
14109:
14085:
14068:
14050:
14009:
13999:
13947:
13929:
13872:
13835:
13817:
13776:
13766:
13733:
13723:
13690:
13661:
13651:
13609:
13599:
13558:
13540:
13499:
13481:
13440:
13422:
13381:
13363:
13314:
13296:
13255:
13237:
13203:
13193:
13152:
13134:
13048:
12987:
12918:
12824:
12788:
12695:
12651:
12633:
12576:
12547:
12479:
12461:
12434:
12417:
12399:
12255:
12130:
12063:
12026:
12008:
11981:
11914:
11881:
11863:
11791:
11734:
11668:
11631:
11613:
11589:
11572:
11554:
11530:
11497:
11425:
11369:
11265:
11247:
11151:
11110:
11100:
11068:
10929:
10911:
10857:
10735:
10680:
10625:
10570:
10497:
10380:
10349:
10302:
10171:
10082:
10064:
9934:
9924:
9850:
9759:
9641:
9582:
9446:
9354:
9201:
9155:
8925:
8881:
8838:
8700:
8690:
6109:§ Derivation of the Hubble parameter
5924:Learn how and when to remove this message
5443:
3765:Learn how and when to remove this message
3055:
2916:
2656:For relatively nearby galaxies (redshift
2616:According to this approach, the relation
1272:
919:
762:10 km) away, and its value is about
15797:
14195:
13278:
12618:"On the Blackbody Spectrum of Kilonovae"
11845:
11472:
10967:
10965:
10350:Scharping, Nathaniel (18 October 2017).
10143:
10137:
9984:
9956:
9954:
9896:
9828:
9826:
9798:
9792:
9743:
9544:
9169:
9167:
9127:
9104:
8984:
8948:
6821:CMB TT/TE/EE power spectrum. Less than 1
6738:
6552:
6337:
5870:Other ingredients have been formulated.
3971:, then the mass density of the universe
3100:
2711:Expansion velocity vs. peculiar velocity
1486:recessional velocity is another matter.
1224:
1185:After Hubble's discovery was published,
1068:
1014:
875:
29:
15831:The Observational Approach to Cosmology
15729:
15706:
15704:
15702:
15593:
15283:
15225:
15166:
12615:
11023:
11014:
10799:
10527:
10447:
10308:
10279:
10273:
10119:Ask an Astronomer at Cornell University
10042:
9899:"Hubble's diagram and cosmic expansion"
9705:
9703:
9679:
9515:
9486:
9394:
9296:
9269:
8728:
8114:although some models allow values near
7068:and Gaia EDR3 parallaxes for Milky Way
6602:), of determining the Hubble constant.
6594:events (especially those involving the
3975:can be taken to include just matter so
1729:
1557:{\displaystyle v_{\text{rs}}\equiv cz,}
1351:(Mpc), in the 3-space defined by given
729:of proper distance with respect to the
14:
16077:
15872:
15849:
15828:
15003:. European Space Agency. February 2015
14376:
12208:
12086:
11955:
11336:from the original on 16 September 2023
11288:
10664:
10408:
10221:Formation of Structure in the Universe
10186:
10180:
9832:
8662:
8587:Accelerating expansion of the universe
6474:, measurements of anisotropies in the
5874:Units derived from the Hubble constant
3687:Accelerating expansion of the universe
1074:
1001:
15650:
15193:
13973:"H0LiCOW XIII. A 2.4% measurement of
13079:
12750:
12331:
11322:Starr, Michelle (14 September 2023).
11321:
11074:
11055:
11053:
10978:The Cepheid Distance Scale: A History
10962:
10211:
9951:
9833:Croton, Darren J. (14 October 2013).
9823:
9664:
9173:
9164:
9067:
9028:
8759:
7444:M. J. Reid, D. W. Pesce, A. G. Riess
7161:galaxy systems are used to determine
7059:Hubble Space Telescope and Gaia EDR3
6383:, which gave a Hubble constant about
5639:must be parametrized, for example if
3623:This should not be confused with the
3097:Ultimate fate and age of the universe
2082:We now define the Hubble constant as
962:derived his Friedmann equations from
15773:
15699:
15378:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement
14144:
12831:We find three independent values of
12216:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
12179:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
11962:Ananthaswamy, Anil (22 March 2019).
11289:Gresko, Michael (17 December 2021).
11190:
10810:10.1093/acref/9780199609055.001.0001
9709:
9700:
9463:"Three steps to the Hubble constant"
8753:
8658:
8656:
8420:This was the first good estimate of
6274:into the equation for Hubble's law,
5906:adding citations to reliable sources
5877:
3747:adding citations to reliable sources
3718:
3551:and one gives the units as Mpc
1489:
1086:Group fitted type Ia supernovae for
709:the constant of proportionalityâthe
661:they emit toward the red end of the
16095:Large-scale structure of the cosmos
15937:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101829
15875:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology
12789:Hotchkiss, Shaun (16 August 2024).
11410:"Is there really a Hubble tension?"
11358:Journal of High Energy Astrophysics
10252:Structure formation in the universe
10218:Dekel, A.; Ostriker, J. P. (1999).
9126:Partially translated to English in
8904:
6756:Measurement of the Hubble constant
6320:, or alternatively, a cube of side
3704:
2724:Time-dependence of Hubble parameter
2672:can be estimated using the formula
24:
15896:
12859:1.85 (stat) ± 1.90 (sys)
12844:1.75 (stat) ± 1.54 (sys)
12087:Lerner, Louise (22 October 2018).
11050:
10381:Chase, S. I.; Baez, J. C. (2004).
9962:"What is a Cosmological Constant?"
9586:General Relativity and Gravitation
8987:General Relativity and Gravitation
8800:Swinburne University of Technology
8283:Hubble Space Telescope Key Project
8239:and Chandra X-ray observations of
6561:More recent measurements from the
6346:The value of the Hubble constant,
6076:
6046:
6043:
6040:
6029:
6021:
6018:
5748:
5722:
5476:
5472:
5452:
5416:
5280:
5245:
5080:{\displaystyle \rho =a^{-3(1+w)}.}
4665:
4661:
4626:
4591:
4455:
4440:
4436:
4358:
4309:
4159:
3897:
3715:Derivation of the Hubble parameter
3335:
1203:precession of the orbit of Mercury
1090:between 0.01 and 0.1 to find that
880:Three steps to the Hubble constant
684:. It is described by the equation
353:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")
25:
16116:
15952:
15854:Astronomy: A Physical Perspective
13279:Freedman, Wendy L. (2021-09-01).
10971:
8819:van den Bergh, S. (August 2011).
8653:
8544:support earlier results from the
7662:Supernova measurements using the
6481:
2842:increases relatively faster than
1220:
1165:
947:
568:Timeline of cosmological theories
333:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
27:Observation in physical cosmology
16062:
16050:
16038:
16026:
16014:
15791:
15760:
15723:
15644:
15594:Spergel, D.N. (September 2003).
15587:
15478:
15423:
15332:
15219:
14934:
14850:
14723:
14581:
14563:from the original on 2022-10-09.
14483:
14396:
14026:
13905:
13852:
13793:
13742:
13626:
13575:
13272:
13212:
13098:
13073:
13028:
12965:
12881:
12782:
12751:Clery, Daniel (13 August 2024).
12744:
12609:
11024:Overbye, D. (1999). "Prologue".
10517:from the original on 2022-10-09.
10450:Principles of Physical Cosmology
8336:Supernova 1a Light Curve Shapes
6426:International Astronomical Union
6293:
6249:
5882:
4697:equation of state of dark energy
4514:refers to the values today, and
3723:
3648:(from definitions of parsec and
2742:denoting the present-day value.
2668:will not have changed much, and
2168:{\displaystyle v_{\text{r}}=HD.}
1983:Suppose a galaxy is at distance
1199:bending of light by large masses
793:
592:
581:
580:
15822:
15717:Harvard Center for Astrophysics
12496:
12299:Carnegie Institution of Science
12043:
11890:
11839:
11824:
11767:
11709:
11648:
11466:
11401:
11282:
11127:
11005:
10996:
10937:
10890:
10793:
10777:Foundations of modern cosmology
10768:
10713:
10658:
10603:
10548:
10521:
10460:
10441:
10387:The Original Usenet Physics FAQ
10331:
10107:
10015:
9989:Einstein: His Life and Universe
9978:
9890:
9673:
9658:
9621:
9538:
9509:
9480:
9455:
9426:O'Raifeartaigh, Cormac (2013).
9419:
9363:
9327:
9263:
9226:
9098:
8589: â Cosmological phenomenon
8560:
8551:
8534:
8513:
6334:Determining the Hubble constant
6170:
6166:
5950:has units of inverse time; the
5893:needs additional citations for
3734:needs additional citations for
1512:cosmological expansion of space
1175:Cosmological constant abandoned
713:âbetween the "proper distance"
348:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)
201:Future of an expanding universe
15858:. Cambridge University Press.
14693:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.021303
14624:10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.061105
14377:Devlin, Hannah (10 May 2018).
12616:Sneppen, Albert (2023-09-01).
12332:Sokol, Joshua (19 July 2019).
11933:10.1103/PhysRevLett.131.111002
11846:Vagnozzi, Sunny (2023-08-30).
11687:10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.221301
11473:Vagnozzi, Sunny (2020-07-10).
10315:University of California Press
10286:University of California Press
8942:
8907:"Dismantling Hubble's Legacy?"
8898:
8855:
8812:
8784:
8628:
7257:is the optical counterpart to
6367:More recently, scientists use
6167:
6032:
6015:
5936:
5845:
5833:
5695:
5689:
5603:
5597:
5532:
5526:
5324:
5312:
5305:
5292:
5267:
5254:
5218:
5212:
5165:
5153:
5120:
5114:
5069:
5057:
5002:
4990:
4935:
4923:
4755:
4749:
4730:
4724:
4648:
4635:
4613:
4600:
4564:
4558:
4419:
4395:
4006:
4000:
3959:is the cosmological constant.
3514:
3502:
3011:
2999:
2881:On defining the dimensionless
2807:
2801:
2790:
2784:
2766:
2760:
2585:
2572:
2530:
2517:
2498:
2485:
2479:
2453:
2420:
2407:
2401:
2375:
2355:
2342:
2336:
2310:
2296:
2283:
2275:
2262:
2241:
2228:
2220:
2207:
1959:
1946:
1938:
1925:
1852:
1839:
1831:
1825:
1810:
1797:
1789:
1783:
1377:larger than the radius of the
1355:. (Recession velocity is just
1340:, which is constant) from the
808:Although widely attributed to
721:) and its speed of separation
563:History of the Big Bang theory
359:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
13:
1:
15167:Overbye, D. (21 March 2013).
11482:tension: An alternative view"
11475:"New physics in light of the
11414:Classical and Quantum Gravity
11236:Classical and Quantum Gravity
11191:Mann, Adam (26 August 2019).
11170:10.1088/1475-7516/2023/11/050
10589:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/10/004
8621:
7800:LIGO Scientific Collaboration
7525:LIGO Scientific Collaboration
6107:content of the universe (see
3707:section; see the articles on
3681:Acceleration of the expansion
3380:dimensionless Hubble constant
3374:Dimensionless Hubble constant
3310:. The discovery in 1998 that
3111:ultimate fate of the universe
3042:Lambda cold dark matter model
2630:
2134:and discover the Hubble law:
1344:to the observer, measured in
555:Discovery of cosmic microwave
206:Ultimate fate of the universe
15984:Merrifield, Michael (2009).
15543:Astronomy & Astrophysics
13080:Chiou, Lyndie (2023-07-25).
13037:Astronomy & Astrophysics
12565:Astronomy & Astrophysics
12209:Finley, Dave (8 July 2019).
10846:Astronomy & Astrophysics
10288:. p. 163, Appendix 5B.
9713:The Road to Galaxy Formation
8601: â Concept in cosmology
7975:Results from an analysis of
7850:strong gravitational lensing
7591:Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC)
7414:baryon acoustic oscillations
7304:Megamaser Cosmology Project
7107:E. J. Baxter, B. D. Sherwin
6539:a modified theory of gravity
6440:was estimated to be between
6246:, etc., as explained above.
3321:. However, estimates of the
3044:(Lambda-CDM or ÎCDM model),
2822:in most accelerating models
2691:) cannot be calculated from
871:
7:
15573:10.1051/0004-6361/201321591
15409:10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225
15194:Boyle, A. (21 March 2013).
14297:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910
13891:10.1103/PhysRevD.100.103501
13067:10.1051/0004-6361/202347572
12937:10.1103/PhysRevD.108.023510
12595:10.1051/0004-6361/202346306
12074:10.1103/PhysRevD.101.043533
11831:Laila Linke (17 May 2021).
11516:10.1103/PhysRevD.102.023518
11388:10.1016/j.jheap.2022.04.002
11060:de Vaucouleurs, G. (1982).
11026:Lonely Hearts of the Cosmos
10876:10.1051/0004-6361/201321529
9966:Goddard Space Flight Center
9490:Lowell Observatory Bulletin
9029:Wirtz, C. W. (April 1922).
8610:Tests of general relativity
8580:
8525:Atacama Cosmology Telescope
7732:Hubble Space Telescope and
7715:Final Planck 2018 results.
7022:Hubble Space Telescope and
7003:Tip of the red-giant branch
6701:particularly bright in the
6657:Atacama Cosmology Telescope
6637:tip of the red-giant branch
6528:baryon acoustic oscillation
6493:cosmic microwave background
6476:cosmic microwave background
6412:" to measure distance, was
3669:, a Planck unit version of
2641:Strictly speaking, neither
2637:Observability of parameters
1566:is used. That is, there is
1506:it were caused by a linear
1398:Uses of the proper distance
1154:(now known to be caused by
970:and can be considered as a
848:Though the Hubble constant
669:'s work published in 1929.
323:Black Hole Initiative (BHI)
10:
16121:
15969:The Hubble Diagram Project
15318:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/14
15260:10.1088/0067-0049/208/2/20
15088:10.1088/0004-6256/146/4/86
14978:10.3847/0004-637X/826/1/56
14835:10.3847/0004-6256/152/2/50
14267:Astronomy and Astrophysics
12714:10.1038/s41586-022-05616-x
12525:10.1038/d41586-020-02126-6
11810:10.1103/PhysRevD.92.061303
10644:10.1103/PhysRevD.85.084032
10454:Princeton University Press
10448:Peebles, P. J. E. (1993).
10257:Cambridge University Press
10226:Cambridge University Press
10052:AIP Conference Proceedings
9334:Nussbaumer, Harry (2013).
9307:Cambridge University Press
8983:. (English translation in
8542:James Webb Space Telescope
7449:Measuring the distance to
7192:Derived from 88 0.02 <
7030:Combining earlier work on
6687:James Webb Space Telescope
6631:and based on distances to
6377:James Webb Space Telescope
6297:
3684:
3631:, obtained by multiplying
3339:
2865:{\displaystyle {\dot {a}}}
2718:redshift-space distortions
2182:approximately by making a
1279:{\displaystyle v=H_{0}\,D}
1189:abandoned his work on the
1178:
951:
86:Chronology of the universe
16090:Eponymous laws of physics
15733:The Astrophysical Journal
15654:The Astrophysical Journal
15489:The Astrophysical Journal
15036:10.1038/nature.2014.16462
14947:The Astrophysical Journal
14409:The Astrophysical Journal
14316:The Astrophysical Journal
14039:The Astrophysical Journal
13918:The Astrophysical Journal
13411:The Astrophysical Journal
13352:The Astrophysical Journal
13285:The Astrophysical Journal
13226:The Astrophysical Journal
13123:The Astrophysical Journal
12622:The Astrophysical Journal
12450:The Astrophysical Journal
12388:The Astrophysical Journal
12274:10.1038/s41550-019-0820-1
12149:10.1038/s41586-018-0606-0
11997:The Astrophysical Journal
11753:10.1038/s41550-017-0216-z
10900:The Astrophysical Journal
10802:A Dictionary of Astronomy
10339:Introduction to Cosmology
10151:The Astrophysical Journal
9747:The Astrophysical Journal
9581:Translated to English in
9071:Astronomische Nachrichten
9035:Astronomische Nachrichten
8540:The latest data from the
8498:expansion of the universe
8229:Chandra X-ray Observatory
7852:. Collaboration known as
7255:Zwicky Transient Facility
7128:without referring to the
6978:discrepancy with planck.
6825:discrepancy with Planck.
6549:21st century measurements
6509:statistically significant
6501:measurement uncertainties
6472:SunyaevâZel'dovich effect
6442:50 and 90 (km/s)/Mpc
3935:is the Hubble parameter,
3570:to avoid confusion; e.g.
3287:It was long thought that
3070:homogeneous and isotropic
3040:However, in the standard
1568:no fundamental difference
1314:which is a value that is
674:expansion of the universe
179:Expansion of the universe
15998:University of Nottingham
15058:The Astronomical Journal
14804:The Astronomical Journal
14440:10.3847/1538-4357/aaadb7
14347:10.3847/1538-4357/aac82e
14070:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4a0e
13980:from lensed quasars: 5.3
13971:Kenneth C. Wong (2020).
13949:10.3847/2041-8213/ab552d
13442:10.3847/2041-8213/abdbaf
13383:10.3847/2041-8213/abdbad
13316:10.3847/1538-4357/ac0e95
13257:10.3847/2041-8213/ac5c5b
13154:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8e04
12653:10.3847/1538-4357/acf200
12481:10.3847/2041-8213/ab75f0
12419:10.3847/1538-4357/ab2f73
12028:10.3847/1538-4357/ab1422
11444:10.1088/1361-6382/ac0f39
11267:10.1088/1361-6382/ac086d
10931:10.3847/2041-8213/acf769
10311:Understanding Relativity
10282:Understanding Relativity
10249:Padmanabhan, T. (1993).
9897:Kirshner, R. P. (2003).
9092:10.1002/asna.19242220203
9055:10.1002/asna.19212151703
8506:
8237:SunyaevâZeldovich effect
3419:being then relegated to
2631:velocity-redshift figure
1498:is often described as a
1046:Mount Wilson Observatory
976:proportionality constant
964:Einstein field equations
894:Einstein field equations
783:) and the reciprocal of
644:, is the observation in
343:Planck space observatory
129:Gravitational wave (GWB)
15929:2010ARA&A..48..673F
15711:John P. Huchra (2008).
15565:2014A&A...571A..16P
14663:Physical Review Letters
14594:Physical Review Letters
14289:2020A&A...641A...6P
13059:2024A&A...682A..20C
13006:10.1126/science.abh1322
12765:10.1126/science.ads4465
12587:2023A&A...678A..14S
12348:10.1126/science.aay8123
11903:Physical Review Letters
11883:10.3390/universe9090393
11657:Physical Review Letters
10868:2014A&A...571A...1P
10467:Perlmutter, S. (2003).
9926:10.1073/pnas.2536799100
9807:Oxford University Press
9607:10.1023/A:1026751225741
9297:Longair, M. S. (2006).
9007:10.1023/A:1026751225741
8760:Coles, P., ed. (2001).
8260:WMAP (First year) only
7943:Hubble Space Telescope
7843:Hubble Space Telescope
7765:Hubble Space Telescope
7664:inverse distance ladder
7597:measurements to the 4.4
7584:Hubble Space Telescope
7470:Hubble Space Telescope
7221:and a sound horizon of
6596:merger of neutron stars
3350:: If the universe were
998:theories of cosmology.
196:Inhomogeneous cosmology
16105:Equations of astronomy
15964:The Hubble Key Project
15873:Liddle, A. R. (2003).
15829:Hubble, E. P. (1937).
14261:Planck Collaboration;
13735:10.1093/mnras/staa1801
13611:10.1093/mnras/staa3456
13560:10.1093/mnras/staa3603
13501:10.1093/mnras/staa3706
13205:10.1093/mnras/stac1661
11633:10.1093/mnras/stad3357
11574:10.1093/mnras/staa2348
11102:10.1073/pnas.96.8.4236
10754:10.1002/andp.201000052
10699:10.1002/andp.201100038
10528:Carroll, Sean (2004).
10187:Madsen, M. S. (1995).
9548:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
9467:www.spacetelescope.org
9157:10.1093/mnras/91.5.483
8951:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
8546:Hubble Space Telescope
7686:H0LiCOW collaboration
7406:
6775:Remarks / methodology
6752:
6629:Hubble Space Telescope
6558:
6520:cosmological principle
6457:Gustav Andreas Tammann
6381:Hubble Space Telescope
6371:measurements (such as
6343:
6219:
6098:
5862:
5620:
5492:
5341:
5174:
5081:
5023:
4949:
4765:
4682:
4502:
4338:
4272:
4050:
3949:gravitational constant
3923:
3539:
3250:
3185:, which is defined by
3180:deceleration parameter
3175:
3079:
3056:Idealized Hubble's law
3018:
2946:
2883:deceleration parameter
2866:
2836:
2814:
2683:For distant galaxies,
2608:
2540:
2430:
2169:
2126:
2074:
1975:
1891:and received by us at
1865:
1690:
1573:FizeauâDoppler formula
1558:
1449:
1280:
1240:
1160:cosmic distance ladder
1121:
920:Slipher's observations
881:
843:Henrietta Swan Leavitt
663:visible light spectrum
39:
15879:John Wiley & Sons
15713:"The Hubble Constant"
14894:10.1093/mnras/stw3384
14776:10.1093/mnras/stw3006
14129:10.1093/mnras/stz1966
14011:10.1093/mnras/stz3094
13837:10.1093/mnras/stz2547
13778:10.1093/mnras/staa828
11075:Myers, S. T. (1999).
10800:Ridpath, Ian (2012).
10144:Harrison, E. (1992).
9985:Isaacson, W. (2007).
9799:Weinberg, S. (2008).
9665:Block, David (2012).
9439:ASP Conference Series
9347:ASP Conference Series
9128:LemaĂźtre, G. (1931).
8918:ASP Conference Series
8692:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168
8360:GĂ©rard de Vaucouleurs
8135:WMAP only (7 years).
7407:
7405:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
7113:Gravitational lensing
6968:SN Ia distance ladder
6913:SN Ia distance ladder
6742:
6635:calculated using the
6556:
6449:GĂ©rard de Vaucouleurs
6341:
6220:
6099:
5863:
5621:
5493:
5342:
5191:shape of the universe
5175:
5082:
5024:
4950:
4766:
4683:
4503:
4346:Also, by definition,
4339:
4273:
4051:
3924:
3711:and the ÎCDM model).
3540:
3382:, usually denoted by
3251:
3147:comes to an end in a
3104:
3084:shape of the universe
3074:
3019:
2947:
2867:
2837:
2815:
2660:much less than one),
2609:
2541:
2431:
2170:
2127:
2075:
1976:
1866:
1691:
1559:
1463:Accelerating universe
1450:
1281:
1228:
1191:cosmological constant
1181:Cosmological constant
1072:
1025:ShapleyâCurtis debate
1021:shape of the universe
1015:Shape of the universe
940:whether or not these
904:to the nature of the
879:
816:equations in 1922 by
287:Large-scale structure
265:Shape of the universe
33:
14239:10.1093/mnras/stz200
14180:10.1093/mnras/stz978
13653:10.1093/mnras/stu523
13111:Filippenko, Alexi V.
12799:– via YouTube.
11303:on December 17, 2021
10842:Planck Collaboration
10412:"The Black of Night"
10317:. pp. 304â305.
10309:Sartori, L. (1996).
10280:Sartori, L. (1996).
9995:Simon & Schuster
9869:10.1017/pasa.2013.31
9710:Keel, W. C. (2007).
9398:(25 February 2019).
8732:(20 February 2017).
8521:South Pole Telescope
8180:WMAP only (5 years)
7389:
7281:T. de Jaeger et al.
7245:S. Mukherjee et al.
7119:is used to estimate
6935:T. de Jaeger et al.
6874:S. Contarini et al.
6579:1.42 (km/s)/Mpc
6571:0.42 (km/s)/Mpc
6497:67.7 (km/s)/Mpc
6130:
5966:
5941:The Hubble constant
5902:improve this article
5676:
5510:
5383:
5199:
5098:
5037:
4967:
4796:
4705:
4545:
4510:where the subscript
4350:
4286:
4092:
3981:
3787:
3743:improve this article
3475:
3191:
2960:
2889:
2847:
2826:
2754:
2554:
2444:
2192:
2140:
2088:
2010:
1910:
1774:
1730:Recessional velocity
1580:
1529:
1406:
1253:
1245:recessional velocity
1009:Sidney van den Bergh
938:highly controversial
900:. Applying the most
640:, also known as the
599:Astronomy portal
557:background radiation
534:List of cosmologists
15850:Kutner, M. (2003).
15812:1927ASSB...47...49L
15781:"Hubble's Constant"
15746:1958ApJ...127..513S
15677:1995ApJ...438L..17R
15622:2003ApJS..148..175S
15512:2006ApJ...647...25B
15456:2007ApJS..170..377S
15401:2009ApJS..180..225H
15310:2011ApJS..192...14J
15252:2013ApJS..208...20B
15080:2013AJ....146...86T
14969:2016ApJ...826...56R
14885:2017MNRAS.467.2085G
14826:2016AJ....152...50T
14767:2017MNRAS.465.4914B
14685:2018PhRvL.121b1303V
14616:2019PhRvL.122f1105F
14530:10.1038/nature24471
14522:2017Natur.551...85A
14431:2018ApJ...855..136R
14338:2018ApJ...861..126R
14230:2019MNRAS.484.4726B
14120:2019MNRAS.488.3844R
14061:2019ApJ...885..137D
13940:2019ApJ...886L..27R
13883:2019PhRvD.100j3501D
13828:2019MNRAS.490.1743C
13551:2021MNRAS.501..784D
13492:2021MNRAS.501.1823B
13433:2021ApJ...908L...6R
13374:2021ApJ...908L...5S
13307:2021ApJ...919...16F
13248:2022ApJ...934L...7R
13145:2022ApJ...938..110B
13115:Kirshner, Robert P.
12998:2023Sci...380.1322K
12929:2023PhRvD.108b3510B
12706:2023Natur.614..436S
12644:2023ApJ...955...44S
12517:2020Natur.583..500C
12472:2020ApJ...891L...1P
12410:2019ApJ...882...34F
12266:2019NatAs...3..940H
12141:2018Natur.562..545C
12019:2019ApJ...876...85R
11968:Scientific American
11925:2023PhRvL.131k1002K
11874:2023Univ....9..393V
11802:2015PhRvD..92f1303B
11745:2017NatAs...1..627Z
11679:2019PhRvL.122v1301P
11624:2024MNRAS.527.4388M
11565:2020MNRAS.499.2845H
11508:2020PhRvD.102b3518V
11436:2021CQGra..38o4005R
11380:2022JHEAp..34...49A
11296:National Geographic
11258:2021CQGra..38o3001D
11162:2023JCAP...11..050F
11093:1999PNAS...96.4236M
10984:on 10 December 2007
10922:2023ApJ...956L..18R
10746:2011AnP...523..194T
10691:2011AnP...523..423T
10636:2012PhRvD..85h4032T
10581:2018JCAP...10..004H
10490:2003PhT....56d..53P
10419:Asimov on Astronomy
10409:Asimov, I. (1974).
10164:1993ApJ...403...28H
10125:on 23 November 2003
10075:2001AIPC..555..348D
9917:2004PNAS..101....8K
9861:2013PASA...30...52C
9770:2001ApJ...553...47F
9694:1989JRASC..83..351S
9652:2011JRASC.105..151V
9599:1999GReGr..31.1991F
9561:1922ZPhy...10..377F
9532:1915PA.....23...21S
9503:1913LowOB...2...56S
9284:1917Obs....40..304S
9249:2013PhT....66j..41L
9194:2011Natur.479..171L
9148:1931MNRAS..91..483L
9122:1927ASSB...47...49L
9084:1924AN....222...21W
9047:1922AN....215..349W
8999:1999GReGr..31.1991F
8963:1922ZPhy...10..377F
8936:2013ASPC..471...97W
8892:2011Obs...131..394N
8849:2011JRASC.105..151V
8683:1929PNAS...15..168H
8663:Hubble, E. (1929).
8529:Planck (spacecraft)
7251:Gravitational waves
7187:T. Sedgwick et al.
7130:sound horizon scale
7064:Combination of HST
6845:P. L. Kelly et al.
6757:
6672:3.6 (km/s)/Mpc
6414:500 (km/s)/Mpc
6328:observable universe
6088: billion years
5715:
5628:and to solve this,
5238:
4584:
4487:
4240:
4136:
3967:If the universe is
3659:), for example for
3625:dimensionless value
3323:age of the universe
1156:peculiar velocities
1075:redshift velocities
1027:took place between
1002:LemaĂźtre's equation
960:Alexander Friedmann
928:measured the first
822:Friedmann equations
818:Alexander Friedmann
642:HubbleâLemaĂźtre law
299:Structure formation
191:Friedmann equations
81:Age of the universe
45:Part of a series on
16100:Physical cosmology
15358:2014-07-09 at the
12861:for the JAGB, and
12817:Freedman, Wendy L.
12380:Freedman, Wendy L.
10836:Bucher, P. A. R.;
10723:Annalen der Physik
10668:Annalen der Physik
10190:The Dynamic Cosmos
10031:. 28 November 2007
9569:10.1007/BF01332580
9405:The New York Times
9375:Everyday Cosmology
9301:The Cosmic Century
9174:Livio, M. (2011).
8971:10.1007/BF01332580
8905:Way, M.J. (2013).
8392:Allan Sandage and
8116:63 (km/s)/Mpc
7656:Dark Energy Survey
7402:
6755:
6753:
6749:67 (km/s)/Mpc
6745:73 (km/s)/Mpc
6727:3.62 km/s/Mpc
6695:type Ia supernovae
6592:gravitational wave
6559:
6489:73 (km/s)/Mpc
6394:74 (km/s)/Mpc
6344:
6215:
6124:each Hubble time:
6094:
5858:
5701:
5616:
5488:
5486:
5337:
5224:
5170:
5077:
5019:
4961:is constant, then
4945:
4943:
4761:
4678:
4570:
4498:
4496:
4473:
4334:
4268:
4266:
4226:
4122:
4046:
3919:
3779:Friedmann equation
3701:Type Ia supernovae
3535:
3427:using the formula
3325:are very close to
3246:
3176:
3014:
2942:
2862:
2832:
2810:
2604:
2536:
2426:
2165:
2122:
2070:
1971:
1861:
1751:cosmological model
1686:
1554:
1445:
1310:(often termed the
1276:
1241:
1122:
902:general principles
898:general relativity
882:
826:Carl Wilhelm Wirtz
814:general relativity
646:physical cosmology
338:Dark Energy Survey
282:Large quasar group
51:Physical cosmology
40:
15986:"Hubble Constant"
15888:978-0-470-84835-7
15865:978-0-521-52927-3
12982:(6649) eabh1322.
12907:Physical Review D
12690:(7948): 436â439.
12511:(7817): 500â501.
12125:(7728): 545â547.
12052:Physical Review D
11780:Physical Review D
11486:Physical Review D
11043:978-0-316-64896-7
10786:978-0-19-853096-1
10613:Physical Review D
10541:978-0-8053-8732-2
10508:10.1063/1.1580050
10434:978-0-385-04111-9
10383:"Olbers' Paradox"
10324:978-0-520-20029-6
10295:978-0-520-20029-6
10266:978-0-521-42486-8
10235:978-0-521-58632-0
10204:978-0-412-62300-4
10093:10.1063/1.1363540
10008:978-0-7432-6473-0
9816:978-0-19-852682-7
9727:978-3-540-72534-3
9593:(12): 1991â2000.
9519:Popular Astronomy
9320:978-0-521-47436-8
9257:10.1063/PT.3.2148
9188:(7372): 171â173.
8993:(12): 1991â2000.
8777:978-0-203-16457-0
8642:. 29 October 2018
8638:(Press release).
8519:For example, the
8504:
8503:
8112:4 (km/s)/Mpc
7949:Type Ia supernova
7152:P. Denzel et al.
6852:Supernova Refsdal
6677:In August, 2024.
6543:equation of state
6212:
6163:
6154:
6149:
6089:
6075:
6051:
6014:
5997:
5934:
5933:
5926:
5581:
5441:
4921:
4897:
4864:
4836:
4831:
4812:
4489:
4429:
4329:
4242:
4204:
4149:
4075:density parameter
4041:
3914:
3889:
3854:
3823:
3818:
3775:
3774:
3767:
3520:
3399: Ă 100
3236:
3224:
2981:
2940:
2931:
2913:
2859:
2835:{\displaystyle a}
2781:
2512:
2476:
2364:
2245:
2150:
2117:
2062:
2020:
1963:
1956:
1856:
1814:
1681:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1640:
1611:
1608:
1598:
1539:
1500:redshift velocity
1490:Redshift velocity
1441:
1437:
1416:
1353:cosmological time
1338:comoving distance
733:coordinate. (See
719:comoving distance
657:, a shift of the
635:
634:
306:
305:
148:
147:
16:(Redirected from
16112:
16067:
16066:
16065:
16055:
16054:
16053:
16043:
16042:
16041:
16031:
16030:
16019:
16018:
16017:
16010:
16001:
15948:
15922:
15892:
15877:(2nd ed.).
15869:
15857:
15846:
15816:
15815:
15795:
15789:
15788:
15777:
15771:
15764:
15758:
15757:
15727:
15721:
15720:
15708:
15697:
15696:
15670:
15668:astro-ph/9410054
15648:
15642:
15641:
15615:
15613:astro-ph/0302209
15591:
15585:
15584:
15558:
15538:
15532:
15531:
15505:
15503:astro-ph/0512349
15482:
15476:
15475:
15449:
15447:astro-ph/0603449
15427:
15421:
15420:
15394:
15372:
15363:
15346:
15336:
15330:
15329:
15303:
15281:
15272:
15271:
15245:
15223:
15217:
15216:
15214:
15213:
15204:. Archived from
15191:
15185:
15184:
15182:
15181:
15164:
15158:
15157:
15155:
15154:
15139:
15133:
15132:
15130:
15129:
15114:
15108:
15107:
15073:
15053:
15047:
15046:
15044:
15042:
15019:
15013:
15012:
15010:
15008:
14997:
14991:
14990:
14980:
14962:
14938:
14932:
14931:
14929:
14927:
14913:
14907:
14906:
14896:
14878:
14869:(2): 2085â2112.
14854:
14848:
14847:
14837:
14819:
14795:
14789:
14788:
14778:
14760:
14751:(4): 4914â4930.
14727:
14721:
14720:
14678:
14658:
14652:
14651:
14609:
14585:
14579:
14578:
14572:
14564:
14562:
14515:
14497:
14487:
14481:
14480:
14478:
14476:
14459:
14453:
14452:
14442:
14424:
14400:
14394:
14393:
14391:
14389:
14374:
14368:
14367:
14349:
14331:
14307:
14301:
14300:
14282:
14258:
14252:
14251:
14241:
14223:
14214:(4): 4726â4753.
14199:
14193:
14192:
14182:
14172:
14163:(2): 2184â2196.
14148:
14142:
14141:
14131:
14113:
14104:(3): 3844â3856.
14089:
14083:
14082:
14072:
14054:
14030:
14024:
14023:
14013:
14003:
13968:
13962:
13961:
13951:
13933:
13909:
13903:
13902:
13876:
13856:
13850:
13849:
13839:
13821:
13812:(2): 1743â1773.
13797:
13791:
13790:
13780:
13770:
13746:
13740:
13739:
13737:
13727:
13718:(3): 3402â3411.
13703:
13697:
13696:
13694:
13682:
13676:
13675:
13665:
13655:
13630:
13624:
13623:
13613:
13603:
13594:(3): 3728â3742.
13579:
13573:
13572:
13562:
13544:
13520:
13514:
13513:
13503:
13485:
13476:(2): 1823â1835.
13461:
13455:
13454:
13444:
13426:
13402:
13396:
13395:
13385:
13367:
13343:
13337:
13336:
13318:
13300:
13276:
13270:
13269:
13259:
13241:
13216:
13210:
13209:
13207:
13197:
13188:(3): 4620â4628.
13173:
13167:
13166:
13156:
13138:
13102:
13096:
13095:
13093:
13092:
13077:
13071:
13070:
13052:
13032:
13026:
13025:
12991:
12969:
12963:
12962:
12956:
12948:
12922:
12885:
12879:
12878:
12875:
12873:
12860:
12858:
12845:
12843:
12828:
12813:
12807:
12800:
12786:
12780:
12779:
12748:
12742:
12741:
12699:
12675:
12666:
12665:
12655:
12637:
12613:
12607:
12606:
12580:
12556:
12545:
12544:
12500:
12494:
12493:
12483:
12465:
12441:
12432:
12431:
12421:
12403:
12376:
12367:
12366:
12364:
12362:
12329:
12320:
12319:
12317:
12315:
12301:(16 July 2019).
12295:
12286:
12285:
12259:
12243:Nature Astronomy
12237:
12228:
12227:
12225:
12223:
12206:
12200:
12199:
12197:
12195:
12175:
12169:
12168:
12134:
12112:
12106:
12105:
12103:
12101:
12084:
12078:
12077:
12067:
12047:
12041:
12040:
12030:
12012:
11988:
11979:
11978:
11976:
11974:
11959:
11953:
11952:
11918:
11894:
11888:
11887:
11885:
11867:
11843:
11837:
11836:
11828:
11822:
11821:
11795:
11771:
11765:
11764:
11738:
11723:Nature Astronomy
11713:
11707:
11706:
11672:
11652:
11646:
11645:
11635:
11617:
11608:(3): 4388â4396.
11593:
11587:
11586:
11576:
11558:
11549:(2): 2845â2883.
11534:
11528:
11527:
11501:
11470:
11464:
11463:
11429:
11405:
11399:
11398:
11373:
11352:
11346:
11345:
11343:
11341:
11319:
11313:
11312:
11310:
11308:
11299:. Archived from
11286:
11280:
11279:
11269:
11251:
11227:
11210:
11209:
11207:
11205:
11188:
11182:
11181:
11155:
11131:
11125:
11124:
11114:
11104:
11087:(8): 4236â4239.
11072:
11066:
11065:
11057:
11048:
11047:
11028:(2nd ed.).
11021:
11012:
11009:
11003:
11000:
10994:
10993:
10991:
10989:
10980:. Archived from
10969:
10960:
10959:
10957:
10956:
10941:
10935:
10934:
10933:
10915:
10894:
10888:
10887:
10861:
10833:
10824:
10823:
10797:
10791:
10790:
10772:
10766:
10765:
10739:
10717:
10711:
10710:
10684:
10662:
10656:
10655:
10629:
10607:
10601:
10600:
10574:
10552:
10546:
10545:
10525:
10519:
10518:
10516:
10501:
10473:
10464:
10458:
10457:
10445:
10439:
10438:
10422:
10414:
10406:
10397:
10396:
10394:
10393:
10378:
10369:
10368:
10366:
10364:
10347:
10341:
10335:
10329:
10328:
10306:
10300:
10299:
10277:
10271:
10270:
10246:
10240:
10239:
10215:
10209:
10208:
10184:
10178:
10177:
10175:
10141:
10135:
10134:
10132:
10130:
10121:. Archived from
10111:
10105:
10104:
10086:
10068:
10066:astro-ph/0011070
10046:
10040:
10039:
10037:
10036:
10019:
10013:
10012:
9992:
9982:
9976:
9975:
9973:
9972:
9958:
9949:
9948:
9938:
9928:
9894:
9888:
9887:
9885:
9883:
9854:
9830:
9821:
9820:
9796:
9790:
9789:
9763:
9761:astro-ph/0012376
9741:
9732:
9731:
9720:. pp. 7â8.
9716:(2nd ed.).
9707:
9698:
9697:
9677:
9671:
9670:
9662:
9656:
9655:
9645:
9625:
9619:
9618:
9580:
9542:
9536:
9535:
9513:
9507:
9506:
9484:
9478:
9477:
9475:
9473:
9459:
9453:
9452:
9450:
9432:
9423:
9417:
9416:
9414:
9412:
9392:
9386:
9385:
9383:
9381:
9367:
9361:
9360:
9358:
9340:
9331:
9325:
9324:
9304:
9294:
9288:
9287:
9267:
9261:
9260:
9230:
9224:
9223:
9205:
9171:
9162:
9161:
9159:
9125:
9102:
9096:
9095:
9065:
9059:
9058:
9026:
9020:
9018:
8982:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8929:
8911:
8902:
8896:
8895:
8885:
8862:Nussbaumer, H.;
8859:
8853:
8852:
8842:
8816:
8810:
8809:
8807:
8806:
8788:
8782:
8781:
8757:
8751:
8750:
8748:
8746:
8726:
8715:
8714:
8704:
8694:
8660:
8651:
8650:
8648:
8647:
8632:
8574:
8572:
8564:
8558:
8555:
8549:
8538:
8532:
8517:
8490:Georges LemaĂźtre
8486:
8471:Hooker telescope
8463:
8439:
8428:
8409:
8388:
8377:
8375:
8356:
8354:
8333:
8331:
8312:
8308:
8297:
8279:
8277:
8257:
8255:
8225:
8224:
8223:
8201:
8200:
8199:
8177:
8176:
8175:
8153:
8151:
8132:
8130:
8117:
8113:
8111:
8105:
8089:
8088:
8087:
8062:
8060:
8022:
8020:
8000:
7998:
7981:
7965:
7963:
7940:
7938:
7915:
7914:
7913:
7897:
7895:
7878:
7877:
7876:
7860:
7840:
7839:
7838:
7795:
7794:
7793:
7762:
7760:
7729:
7727:
7705:
7703:
7683:
7682:
7681:
7652:
7650:
7627:
7626:
7625:
7609:
7581:
7579:
7557:
7556:
7555:
7520:
7519:
7518:
7492:
7491:
7490:
7467:
7465:
7441:
7439:
7426:
7411:
7409:
7408:
7403:
7401:
7400:
7380:K. Dutta et al.
7377:
7376:
7375:
7352:
7350:
7338:DES J0408-5354.
7326:
7325:
7324:
7301:
7299:
7278:
7277:
7276:
7242:
7241:
7240:
7224:
7220:
7212:
7204:
7195:
7184:
7182:
7169:
7157:Eight quadruply
7149:
7148:
7147:
7127:
7104:
7102:
7089:
7080:
7056:
7054:
7042:from Gaia EDR3.
7038:measurements of
7019:
7017:
6992:
6990:
6974:+"Pantheon+"). 5
6955:
6953:
6932:
6931:
6930:
6904:
6903:
6902:
6871:
6870:
6869:
6842:
6841:
6840:
6811:
6809:
6789:
6787:
6764:Hubble constant
6758:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6728:
6726:
6720:
6718:
6712:
6710:
6673:
6671:
6650:
6649: (km/s)/Mpc
6648:
6647:
6623:
6622:
6621:
6580:
6578:
6572:
6570:
6498:
6490:
6443:
6439:
6415:
6410:standard candles
6406:Cepheid variable
6395:
6392:
6358:
6354:
6325:
6319:
6313:
6289:
6273:
6259:
6234:
6224:
6222:
6221:
6216:
6214:
6213:
6211:
6210:
6198:
6189:
6188:
6165:
6164:
6161:
6155:
6150:
6142:
6140:
6122:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6087:
6079:
6073:
6071:
6070:
6052:
6050:
6049:
6039:
6028:
6012:
6003:
5998:
5996:
5995:
5983:
5978:
5977:
5959:
5949:
5929:
5922:
5918:
5915:
5909:
5886:
5878:
5867:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5850:
5849:
5848:
5832:
5831:
5811:
5810:
5809:
5805:
5804:
5803:
5791:
5790:
5759:
5758:
5743:
5742:
5730:
5729:
5714:
5709:
5688:
5687:
5669:
5638:
5625:
5623:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5606:
5582:
5577:
5569:
5553:
5552:
5525:
5524:
5503:
5497:
5495:
5494:
5489:
5487:
5480:
5479:
5463:
5462:
5442:
5440:
5429:
5428:
5427:
5414:
5405:
5404:
5376:
5364:
5355:
5346:
5344:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5329:
5328:
5327:
5291:
5290:
5275:
5274:
5253:
5252:
5237:
5232:
5211:
5210:
5188:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5176:
5171:
5169:
5168:
5141:
5140:
5113:
5112:
5092:
5086:
5084:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5072:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5020:
5015:
4980:
4960:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4944:
4922:
4917:
4909:
4898:
4893:
4885:
4870:
4866:
4865:
4863:
4862:
4850:
4837:
4832:
4824:
4822:
4814:
4813:
4805:
4789:
4779:
4770:
4768:
4767:
4762:
4748:
4747:
4723:
4722:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4656:
4655:
4634:
4633:
4621:
4620:
4599:
4598:
4583:
4578:
4557:
4556:
4538:
4527:
4523:
4513:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4499:
4497:
4490:
4488:
4486:
4481:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4453:
4444:
4443:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4417:
4416:
4407:
4406:
4393:
4392:
4391:
4375:
4366:
4365:
4343:
4341:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4328:
4327:
4318:
4317:
4316:
4307:
4306:
4296:
4277:
4275:
4274:
4269:
4267:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4234:
4221:
4210:
4205:
4203:
4202:
4193:
4192:
4191:
4190:
4176:
4167:
4166:
4150:
4148:
4137:
4135:
4130:
4117:
4108:
4107:
4085:
4071:
4055:
4053:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4040:
4039:
4030:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4013:
3999:
3998:
3974:
3969:matter-dominated
3958:
3954:
3946:
3938:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3909:
3908:
3895:
3890:
3888:
3887:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3863:
3855:
3850:
3839:
3834:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3819:
3811:
3809:
3799:
3798:
3770:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3750:
3727:
3719:
3699:observations of
3694:
3676:
3674:
3668:
3657:
3647:
3645:
3639:
3619:
3606:, which implies
3605:
3594:
3578:
3569:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3542:
3541:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3521:
3518:
3498:
3497:
3488:
3468:
3459:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3443:
3440:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3409:
3398:
3394:
3385:
3331:
3320:
3313:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3290:
3282:comoving horizon
3276:simply requires
3275:
3271:
3267:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3225:
3217:
3215:
3184:
3173:
3166:
3158:
3146:
3138:
3130:
3119:
3051:
3047:
3032:
3023:
3021:
3020:
3015:
2998:
2997:
2982:
2980:
2972:
2964:
2954:it follows that
2953:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2914:
2906:
2902:
2877:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2861:
2860:
2852:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2797:
2783:
2782:
2774:
2741:
2731:
2706:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2648:
2644:
2628:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2599:
2584:
2583:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2529:
2528:
2513:
2505:
2497:
2496:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2465:
2464:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2419:
2418:
2400:
2399:
2387:
2386:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2335:
2334:
2322:
2321:
2295:
2294:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2257:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2239:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2202:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2152:
2151:
2148:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2079:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2043:
2035:
2034:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2003:
1994:
1986:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1920:
1903:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1834:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1792:
1778:
1767:
1763:
1744:
1724:
1715:
1706:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1674:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1651:
1642:
1641:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1590:
1563:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1541:
1540:
1537:
1523:, the relation:
1522:
1497:
1476:
1468:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1414:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1335:
1325:
1312:Hubble parameter
1309:
1305:
1294:
1285:
1283:
1282:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1238:
1142:
1138:
1119:
1115:
1103:, while Sandage
1102:
1098:
1085:
1050:Cepheid variable
926:Vesto M. Slipher
863:
859:Hubble parameter
856:
831:Georges LemaĂźtre
804:
792:is known as the
791:
774:
765:
761:
724:
716:
708:
699:
627:
620:
613:
597:
596:
595:
584:
583:
277:Galaxy formation
237:Lambda-CDM model
226:
225:
218:Components
100:
99:
61:
42:
41:
21:
16120:
16119:
16115:
16114:
16113:
16111:
16110:
16109:
16075:
16074:
16073:
16063:
16061:
16051:
16049:
16039:
16037:
16025:
16015:
16013:
16005:
15955:
15899:
15897:Further reading
15889:
15866:
15835:Clarendon Press
15825:
15820:
15819:
15796:
15792:
15779:
15778:
15774:
15765:
15761:
15728:
15724:
15709:
15700:
15649:
15645:
15592:
15588:
15539:
15535:
15483:
15479:
15428:
15424:
15373:
15366:
15360:Wayback Machine
15345:
15339:
15337:
15333:
15282:
15275:
15224:
15220:
15211:
15209:
15192:
15188:
15179:
15177:
15165:
15161:
15152:
15150:
15149:. 21 March 2013
15141:
15140:
15136:
15127:
15125:
15124:. 21 March 2013
15116:
15115:
15111:
15054:
15050:
15040:
15038:
15020:
15016:
15006:
15004:
14999:
14998:
14994:
14939:
14935:
14925:
14923:
14915:
14914:
14910:
14855:
14851:
14800:"COSMICFLOWS-3"
14796:
14792:
14738:
14728:
14724:
14659:
14655:
14586:
14582:
14566:
14565:
14560:
14506:(7678): 85â88.
14495:
14488:
14484:
14474:
14472:
14460:
14456:
14401:
14397:
14387:
14385:
14375:
14371:
14308:
14304:
14259:
14255:
14200:
14196:
14149:
14145:
14090:
14086:
14031:
14027:
13979:
13969:
13965:
13910:
13906:
13857:
13853:
13798:
13794:
13747:
13743:
13704:
13700:
13683:
13679:
13631:
13627:
13580:
13576:
13521:
13517:
13462:
13458:
13403:
13399:
13344:
13340:
13277:
13273:
13217:
13213:
13174:
13170:
13103:
13099:
13090:
13088:
13086:Quanta Magazine
13078:
13074:
13033:
13029:
12970:
12966:
12950:
12949:
12886:
12882:
12871:
12869:
12867:
12856:
12854:
12852:
12841:
12839:
12837:
12814:
12810:
12797:Cosmology talks
12787:
12783:
12749:
12745:
12676:
12669:
12614:
12610:
12557:
12548:
12501:
12497:
12442:
12435:
12377:
12370:
12360:
12358:
12330:
12323:
12313:
12311:
12296:
12289:
12250:(10): 940â944.
12238:
12231:
12221:
12219:
12207:
12203:
12193:
12191:
12181:(8 July 2019).
12176:
12172:
12113:
12109:
12099:
12097:
12085:
12081:
12048:
12044:
11989:
11982:
11972:
11970:
11960:
11956:
11900:
11895:
11891:
11844:
11840:
11829:
11825:
11772:
11768:
11714:
11710:
11653:
11649:
11594:
11590:
11535:
11531:
11481:
11471:
11467:
11406:
11402:
11353:
11349:
11339:
11337:
11320:
11316:
11306:
11304:
11287:
11283:
11228:
11213:
11203:
11201:
11189:
11185:
11132:
11128:
11073:
11069:
11058:
11051:
11044:
11022:
11015:
11010:
11006:
11001:
10997:
10987:
10985:
10970:
10963:
10954:
10952:
10943:
10942:
10938:
10895:
10891:
10834:
10827:
10820:
10798:
10794:
10787:
10773:
10769:
10718:
10714:
10663:
10659:
10608:
10604:
10553:
10549:
10542:
10526:
10522:
10514:
10471:
10465:
10461:
10446:
10442:
10435:
10407:
10400:
10391:
10389:
10379:
10372:
10362:
10360:
10348:
10344:
10336:
10332:
10325:
10307:
10303:
10296:
10278:
10274:
10267:
10247:
10243:
10236:
10228:. p. 164.
10216:
10212:
10205:
10185:
10181:
10142:
10138:
10128:
10126:
10113:
10112:
10108:
10084:10.1.1.254.1810
10047:
10043:
10034:
10032:
10021:
10020:
10016:
10009:
9983:
9979:
9970:
9968:
9960:
9959:
9952:
9895:
9891:
9881:
9879:
9831:
9824:
9817:
9797:
9793:
9742:
9735:
9728:
9708:
9701:
9678:
9674:
9663:
9659:
9626:
9622:
9543:
9539:
9514:
9510:
9485:
9481:
9471:
9469:
9461:
9460:
9456:
9430:
9424:
9420:
9410:
9408:
9396:Overbye, Dennis
9393:
9389:
9379:
9377:
9369:
9368:
9364:
9338:
9332:
9328:
9321:
9295:
9291:
9272:The Observatory
9268:
9264:
9231:
9227:
9203:10.1038/479171a
9172:
9165:
9103:
9099:
9078:(5306): 21â26.
9066:
9062:
9041:(17): 349â354.
9027:
9023:
8947:
8943:
8909:
8903:
8899:
8869:The Observatory
8860:
8856:
8817:
8813:
8804:
8802:
8790:
8789:
8785:
8778:
8770:. p. 202.
8758:
8754:
8744:
8742:
8730:Overbye, Dennis
8727:
8718:
8661:
8654:
8645:
8643:
8634:
8633:
8629:
8624:
8583:
8578:
8577:
8567:
8565:
8561:
8556:
8552:
8539:
8535:
8518:
8514:
8509:
8484:
8461:
8437:
8427:
8421:
8407:
8386:
8373:
8371:
8352:
8350:
8329:
8327:
8310:
8306:
8296:
8290:
8275:
8273:
8253:
8251:
8241:galaxy clusters
8221:
8219:
8218:
8216:
8197:
8195:
8194:
8192:
8173:
8171:
8170:
8168:
8149:
8147:
8128:
8126:
8115:
8109:
8107:
8104:
8098:
8085:
8083:
8082:
8080:
8058:
8056:
8018:
8016:
7996:
7994:
7979:
7961:
7959:
7936:
7934:
7911:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7893:
7891:
7874:
7872:
7871:
7869:
7859:
7853:
7836:
7834:
7833:
7831:
7791:
7789:
7788:
7786:
7772:distance ladder
7758:
7756:
7740:Additional HST
7725:
7723:
7701:
7699:
7679:
7677:
7676:
7674:
7648:
7646:
7623:
7621:
7620:
7618:
7608:
7602:
7577:
7575:
7553:
7551:
7550:
7548:
7538:electromagnetic
7516:
7514:
7513:
7511:
7488:
7486:
7485:
7483:
7463:
7461:
7437:
7435:
7417:
7396:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7386:
7373:
7371:
7370:
7368:
7348:
7346:
7322:
7320:
7319:
7317:
7297:
7295:
7274:
7272:
7271:
7269:
7238:
7236:
7235:
7233:
7222:
7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7203:
7197:
7193:
7180:
7178:
7168:
7162:
7145:
7143:
7142:
7140:
7126:
7120:
7100:
7098:
7088:
7082:
7079:
7073:
7052:
7050:
7032:red giant stars
7015:
7013:
6988:
6986:
6951:
6949:
6928:
6926:
6925:
6923:
6900:
6898:
6897:
6895:
6887:DR12 data set.
6867:
6865:
6864:
6862:
6838:
6836:
6835:
6833:
6807:
6805:
6792:Sneppen et al.
6785:
6783:
6765:
6761:Date published
6748:
6744:
6735:
6724:
6722:
6716:
6714:
6708:
6706:
6691:standard candle
6669:
6667:
6645:
6643:
6642:
6640:
6633:red giant stars
6619:
6617:
6616:
6614:
6576:
6574:
6568:
6566:
6551:
6496:
6488:
6484:
6441:
6438:
6432:
6413:
6402:
6393:
6390:
6384:
6362:standard candle
6356:
6353:
6347:
6336:
6321:
6315:
6309:
6302:
6296:
6285:
6275:
6265:
6255:
6252:
6232:
6206:
6202:
6197:
6193:
6181:
6177:
6160:
6159:
6141:
6139:
6131:
6128:
6127:
6120:
6086:
6072:
6066:
6062:
6035:
6024:
6011:
6007:
6002:
5991:
5987:
5982:
5973:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5954:
5948:
5942:
5939:
5930:
5919:
5913:
5910:
5899:
5887:
5876:
5827:
5823:
5816:
5812:
5799:
5795:
5786:
5782:
5775:
5771:
5764:
5760:
5751:
5747:
5735:
5731:
5725:
5721:
5720:
5716:
5710:
5705:
5683:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5673:
5663:
5654:
5640:
5629:
5587:
5583:
5570:
5568:
5558:
5554:
5542:
5538:
5517:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5501:
5485:
5484:
5475:
5471:
5464:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5447:
5430:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5413:
5406:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5375:
5366:
5363:
5357:
5350:
5308:
5304:
5283:
5279:
5270:
5266:
5248:
5244:
5243:
5239:
5233:
5228:
5206:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5183:
5146:
5142:
5130:
5126:
5105:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5090:
5050:
5046:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5011:
4976:
4968:
4965:
4964:
4958:
4942:
4941:
4910:
4908:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4858:
4854:
4849:
4842:
4838:
4823:
4821:
4804:
4803:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4781:
4778:
4774:
4740:
4736:
4718:
4714:
4706:
4703:
4702:
4693:
4664:
4660:
4651:
4647:
4629:
4625:
4616:
4612:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4579:
4574:
4552:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4511:
4495:
4494:
4482:
4477:
4469:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4452:
4445:
4439:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4374:
4367:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4308:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4265:
4264:
4253:
4249:
4248:
4244:
4235:
4230:
4222:
4211:
4209:
4198:
4194:
4186:
4182:
4181:
4177:
4175:
4168:
4162:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4138:
4131:
4126:
4118:
4116:
4109:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4078:
4070:
4069:
4059:
4035:
4031:
4023:
4019:
4018:
4014:
4012:
3994:
3990:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3972:
3965:
3956:
3952:
3944:
3936:
3932:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3894:
3883:
3879:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3862:
3840:
3838:
3829:
3810:
3808:
3804:
3803:
3794:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3784:
3777:Start with the
3771:
3760:
3754:
3751:
3740:
3728:
3717:
3697:standard candle
3692:
3689:
3683:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3632:
3613:
3607:
3596:
3593:
3586:
3580:
3577:
3571:
3567:
3558:
3552:
3548:
3526:
3522:
3519: Mpc
3517:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3461:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3411:
3400:
3396:
3393:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3348:Olbers' paradox
3344:
3342:Olbers' paradox
3338:
3336:Olbers' paradox
3326:
3315:
3311:
3303:
3299:
3292:
3288:
3284:size was zero.
3273:
3269:
3259:
3230:
3226:
3216:
3214:
3207:
3203:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3182:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3118:
3114:
3099:
3058:
3049:
3045:
3027:
2993:
2989:
2973:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2934:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2875:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2793:
2773:
2772:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2750:
2740:
2734:
2729:
2726:
2713:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2646:
2642:
2639:
2627:
2617:
2595:
2591:
2579:
2575:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2524:
2520:
2504:
2492:
2488:
2473:
2469:
2460:
2456:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2414:
2410:
2395:
2391:
2382:
2378:
2349:
2345:
2330:
2326:
2317:
2313:
2303:
2299:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2256:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2201:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2179:
2147:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2030:
2026:
2017:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2002:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1919:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1874:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1821:
1819:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1765:
1754:
1735:
1732:
1723:
1717:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1673:
1650:
1643:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1589:
1581:
1578:
1577:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1495:
1492:
1483:
1474:
1466:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1413:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1387:
1381:
1374:
1356:
1333:
1323:
1307:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1266:
1262:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1230:
1223:
1187:Albert Einstein
1183:
1177:
1168:
1140:
1126:
1117:
1114:
1108:
1100:
1097:
1091:
1084:
1078:
1067:
1042:
1033:Heber D. Curtis
1023:. In 1920, the
1017:
1004:
972:scale invariant
956:
950:
922:
914:static universe
874:
861:
855:
849:
803:
797:
790:
784:
773:
767:
763:
759:
722:
714:
711:Hubble constant
707:
701:
695:
685:
631:
593:
591:
573:
572:
559:
556:
549:
547:Subject history
539:
538:
530:
375:
367:
366:
363:
360:
318:
308:
307:
270:Galaxy filament
223:
211:
210:
162:
157:Expansion
150:
149:
134:Microwave (CMB)
113:Nucleosynthesis
97:
28:
23:
22:
18:Hubble constant
15:
12:
11:
5:
16118:
16108:
16107:
16102:
16097:
16092:
16087:
16072:
16071:
16059:
16047:
16035:
16023:
16003:
16002:
15981:
15971:
15966:
15961:
15954:
15953:External links
15951:
15950:
15949:
15913:(1): 673â710.
15898:
15895:
15894:
15893:
15887:
15870:
15864:
15847:
15824:
15821:
15818:
15817:
15790:
15772:
15766:Edwin Hubble,
15759:
15754:10.1086/146483
15740:(3): 513â526.
15722:
15698:
15685:10.1086/187704
15643:
15630:10.1086/377226
15606:(1): 175â194.
15586:
15533:
15520:10.1086/505291
15477:
15464:10.1086/513700
15440:(2): 377â408.
15422:
15385:(2): 225â245.
15364:
15353:LAMBDA website
15343:
15331:
15273:
15218:
15186:
15174:New York Times
15159:
15134:
15109:
15048:
15014:
14992:
14933:
14908:
14849:
14790:
14736:
14722:
14653:
14580:
14482:
14454:
14395:
14369:
14302:
14253:
14194:
14143:
14084:
14025:
13977:
13963:
13904:
13851:
13792:
13741:
13698:
13677:
13625:
13574:
13535:(1): 784â801.
13515:
13456:
13397:
13338:
13271:
13211:
13168:
13107:Riess, Adam G.
13097:
13072:
13027:
12964:
12880:
12865:
12850:
12846:for the TRGB,
12835:
12808:
12781:
12743:
12667:
12608:
12546:
12495:
12433:
12368:
12321:
12287:
12229:
12201:
12170:
12107:
12079:
12042:
11980:
11954:
11898:
11889:
11838:
11823:
11766:
11729:(9): 627â632.
11708:
11647:
11588:
11529:
11479:
11465:
11400:
11347:
11314:
11281:
11211:
11183:
11126:
11067:
11049:
11042:
11013:
11004:
10995:
10961:
10949:blogs.nasa.gov
10936:
10889:
10825:
10818:
10792:
10785:
10767:
10730:(3): 194â207.
10712:
10675:(5): 423â434.
10657:
10602:
10547:
10540:
10520:
10499:10.1.1.77.7990
10459:
10440:
10433:
10398:
10370:
10342:
10330:
10323:
10301:
10294:
10272:
10265:
10259:. p. 58.
10241:
10234:
10210:
10203:
10197:. p. 35.
10179:
10173:10.1086/172179
10136:
10106:
10041:
10014:
10007:
9977:
9950:
9889:
9822:
9815:
9809:. p. 28.
9791:
9778:10.1086/320638
9733:
9726:
9699:
9688:(6): 351â362.
9672:
9657:
9620:
9555:(1): 377â386.
9537:
9508:
9479:
9454:
9418:
9387:
9362:
9326:
9319:
9289:
9262:
9225:
9163:
9142:(5): 483â490.
9097:
9060:
9021:
8957:(1): 377â386.
8941:
8897:
8876:(6): 394â398.
8854:
8811:
8783:
8776:
8752:
8739:New York Times
8716:
8677:(3): 168â173.
8652:
8626:
8625:
8623:
8620:
8619:
8618:
8612:
8607:
8602:
8596:
8590:
8582:
8579:
8576:
8575:
8559:
8550:
8533:
8511:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8502:
8501:
8494:
8492:
8487:
8482:
8478:
8477:
8475:
8473:
8464:
8459:
8455:
8454:
8452:
8450:
8440:
8435:
8431:
8430:
8425:
8418:
8416:
8411:
8405:
8401:
8400:
8398:
8396:
8394:Gustav Tammann
8390:
8384:
8380:
8379:
8367:De Vaucouleurs
8364:
8362:
8357:
8348:
8344:
8343:
8339:
8337:
8334:
8325:
8321:
8320:
8318:
8316:
8314:
8304:
8300:
8299:
8294:
8287:
8285:
8280:
8271:
8267:
8266:
8264:
8261:
8258:
8249:
8245:
8244:
8233:
8231:
8226:
8214:
8210:
8209:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8190:
8186:
8185:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8166:
8162:
8161:
8159:
8157:
8154:
8145:
8141:
8140:
8138:
8136:
8133:
8124:
8120:
8119:
8102:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8078:
8074:
8073:
8071:
8069:
8063:
8054:
8050:
8049:
8030:
8028:
8026:Planck Mission
8023:
8014:
8010:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8003:Cosmicflows-2
8001:
7992:
7988:
7987:
7973:
7971:
7969:Planck Mission
7966:
7957:
7953:
7952:
7946:
7944:
7941:
7932:
7928:
7927:
7923:
7921:
7916:
7904:
7900:
7899:
7884:
7882:
7881:Cosmicflows-3
7879:
7867:
7863:
7862:
7857:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7829:
7825:
7824:
7812:Standard siren
7809:
7807:
7806:Collaboration
7796:
7784:
7780:
7779:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7754:
7750:
7749:
7738:
7736:
7730:
7721:
7717:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7709:Planck Mission
7706:
7697:
7693:
7692:
7689:
7687:
7684:
7672:
7668:
7667:
7660:
7658:
7653:
7644:
7640:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7628:
7616:
7612:
7611:
7606:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7573:
7569:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7558:
7546:
7542:
7541:
7534:
7532:
7531:Collaboration
7521:
7509:
7505:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7498:collaboration
7493:
7481:
7477:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7459:
7455:
7454:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7433:
7429:
7428:
7399:
7395:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7366:
7362:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7355:SHARP/H0LiCOW
7353:
7344:
7340:
7339:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7315:
7311:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7293:
7289:
7288:
7284:
7282:
7279:
7267:
7263:
7262:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7231:
7227:
7226:
7223:149.3 Mpc
7216:
7208:
7201:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7176:
7172:
7171:
7166:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7138:
7134:
7133:
7124:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7096:
7092:
7091:
7086:
7077:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7048:
7044:
7043:
7040:Omega Centauri
7028:
7026:
7020:
7011:
7007:
7006:
7000:
6998:
6993:
6984:
6980:
6979:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6947:
6943:
6942:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6921:
6917:
6916:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6893:
6889:
6888:
6879:Statistics of
6877:
6875:
6872:
6860:
6856:
6855:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6831:
6827:
6826:
6819:
6817:
6812:
6803:
6799:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6781:
6777:
6776:
6773:
6770:
6767:
6762:
6733:
6679:Wendy Freedman
6563:Planck mission
6550:
6547:
6483:
6482:Hubble tension
6480:
6436:
6401:
6398:
6388:
6351:
6335:
6332:
6298:Main article:
6295:
6292:
6283:
6263:
6251:
6248:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6196:
6192:
6187:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6173:
6169:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6145:
6138:
6135:
6093:
6085:
6082:
6078:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6055:
6048:
6045:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6031:
6027:
6023:
6020:
6017:
6010:
6006:
6001:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5972:
5956:
5946:
5938:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5890:
5888:
5881:
5875:
5872:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5844:
5841:
5838:
5835:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5819:
5815:
5808:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5767:
5763:
5757:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5741:
5738:
5734:
5728:
5724:
5719:
5713:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5697:
5694:
5691:
5686:
5682:
5659:
5652:
5615:
5609:
5605:
5602:
5599:
5596:
5593:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5576:
5573:
5567:
5564:
5561:
5557:
5551:
5548:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5534:
5531:
5528:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5483:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5461:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5449:
5446:
5439:
5436:
5433:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5403:
5400:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5388:
5370:
5359:
5336:
5332:
5326:
5323:
5320:
5317:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5300:
5297:
5294:
5289:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5262:
5259:
5256:
5251:
5247:
5242:
5236:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5220:
5217:
5214:
5209:
5205:
5167:
5164:
5161:
5158:
5155:
5152:
5149:
5145:
5139:
5136:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5122:
5119:
5116:
5111:
5108:
5104:
5076:
5071:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5059:
5056:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5042:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5007:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4995:
4992:
4989:
4986:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4972:
4940:
4937:
4934:
4931:
4928:
4925:
4920:
4916:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4879:
4876:
4873:
4869:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4848:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4830:
4827:
4820:
4817:
4811:
4808:
4802:
4801:
4776:
4760:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4746:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4726:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4710:
4692:
4689:
4677:
4673:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4605:
4602:
4597:
4593:
4588:
4582:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4566:
4563:
4560:
4555:
4551:
4519:
4493:
4485:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4433:
4425:
4421:
4415:
4411:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4379:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4355:
4333:
4326:
4322:
4315:
4311:
4305:
4301:
4294:
4291:
4263:
4256:
4252:
4247:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4208:
4201:
4197:
4189:
4185:
4180:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4156:
4153:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4134:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4097:
4080:
4067:
4063:
4045:
4038:
4034:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4002:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3986:
3964:
3961:
3918:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3893:
3886:
3882:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3858:
3853:
3849:
3846:
3843:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3814:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3793:
3773:
3772:
3731:
3729:
3722:
3716:
3713:
3705:Interpretation
3695:measured from
3685:Main article:
3682:
3679:
3664:
3654:
3636:
3611:
3591:
3584:
3575:
3532:
3529:
3525:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3496:
3492:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3465:
3448:
3415:
3391:
3375:
3372:
3340:Main article:
3337:
3334:
3245:
3241:
3233:
3229:
3223:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3170:
3162:
3154:
3142:
3134:
3127:
3116:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3068:, is entirely
3057:
3054:
3035:phantom energy
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2971:
2968:
2937:
2930:
2927:
2919:
2912:
2909:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2858:
2855:
2831:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2748:
2738:
2728:The parameter
2725:
2722:
2712:
2709:
2652:
2638:
2635:
2625:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2425:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2206:
2200:
2197:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2146:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2093:
2069:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2016:
2000:
1990:
1970:
1967:
1961:
1952:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1896:
1887:
1878:
1860:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1796:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1745:is called the
1731:
1728:
1721:
1712:
1703:
1685:
1680:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1639:
1636:
1631:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1604:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1569:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1535:
1519:
1508:Doppler effect
1505:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1472:
1444:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1412:
1391:speed of light
1385:
1373:For distances
1367:
1366:
1331:
1316:time dependent
1302:
1296:
1275:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1222:
1221:Interpretation
1219:
1179:Main article:
1176:
1173:
1167:
1166:Hubble diagram
1164:
1162:for details).
1148:Milton Humason
1112:
1095:
1082:
1066:
1063:
1041:
1038:
1029:Harlow Shapley
1016:
1013:
1003:
1000:
952:Main article:
949:
948:FLRW equations
946:
921:
918:
890:mathematicians
873:
870:
853:
801:
788:
771:
705:
693:
633:
632:
630:
629:
622:
615:
607:
604:
603:
602:
601:
589:
575:
574:
571:
570:
565:
560:
553:
550:
545:
544:
541:
540:
537:
536:
529:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
377:
376:
373:
372:
369:
368:
365:
364:
357:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
319:
314:
313:
310:
309:
304:
303:
302:
301:
289:
284:
279:
267:
259:
258:
254:
253:
252:
251:
239:
231:
230:
224:
217:
216:
213:
212:
209:
208:
203:
198:
193:
181:
176:
163:
156:
155:
152:
151:
146:
145:
144:
143:
141:Neutrino (CNB)
131:
123:
122:
118:
117:
116:
115:
98:
96:Early universe
95:
94:
91:
90:
89:
88:
83:
78:
63:
62:
54:
53:
47:
46:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
16117:
16106:
16103:
16101:
16098:
16096:
16093:
16091:
16088:
16086:
16083:
16082:
16080:
16070:
16060:
16058:
16048:
16046:
16036:
16034:
16029:
16024:
16022:
16012:
16011:
16008:
15999:
15995:
15991:
15990:Sixty Symbols
15987:
15982:
15980:; 3 May 2019)
15979:
15975:
15972:
15970:
15967:
15965:
15962:
15960:
15957:
15956:
15946:
15942:
15938:
15934:
15930:
15926:
15921:
15916:
15912:
15908:
15907:
15901:
15900:
15890:
15884:
15880:
15876:
15871:
15867:
15861:
15856:
15855:
15848:
15844:
15840:
15836:
15832:
15827:
15826:
15813:
15809:
15805:
15802:(in French).
15801:
15794:
15786:
15782:
15776:
15769:
15763:
15755:
15751:
15747:
15743:
15739:
15735:
15734:
15726:
15718:
15714:
15707:
15705:
15703:
15694:
15690:
15686:
15682:
15678:
15674:
15669:
15664:
15660:
15656:
15655:
15647:
15639:
15635:
15631:
15627:
15623:
15619:
15614:
15609:
15605:
15601:
15597:
15590:
15582:
15578:
15574:
15570:
15566:
15562:
15557:
15552:
15548:
15544:
15537:
15529:
15525:
15521:
15517:
15513:
15509:
15504:
15499:
15495:
15491:
15490:
15481:
15473:
15469:
15465:
15461:
15457:
15453:
15448:
15443:
15439:
15435:
15434:
15426:
15418:
15414:
15410:
15406:
15402:
15398:
15393:
15388:
15384:
15380:
15379:
15371:
15369:
15361:
15357:
15354:
15350:
15342:
15335:
15327:
15323:
15319:
15315:
15311:
15307:
15302:
15297:
15293:
15289:
15288:
15280:
15278:
15269:
15265:
15261:
15257:
15253:
15249:
15244:
15239:
15235:
15231:
15230:
15222:
15208:on 2013-03-23
15207:
15203:
15202:
15197:
15190:
15176:
15175:
15170:
15163:
15148:
15144:
15138:
15123:
15119:
15113:
15105:
15101:
15097:
15093:
15089:
15085:
15081:
15077:
15072:
15067:
15063:
15059:
15052:
15037:
15033:
15029:
15025:
15018:
15002:
14996:
14988:
14984:
14979:
14974:
14970:
14966:
14961:
14956:
14952:
14948:
14944:
14937:
14922:
14918:
14912:
14904:
14900:
14895:
14890:
14886:
14882:
14877:
14872:
14868:
14864:
14860:
14853:
14845:
14841:
14836:
14831:
14827:
14823:
14818:
14813:
14809:
14805:
14801:
14794:
14786:
14782:
14777:
14772:
14768:
14764:
14759:
14754:
14750:
14746:
14745:
14740:
14735:
14726:
14718:
14714:
14710:
14706:
14702:
14701:1721.1/117110
14698:
14694:
14690:
14686:
14682:
14677:
14672:
14668:
14664:
14657:
14649:
14645:
14641:
14637:
14633:
14629:
14625:
14621:
14617:
14613:
14608:
14603:
14599:
14595:
14591:
14584:
14576:
14570:
14559:
14555:
14551:
14547:
14543:
14539:
14535:
14531:
14527:
14523:
14519:
14514:
14509:
14505:
14501:
14494:
14486:
14471:
14470:
14465:
14458:
14450:
14446:
14441:
14436:
14432:
14428:
14423:
14418:
14414:
14410:
14406:
14399:
14384:
14380:
14373:
14365:
14361:
14357:
14353:
14348:
14343:
14339:
14335:
14330:
14325:
14321:
14317:
14313:
14306:
14298:
14294:
14290:
14286:
14281:
14276:
14272:
14268:
14264:
14257:
14249:
14245:
14240:
14235:
14231:
14227:
14222:
14217:
14213:
14209:
14205:
14198:
14190:
14186:
14181:
14176:
14171:
14166:
14162:
14158:
14154:
14147:
14139:
14135:
14130:
14125:
14121:
14117:
14112:
14107:
14103:
14099:
14095:
14088:
14080:
14076:
14071:
14066:
14062:
14058:
14053:
14048:
14044:
14040:
14036:
14029:
14021:
14017:
14012:
14007:
14002:
13997:
13993:
13989:
13985:
13983:
13976:
13967:
13959:
13955:
13950:
13945:
13941:
13937:
13932:
13927:
13923:
13919:
13915:
13908:
13900:
13896:
13892:
13888:
13884:
13880:
13875:
13870:
13867:(10) 103501.
13866:
13862:
13855:
13847:
13843:
13838:
13833:
13829:
13825:
13820:
13815:
13811:
13807:
13803:
13796:
13788:
13784:
13779:
13774:
13769:
13764:
13760:
13756:
13752:
13745:
13736:
13731:
13726:
13721:
13717:
13713:
13709:
13702:
13693:
13688:
13681:
13673:
13669:
13664:
13659:
13654:
13649:
13645:
13641:
13637:
13629:
13621:
13617:
13612:
13607:
13602:
13597:
13593:
13589:
13585:
13578:
13570:
13566:
13561:
13556:
13552:
13548:
13543:
13538:
13534:
13530:
13526:
13519:
13511:
13507:
13502:
13497:
13493:
13489:
13484:
13479:
13475:
13471:
13467:
13460:
13452:
13448:
13443:
13438:
13434:
13430:
13425:
13420:
13416:
13412:
13408:
13401:
13393:
13389:
13384:
13379:
13375:
13371:
13366:
13361:
13357:
13353:
13349:
13342:
13334:
13330:
13326:
13322:
13317:
13312:
13308:
13304:
13299:
13294:
13290:
13286:
13282:
13275:
13267:
13263:
13258:
13253:
13249:
13245:
13240:
13235:
13231:
13227:
13223:
13215:
13206:
13201:
13196:
13191:
13187:
13183:
13179:
13172:
13164:
13160:
13155:
13150:
13146:
13142:
13137:
13132:
13128:
13124:
13120:
13116:
13112:
13108:
13101:
13087:
13083:
13076:
13068:
13064:
13060:
13056:
13051:
13046:
13042:
13038:
13031:
13023:
13019:
13015:
13011:
13007:
13003:
12999:
12995:
12990:
12985:
12981:
12977:
12976:
12968:
12960:
12954:
12946:
12942:
12938:
12934:
12930:
12926:
12921:
12916:
12912:
12908:
12904:
12902:
12898:
12894:
12884:
12877:
12876:for Cepheids.
12864:
12849:
12834:
12827:
12822:
12818:
12812:
12805:
12798:
12794:
12793:
12785:
12778:
12774:
12770:
12766:
12762:
12758:
12754:
12747:
12739:
12735:
12731:
12727:
12723:
12719:
12715:
12711:
12707:
12703:
12698:
12693:
12689:
12685:
12681:
12674:
12672:
12663:
12659:
12654:
12649:
12645:
12641:
12636:
12631:
12627:
12623:
12619:
12612:
12604:
12600:
12596:
12592:
12588:
12584:
12579:
12574:
12570:
12566:
12562:
12555:
12553:
12551:
12542:
12538:
12534:
12530:
12526:
12522:
12518:
12514:
12510:
12506:
12499:
12491:
12487:
12482:
12477:
12473:
12469:
12464:
12459:
12455:
12451:
12447:
12440:
12438:
12429:
12425:
12420:
12415:
12411:
12407:
12402:
12397:
12393:
12389:
12385:
12381:
12375:
12373:
12357:
12353:
12349:
12345:
12341:
12340:
12335:
12328:
12326:
12310:
12309:
12304:
12300:
12294:
12292:
12283:
12279:
12275:
12271:
12267:
12263:
12258:
12253:
12249:
12245:
12244:
12236:
12234:
12218:
12217:
12212:
12205:
12190:
12189:
12184:
12180:
12174:
12166:
12162:
12158:
12154:
12150:
12146:
12142:
12138:
12133:
12128:
12124:
12120:
12119:
12111:
12096:
12095:
12090:
12083:
12075:
12071:
12066:
12061:
12058:(4): 043533.
12057:
12053:
12046:
12038:
12034:
12029:
12024:
12020:
12016:
12011:
12006:
12002:
11998:
11994:
11987:
11985:
11969:
11965:
11958:
11950:
11946:
11942:
11938:
11934:
11930:
11926:
11922:
11917:
11912:
11909:(11) 111002.
11908:
11904:
11893:
11884:
11879:
11875:
11871:
11866:
11861:
11857:
11853:
11849:
11842:
11835:. Astrobites.
11834:
11827:
11819:
11815:
11811:
11807:
11803:
11799:
11794:
11789:
11785:
11781:
11777:
11770:
11762:
11758:
11754:
11750:
11746:
11742:
11737:
11732:
11728:
11724:
11720:
11712:
11704:
11700:
11696:
11692:
11688:
11684:
11680:
11676:
11671:
11666:
11663:(22) 221301.
11662:
11658:
11651:
11643:
11639:
11634:
11629:
11625:
11621:
11616:
11611:
11607:
11603:
11599:
11592:
11584:
11580:
11575:
11570:
11566:
11562:
11557:
11552:
11548:
11544:
11540:
11533:
11525:
11521:
11517:
11513:
11509:
11505:
11500:
11495:
11491:
11487:
11483:
11478:
11469:
11461:
11457:
11453:
11449:
11445:
11441:
11437:
11433:
11428:
11423:
11420:(15) 154005.
11419:
11415:
11411:
11404:
11397:
11393:
11389:
11385:
11381:
11377:
11372:
11367:
11363:
11359:
11351:
11335:
11331:
11330:
11325:
11318:
11302:
11298:
11297:
11292:
11285:
11277:
11273:
11268:
11263:
11259:
11255:
11250:
11245:
11242:(15) 153001.
11241:
11237:
11233:
11226:
11224:
11222:
11220:
11218:
11216:
11200:
11199:
11194:
11187:
11179:
11175:
11171:
11167:
11163:
11159:
11154:
11149:
11145:
11141:
11137:
11130:
11122:
11118:
11113:
11108:
11103:
11098:
11094:
11090:
11086:
11082:
11078:
11071:
11063:
11056:
11054:
11045:
11039:
11035:
11031:
11030:HarperCollins
11027:
11020:
11018:
11008:
10999:
10983:
10979:
10975:
10972:Allen, Nick.
10968:
10966:
10950:
10946:
10940:
10932:
10927:
10923:
10919:
10914:
10909:
10905:
10901:
10893:
10885:
10881:
10877:
10873:
10869:
10865:
10860:
10855:
10851:
10847:
10843:
10839:
10832:
10830:
10821:
10819:9780199609055
10815:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10796:
10788:
10782:
10778:
10771:
10763:
10759:
10755:
10751:
10747:
10743:
10738:
10733:
10729:
10725:
10724:
10716:
10708:
10704:
10700:
10696:
10692:
10688:
10683:
10678:
10674:
10670:
10669:
10661:
10653:
10649:
10645:
10641:
10637:
10633:
10628:
10623:
10619:
10615:
10614:
10606:
10598:
10594:
10590:
10586:
10582:
10578:
10573:
10568:
10564:
10560:
10559:
10551:
10543:
10537:
10533:
10532:
10524:
10513:
10509:
10505:
10500:
10495:
10491:
10487:
10483:
10479:
10478:
10477:Physics Today
10470:
10463:
10455:
10451:
10444:
10436:
10430:
10426:
10421:
10420:
10413:
10405:
10403:
10388:
10384:
10377:
10375:
10359:
10358:
10353:
10346:
10340:
10334:
10326:
10320:
10316:
10312:
10305:
10297:
10291:
10287:
10283:
10276:
10268:
10262:
10258:
10254:
10253:
10245:
10237:
10231:
10227:
10223:
10222:
10214:
10206:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10191:
10183:
10174:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10157:
10153:
10152:
10147:
10140:
10124:
10120:
10116:
10110:
10102:
10098:
10094:
10090:
10085:
10080:
10076:
10072:
10067:
10062:
10058:
10054:
10053:
10045:
10030:
10029:
10028:Science Daily
10024:
10018:
10010:
10004:
10000:
9996:
9991:
9990:
9981:
9967:
9963:
9957:
9955:
9946:
9942:
9937:
9932:
9927:
9922:
9918:
9914:
9910:
9906:
9905:
9900:
9893:
9878:
9874:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9858:
9853:
9848:
9844:
9840:
9836:
9829:
9827:
9818:
9812:
9808:
9804:
9803:
9795:
9787:
9783:
9779:
9775:
9771:
9767:
9762:
9757:
9753:
9749:
9748:
9740:
9738:
9729:
9723:
9719:
9715:
9714:
9706:
9704:
9695:
9691:
9687:
9683:
9676:
9668:
9661:
9653:
9649:
9644:
9639:
9635:
9631:
9624:
9616:
9612:
9608:
9604:
9600:
9596:
9592:
9588:
9587:
9578:
9574:
9570:
9566:
9562:
9558:
9554:
9551:(in German).
9550:
9549:
9541:
9533:
9529:
9525:
9521:
9520:
9512:
9504:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9491:
9483:
9468:
9464:
9458:
9449:
9444:
9440:
9436:
9429:
9422:
9407:
9406:
9401:
9397:
9391:
9376:
9372:
9366:
9357:
9352:
9348:
9344:
9337:
9330:
9322:
9316:
9312:
9308:
9303:
9302:
9293:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9273:
9266:
9258:
9254:
9250:
9246:
9243:(10): 41â47.
9242:
9238:
9237:
9236:Physics Today
9229:
9221:
9217:
9213:
9209:
9204:
9199:
9195:
9191:
9187:
9183:
9182:
9177:
9170:
9168:
9158:
9153:
9149:
9145:
9141:
9137:
9136:
9131:
9123:
9119:
9115:
9112:(in French).
9111:
9107:
9101:
9093:
9089:
9085:
9081:
9077:
9073:
9072:
9064:
9056:
9052:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9032:
9025:
9016:
9012:
9008:
9004:
9000:
8996:
8992:
8988:
8980:
8976:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8956:
8953:(in German).
8952:
8945:
8937:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8919:
8915:
8908:
8901:
8893:
8889:
8884:
8879:
8875:
8871:
8870:
8865:
8858:
8850:
8846:
8841:
8836:
8832:
8828:
8827:
8822:
8815:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8792:"Hubble Flow"
8787:
8779:
8773:
8769:
8765:
8764:
8756:
8741:
8740:
8735:
8731:
8725:
8723:
8721:
8712:
8708:
8703:
8698:
8693:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8671:
8666:
8659:
8657:
8641:
8637:
8631:
8627:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8600:
8597:
8594:
8591:
8588:
8585:
8584:
8570:
8563:
8554:
8547:
8543:
8537:
8530:
8526:
8522:
8516:
8512:
8499:
8495:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8483:
8480:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8472:
8468:
8465:
8460:
8457:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8444:
8441:
8436:
8433:
8432:
8424:
8419:
8417:
8415:
8414:Allan Sandage
8412:
8406:
8403:
8402:
8399:
8397:
8395:
8391:
8385:
8382:
8381:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8349:
8346:
8345:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8326:
8323:
8322:
8319:
8317:
8315:
8305:
8302:
8301:
8293:
8288:
8286:
8284:
8281:
8272:
8269:
8268:
8265:
8262:
8259:
8250:
8247:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8232:
8230:
8227:
8215:
8212:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8191:
8188:
8187:
8184:
8182:
8179:
8167:
8164:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8146:
8143:
8142:
8139:
8137:
8134:
8125:
8122:
8121:
8101:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8079:
8076:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8064:
8055:
8052:
8051:
8046:
8042:
8039:
8035:
8031:
8029:
8027:
8024:
8015:
8012:
8011:
8007:
8005:
8002:
7993:
7990:
7989:
7985:
7978:
7974:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7958:
7955:
7954:
7950:
7947:
7945:
7942:
7933:
7930:
7929:
7924:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7905:
7902:
7901:
7889:
7885:
7883:
7880:
7868:
7865:
7864:
7856:
7851:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7830:
7827:
7826:
7821:
7818:(BNS) merger
7817:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7785:
7782:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7755:
7752:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7737:
7735:
7731:
7722:
7719:
7718:
7714:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7698:
7695:
7694:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7673:
7670:
7669:
7665:
7661:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7645:
7642:
7641:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7629:
7617:
7614:
7613:
7605:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7586:
7583:
7574:
7571:
7570:
7566:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7547:
7544:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7494:
7482:
7479:
7478:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7460:
7457:
7456:
7452:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7434:
7431:
7430:
7424:
7420:
7415:
7397:
7393:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7367:
7364:
7363:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7345:
7342:
7341:
7337:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7316:
7313:
7312:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7294:
7291:
7290:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7268:
7265:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7232:
7229:
7228:
7200:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7177:
7174:
7173:
7165:
7160:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7139:
7136:
7135:
7131:
7123:
7118:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7085:
7076:
7071:
7067:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7049:
7046:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7027:
7025:
7021:
7012:
7009:
7008:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6985:
6982:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6948:
6945:
6944:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6922:
6919:
6918:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6894:
6891:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6861:
6858:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6832:
6829:
6828:
6824:
6820:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6804:
6801:
6800:
6796:
6794:
6791:
6782:
6779:
6778:
6774:
6771:
6768:
6763:
6760:
6759:
6741:
6737:
6732:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6688:
6684:
6680:
6675:
6665:
6660:
6658:
6652:
6638:
6634:
6630:
6625:
6612:
6608:
6607:neutron stars
6603:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6588:
6586:
6585:
6564:
6555:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6516:
6512:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6494:
6479:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6464:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6453:Allan Sandage
6450:
6445:
6435:
6429:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6411:
6407:
6397:
6387:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6365:
6363:
6357:500 km/s
6350:
6340:
6331:
6329:
6324:
6318:
6312:
6307:
6301:
6300:Hubble volume
6294:Hubble volume
6291:
6288:
6282:
6278:
6272:
6268:
6261:
6258:
6250:Hubble length
6247:
6245:
6240:
6238:
6230:
6225:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6194:
6190:
6185:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6171:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6143:
6136:
6133:
6125:
6123:
6117:
6116:vacuum energy
6112:
6110:
6104:
6091:
6083:
6080:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6056:
6053:
6036:
6025:
6008:
6004:
5999:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5970:
5961:
5953:
5945:
5928:
5925:
5917:
5907:
5903:
5897:
5896:
5891:This section
5889:
5885:
5880:
5879:
5871:
5868:
5855:
5851:
5842:
5839:
5836:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5817:
5813:
5806:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5765:
5761:
5755:
5752:
5744:
5739:
5736:
5732:
5726:
5717:
5711:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5692:
5684:
5680:
5671:
5667:
5662:
5658:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5636:
5632:
5626:
5613:
5607:
5600:
5594:
5591:
5588:
5584:
5578:
5574:
5571:
5565:
5562:
5559:
5555:
5549:
5546:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5529:
5521:
5518:
5514:
5505:
5498:
5481:
5468:
5466:
5459:
5456:
5444:
5437:
5434:
5431:
5424:
5420:
5410:
5408:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5391:
5378:
5373:
5369:
5362:
5353:
5347:
5334:
5330:
5321:
5318:
5315:
5309:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5287:
5284:
5276:
5271:
5263:
5260:
5257:
5249:
5240:
5234:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5215:
5207:
5203:
5194:
5192:
5186:
5162:
5159:
5156:
5150:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5134:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5117:
5109:
5106:
5102:
5087:
5074:
5066:
5063:
5060:
5054:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5040:
5032:
5029:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5005:
4999:
4996:
4993:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4970:
4962:
4955:
4938:
4932:
4929:
4926:
4918:
4914:
4911:
4905:
4902:
4899:
4894:
4890:
4887:
4877:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4846:
4843:
4839:
4833:
4828:
4825:
4818:
4815:
4809:
4806:
4791:
4788:
4784:
4771:
4758:
4752:
4744:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4708:
4700:
4698:
4688:
4675:
4671:
4657:
4652:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4630:
4622:
4617:
4609:
4606:
4603:
4595:
4586:
4580:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4561:
4553:
4549:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4518:
4508:
4491:
4483:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4463:
4459:
4449:
4447:
4423:
4413:
4409:
4403:
4399:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4377:
4371:
4369:
4362:
4344:
4331:
4324:
4320:
4313:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4289:
4281:
4278:
4261:
4254:
4250:
4245:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4215:
4212:
4206:
4199:
4195:
4187:
4183:
4178:
4172:
4170:
4163:
4151:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4111:
4104:
4100:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4043:
4036:
4032:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4009:
4003:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3984:
3976:
3970:
3960:
3950:
3942:
3929:
3916:
3911:
3905:
3901:
3891:
3884:
3880:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3851:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3812:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3782:
3780:
3769:
3766:
3758:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3732:This section
3730:
3726:
3721:
3720:
3712:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3688:
3678:
3677:is obtained.
3663:
3658:
3653:
3635:
3630:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3610:
3604:
3600:
3590:
3583:
3574:
3564:
3561:
3555:
3545:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3447:
3439:
3431:
3414:
3408:
3404:
3390:
3381:
3371:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3333:
3330:
3324:
3319:
3307:
3296:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3221:
3218:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3186:
3181:
3150:
3123:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3078:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3053:
3043:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3024:
3008:
3005:
3002:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2966:
2955:
2935:
2928:
2925:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2884:
2879:
2856:
2853:
2829:
2804:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2778:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2757:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2721:
2719:
2708:
2704:
2681:
2654:
2650:
2634:
2632:
2624:
2620:
2614:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2549:
2546:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2439:
2436:
2423:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2359:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2187:
2185:
2184:Taylor series
2175:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2144:
2135:
2132:
2119:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2083:
2080:
2067:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2014:
2005:
1999:
1981:
1968:
1965:
1950:
1943:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1916:
1913:
1905:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1871:
1858:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1786:
1780:
1769:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1738:
1727:
1720:
1711:
1702:
1696:
1683:
1678:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1655:
1652:
1647:
1644:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1626:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1602:
1592:
1586:
1583:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1564:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1533:
1524:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1501:
1494:The redshift
1487:
1478:
1470:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1442:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1384:
1380:
1379:Hubble sphere
1371:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1329:
1328:comoving time
1321:
1317:
1313:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1248:
1246:
1237:
1233:
1227:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1172:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1111:
1106:
1094:
1089:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1062:
1061:replaced it.
1060:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1012:
1010:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
955:
945:
943:
939:
935:
934:spiral nebula
931:
930:Doppler shift
927:
917:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
878:
869:
867:
860:
852:
846:
844:
840:
839:Vesto Slipher
836:
832:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
806:
800:
795:
787:
782:
778:
775:is a unit of
770:
764:70 (km/s)/Mpc
757:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
737:
732:
728:
720:
712:
704:
698:
692:
688:
683:
679:
675:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
651:
647:
643:
639:
628:
623:
621:
616:
614:
609:
608:
606:
605:
600:
590:
588:
579:
578:
577:
576:
569:
566:
564:
561:
558:
552:
551:
548:
543:
542:
535:
532:
531:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
371:
370:
362:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
320:
317:
312:
311:
300:
297:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
271:
268:
266:
263:
262:
261:
260:
256:
255:
250:
247:
243:
240:
238:
235:
234:
233:
232:
228:
227:
221:
215:
214:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
168:
165:
164:
160:
154:
153:
142:
139:
135:
132:
130:
127:
126:
125:
124:
120:
119:
114:
111:
107:
104:
103:
102:
101:
93:
92:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
70:
67:
66:
65:
64:
60:
56:
55:
52:
49:
48:
44:
43:
37:
32:
19:
16085:Edwin Hubble
16069:Solar System
15989:
15910:
15904:
15874:
15853:
15830:
15823:Bibliography
15803:
15799:
15793:
15784:
15775:
15767:
15762:
15737:
15731:
15725:
15716:
15658:
15652:
15646:
15603:
15599:
15589:
15546:
15542:
15536:
15493:
15487:
15480:
15437:
15431:
15425:
15382:
15376:
15340:
15338:Results for
15334:
15291:
15285:
15233:
15227:
15221:
15210:. Retrieved
15206:the original
15199:
15189:
15178:. Retrieved
15172:
15162:
15151:. Retrieved
15137:
15126:. Retrieved
15112:
15061:
15057:
15051:
15039:. Retrieved
15027:
15017:
15005:. Retrieved
14995:
14950:
14946:
14936:
14924:. Retrieved
14920:
14911:
14866:
14862:
14852:
14807:
14803:
14793:
14748:
14742:
14733:
14725:
14669:(2) 021303.
14666:
14662:
14656:
14600:(6) 061105.
14597:
14593:
14583:
14569:cite journal
14503:
14499:
14485:
14473:. Retrieved
14467:
14457:
14412:
14408:
14398:
14386:. Retrieved
14383:the Guardian
14382:
14372:
14319:
14315:
14305:
14270:
14266:
14256:
14211:
14207:
14197:
14160:
14156:
14146:
14101:
14097:
14087:
14042:
14038:
14028:
13991:
13987:
13981:
13974:
13966:
13921:
13917:
13907:
13864:
13861:Phys. Rev. D
13860:
13854:
13809:
13805:
13795:
13758:
13754:
13744:
13715:
13711:
13701:
13680:
13646:(1): 24â62.
13643:
13639:
13628:
13591:
13587:
13577:
13532:
13528:
13518:
13473:
13469:
13459:
13414:
13410:
13400:
13355:
13351:
13341:
13288:
13284:
13274:
13229:
13225:
13214:
13185:
13181:
13171:
13126:
13122:
13100:
13089:. Retrieved
13085:
13075:
13040:
13036:
13030:
12979:
12973:
12967:
12953:cite journal
12913:(2) 023510.
12910:
12906:
12900:
12896:
12892:
12883:
12862:
12847:
12832:
12830:
12811:
12804:stellar halo
12796:
12791:
12784:
12776:
12756:
12746:
12687:
12683:
12625:
12621:
12611:
12568:
12564:
12508:
12504:
12498:
12453:
12449:
12391:
12387:
12359:. Retrieved
12337:
12312:. Retrieved
12306:
12247:
12241:
12220:. Retrieved
12214:
12204:
12192:. Retrieved
12186:
12173:
12122:
12116:
12110:
12098:. Retrieved
12092:
12082:
12055:
12051:
12045:
12000:
11996:
11971:. Retrieved
11967:
11957:
11906:
11902:
11892:
11855:
11851:
11841:
11826:
11786:(6) 061303.
11783:
11779:
11769:
11726:
11722:
11711:
11660:
11656:
11650:
11605:
11601:
11591:
11546:
11542:
11532:
11492:(2) 023518.
11489:
11485:
11476:
11468:
11417:
11413:
11403:
11361:
11357:
11350:
11340:16 September
11338:. Retrieved
11329:ScienceAlert
11327:
11317:
11305:. Retrieved
11301:the original
11294:
11284:
11239:
11235:
11202:. Retrieved
11198:Live Science
11196:
11186:
11143:
11139:
11129:
11084:
11080:
11070:
11061:
11033:
11025:
11007:
10998:
10986:. Retrieved
10982:the original
10977:
10953:. Retrieved
10951:. 2023-09-12
10948:
10939:
10903:
10899:
10892:
10849:
10845:
10837:
10801:
10795:
10776:
10770:
10727:
10721:
10715:
10672:
10666:
10660:
10620:(8) 084032.
10617:
10611:
10605:
10562:
10556:
10550:
10530:
10523:
10484:(4): 53â60.
10481:
10475:
10462:
10449:
10443:
10418:
10390:. Retrieved
10386:
10361:. Retrieved
10355:
10345:
10338:
10337:Matts Roos,
10333:
10310:
10304:
10281:
10275:
10251:
10244:
10220:
10213:
10189:
10182:
10155:
10149:
10139:
10127:. Retrieved
10123:the original
10118:
10109:
10056:
10050:
10044:
10033:. Retrieved
10026:
10017:
9988:
9980:
9969:. Retrieved
9908:
9902:
9892:
9880:. Retrieved
9842:
9838:
9801:
9794:
9754:(1): 47â72.
9751:
9745:
9712:
9685:
9681:
9675:
9666:
9660:
9633:
9629:
9623:
9590:
9584:
9552:
9546:
9540:
9523:
9517:
9511:
9497:(8): 56â57.
9494:
9488:
9482:
9470:. Retrieved
9466:
9457:
9434:
9421:
9409:. Retrieved
9403:
9390:
9378:. Retrieved
9374:
9365:
9342:
9329:
9300:
9292:
9275:
9271:
9265:
9240:
9234:
9228:
9185:
9179:
9139:
9133:
9113:
9109:
9106:LemaĂźtre, G.
9100:
9075:
9069:
9063:
9038:
9034:
9024:
8990:
8986:
8954:
8950:
8944:
8913:
8900:
8873:
8867:
8857:
8830:
8824:
8814:
8803:. Retrieved
8795:
8786:
8762:
8755:
8743:. Retrieved
8737:
8674:
8668:
8644:. Retrieved
8630:
8568:
8562:
8553:
8536:
8515:
8467:Edwin Hubble
8449:and Sandage
8422:
8383:early 1970s
8303:before 1996
8291:
8099:
7976:
7888:TullyâFisher
7854:
7816:neutron star
7775:
7745:
7663:
7603:
7598:
7422:
7418:
7198:
7163:
7121:
7083:
7074:
6975:
6881:cosmic voids
6822:
6730:
6699:carbon stars
6683:prepublished
6676:
6661:
6653:
6626:
6624:(km/s)/Mpc.
6604:
6589:
6583:
6560:
6532:
6517:
6513:
6504:
6485:
6465:
6461:John Bahcall
6446:
6433:
6430:
6418:Walter Baade
6403:
6385:
6366:
6348:
6345:
6322:
6316:
6310:
6303:
6286:
6280:
6276:
6270:
6266:
6256:
6253:
6241:
6226:
6126:
6113:
6105:
5962:
5951:
5943:
5940:
5920:
5911:
5900:Please help
5895:verification
5892:
5869:
5672:
5665:
5660:
5656:
5649:
5645:
5641:
5634:
5630:
5627:
5506:
5499:
5379:
5377:is given by
5371:
5367:
5360:
5351:
5348:
5195:
5184:
5088:
5033:
5030:
4963:
4956:
4792:
4786:
4782:
4772:
4701:
4694:
4541:
4534:
4530:
4516:
4509:
4345:
4282:
4279:
4088:
4081:
4064:
4060:
4057:
3977:
3966:
3941:scale factor
3930:
3783:
3776:
3761:
3752:
3741:Please help
3736:verification
3733:
3691:A value for
3690:
3661:
3651:
3633:
3629:Planck units
3622:
3615:
3608:
3588:
3581:
3572:
3565:
3559:
3553:
3546:
3471:
3462:
3456:
3445:
3437:
3429:
3412:
3388:
3379:
3377:
3368:
3345:
3328:
3317:
3305:
3294:
3286:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3187:
3177:
3088:
3080:
3075:
3066:metric space
3059:
3039:
3028:
3025:
2956:
2880:
2744:
2735:
2727:
2714:
2702:
2682:
2655:
2640:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2550:
2547:
2440:
2437:
2188:
2178:to redshift
2176:
2136:
2133:
2084:
2081:
2006:
1997:
1982:
1906:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1872:
1770:
1759:
1755:
1747:scale factor
1746:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1718:
1709:
1700:
1697:
1576:
1565:
1525:
1516:
1499:
1493:
1484:
1459:
1456:
1402:
1394:
1382:
1372:
1368:
1361:
1357:
1320:scale factor
1311:
1299:
1287:
1249:
1242:
1235:
1231:
1217:
1210:
1207:
1197:such as the
1195:observations
1184:
1169:
1145:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1109:
1104:
1092:
1079:
1058:
1054:
1043:
1018:
1005:
996:Steady State
974:form of the
968:scale factor
957:
923:
883:
865:
858:
850:
847:
810:Edwin Hubble
807:
798:
785:
768:
745:
740:
734:
710:
702:
696:
690:
686:
681:
671:
667:Edwin Hubble
641:
638:Hubble's law
637:
636:
361:Probe (WMAP)
295:
292:Reionization
273:
245:
219:
187:
170:
167:Hubble's law
166:
158:
137:
109:
72:
16057:Outer space
16045:Spaceflight
15994:Brady Haran
14632:2066/201510
14475:24 February
14263:Aghanim, N.
13663:2445/101758
12308:EurekAlert!
12188:EurekAlert!
11307:21 December
11032:. p. 1
10988:19 November
10565:(10): 004.
10059:: 348â351.
9911:(1): 8â13.
9472:26 February
9411:26 February
9380:18 February
9278:: 304â306.
8745:21 February
8599:Dark matter
8347:mid 1970's
8053:2012-12-20
8041:radiometers
8013:2013-03-21
7991:2013-10-01
7931:2016-05-17
7903:2016-07-13
7866:2016-08-04
7828:2016-11-22
7783:2017-10-16
7753:2018-02-22
7720:2018-04-27
7696:2018-07-18
7671:2018-09-05
7643:2018-11-06
7631:Joseph Ryan
7615:2019-02-08
7572:2019-03-18
7545:2019-03-28
7540:(EM) data.
7508:2019-07-08
7480:2019-07-10
7458:2019-07-16
7451:Messier 106
7432:2019-08-15
7365:2019-08-20
7343:2019-09-12
7314:2019-10-14
7292:2020-02-26
7266:2020-06-18
7230:2020-09-29
7175:2020-11-07
7137:2020-11-25
7095:2020-12-04
7047:2020-12-15
7010:2020-12-16
6996:W. Freedman
6983:2021-09-17
6946:2021-12-08
6920:2022-06-17
6892:2022-02-08
6859:2022-12-14
6830:2023-05-11
6802:2023-07-13
6780:2023-07-19
6766:(km/s)/Mpc
6522:fails (see
6422:populations
5952:Hubble time
5937:Hubble time
4280:therefore:
3709:dark energy
3563: Mpc.
3278:integration
2186:expansion:
1904:is simply:
1213:dark energy
794:Hubble time
731:cosmic time
725:, i.e. the
682:Hubble flow
316:Experiments
249:Dark matter
242:Dark energy
184:FLRW metric
121:Backgrounds
16079:Categories
15212:2013-03-21
15180:2013-03-21
15153:2013-03-21
15128:2013-03-21
15041:6 December
15007:9 February
14960:1604.01424
14876:1607.03143
14817:1605.01765
14758:1607.01790
14676:1804.07337
14607:1802.03404
14513:1710.05835
14422:1801.01120
14329:1804.10655
14280:1807.06209
14221:1809.01274
14170:1811.02376
14111:1902.03196
14052:1903.12097
14001:1907.04869
13931:1908.05625
13874:1908.07267
13819:1907.02533
13768:1910.06306
13725:2006.03412
13692:2009.14199
13601:1911.03155
13542:2007.14398
13483:2007.04007
13424:2012.08534
13365:2012.09196
13298:2106.15656
13239:2112.04510
13195:2203.08974
13136:2202.04077
13129:(2): 110.
13091:2023-07-31
13050:2212.07438
12989:2305.06367
12920:2212.05642
12826:2408.06153
12697:2302.06621
12635:2306.05452
12578:2306.12468
12463:2001.09213
12401:1907.05922
12257:1806.10596
12132:1712.06531
12100:22 October
12065:1908.03663
12010:1903.07603
11916:2206.08440
11901:Tension".
11865:2308.16628
11793:1505.03644
11736:1701.08165
11670:1811.04083
11615:2311.17988
11556:2009.11292
11499:1907.07569
11427:1911.06456
11371:2203.06142
11249:2103.01183
11153:2309.05618
11146:(11) 050.
10955:2024-02-15
10913:2307.15806
10572:1805.03629
10392:2013-10-17
10363:18 October
10035:2013-06-02
9997:. p.
9971:2013-10-17
9882:8 December
9636:(4): 151.
9309:. p.
8833:(4): 151.
8805:2013-05-14
8646:2018-10-29
8622:References
8615:S8 tension
7742:photometry
7066:photometry
6907:Pantheon+
6611:dark siren
6535:ÎCDM model
6408:stars as "
5914:March 2014
5031:implying:
4699:. So now:
3755:March 2014
3149:Big Crunch
908:yielded a
886:physicists
779:(SI unit:
727:derivative
396:Copernicus
374:Scientists
229:Components
16021:Astronomy
15945:119263173
15920:1004.1856
15806:: 49â59.
15693:118938423
15581:118349591
15556:1303.5076
15392:0803.0732
15301:1001.4744
15268:119271232
15243:1212.5225
15104:118494842
15096:0004-6256
15071:1307.7213
14987:118630031
14953:(1): 56.
14844:250737862
14785:109934944
14554:205261622
14538:1476-4687
14415:(2) 136.
14356:0004-637X
14322:(2) 126.
14248:119053798
14189:119310644
14138:119226802
14045:(2) 137.
14020:195886279
13958:199668809
13924:(2) L27.
13899:201107151
13846:195820422
13787:204509190
13672:1365-2966
13620:0035-8711
13569:220845622
13510:220404332
13451:229213131
13392:229297709
13333:235683396
13325:0004-637X
13266:245005861
13163:246679941
13022:258615332
12945:259887685
12738:256846834
12722:1476-4687
12662:0004-637X
12603:0004-6361
12541:220583383
12490:210920444
12428:196623652
12356:200021863
12282:119547153
11949:249848075
11858:(9) 393.
11818:118169478
11761:256705070
11703:119233243
11642:0035-8711
11583:0035-8711
11524:197430820
11460:208075753
11452:0264-9381
11396:247411131
11276:232092525
11204:26 August
11178:1475-7516
10906:(1) L18,
10884:218716838
10859:1303.5062
10762:119271582
10737:1001.2814
10707:118500485
10682:1102.2626
10627:1108.5697
10597:119224326
10494:CiteSeerX
10425:Doubleday
10357:Astronomy
10195:CRC Press
10158:: 28â31.
10101:118876362
10079:CiteSeerX
9877:119257465
9852:1308.4150
9802:Cosmology
9786:119097691
9643:1106.1195
9615:122950995
9577:125190902
9526:: 21â24.
9448:1212.5499
9356:1303.1814
9220:203468083
9116:: 49â59.
9015:122950995
8979:125190902
8927:1301.7294
8883:1107.2281
8864:Bieri, L.
8840:1106.1195
8768:Routledge
8593:Cosmology
8235:Combined
8045:bolometer
7561:Fermi-LAT
7024:Gaia EDR3
6972:Gaia EDR3
6915:(+SH0ES)
6772:Citation
6769:Observer
6428:in Rome.
6262:currently
6244:inflation
6237:exasecond
6175:∝
6168:⟹
6147:˙
6137:≡
6060:×
5980:≡
5840:−
5818:−
5766:−
5749:Ω
5737:−
5723:Ω
5670:, giving
5566:∫
5560:−
5540:ρ
5515:ρ
5477:Λ
5473:Ω
5453:Ω
5435:π
5417:Λ
5392:ρ
5281:Ω
5246:Ω
5148:−
5128:ρ
5103:ρ
5052:−
5041:ρ
5009:
4985:−
4978:ρ
4974:
4903:−
4895:ρ
4891:ρ
4844:ρ
4829:˙
4810:˙
4807:ρ
4738:ρ
4716:ρ
4709:ρ
4666:Λ
4662:Ω
4627:Ω
4592:Ω
4456:Λ
4450:≡
4441:Λ
4437:Ω
4378:−
4372:≡
4359:Ω
4310:Ω
4300:ρ
4290:ρ
4246:ρ
4216:π
4196:ρ
4179:ρ
4173:≡
4160:Ω
4143:π
4101:ρ
4016:ρ
3992:ρ
3985:ρ
3898:Λ
3860:−
3857:ρ
3845:π
3816:˙
3801:≡
3528:−
3509:×
3500:≈
3354:in size,
3222:˙
3201:−
3062:Cartesian
2987:−
2929:˙
2911:¨
2899:−
2896:≡
2857:˙
2779:˙
2770:≡
2564:≈
2502:≈
2467:−
2451:≈
2389:−
2373:≈
2367:−
2324:−
2254:≈
2248:−
2095:≡
1966:−
1671:≈
1665:−
1648:−
1614:−
1603:λ
1593:λ
1543:≡
1473:distance
1201:, or the
1088:redshifts
958:In 1922,
924:In 1912,
872:Discovery
835:redshifts
777:frequency
741:velocity.
526:Zeldovich
426:Friedmann
401:de Sitter
328:BOOMERanG
257:Structure
222:Structure
106:Inflation
15996:for the
15843:38011865
15638:10794058
15528:15723115
15496:(1) 25.
15356:Archived
15326:46171526
15294:(2) 14.
15236:(2) 20.
15201:NBC News
15064:(4) 86.
14903:55888085
14810:(2) 50.
14717:51940146
14709:30085719
14648:73493934
14640:30822066
14558:Archived
14546:29094696
14449:67808349
14364:55643027
14079:85543845
13417:(1) L6.
13358:(1) L5.
13291:(1) 16.
13014:37167351
12903:dataset"
12773:39146431
12730:36792736
12628:(1) 44.
12533:32669728
12456:(1) L1.
12394:(1) 34.
12165:52987203
12157:30333628
12094:Phys.org
12037:85528549
12003:(1) 85.
11973:23 March
11941:37774270
11852:Universe
11695:31283280
11334:Archived
11121:10200245
10652:73716828
10512:Archived
9945:14695886
9718:Springer
9212:22071745
8711:16577160
8581:See also
8309:—
8270:2001-05
8213:2006-08
8165:2009-02
8144:2009-02
7956:2015-02
7820:GW170817
7802:and The
7527:and The
7329:STRIDES
7259:GW190521
7070:Cepheids
7036:parallax
6964:Cepheids
6664:kilonova
6600:GW170817
6308:size of
6306:comoving
6162:constant
3579:denotes
3460:. Since
3352:infinite
3268:, where
1734:Suppose
1118:kmâ
sâ
Mpc
1101:kmâ
sâ
Mpc
1059:galaxies
992:Big Bang
988:pressure
906:universe
866:constant
678:Big Bang
655:redshift
650:galaxies
587:Category
506:Suntzeff
466:LemaĂźtre
416:Einstein
381:Aaronson
174:Redshift
76:Universe
69:Big Bang
16007:Portals
15925:Bibcode
15808:Bibcode
15742:Bibcode
15673:Bibcode
15661:(L17).
15618:Bibcode
15561:Bibcode
15549:: A16.
15508:Bibcode
15472:1386346
15452:Bibcode
15417:3629998
15397:Bibcode
15306:Bibcode
15248:Bibcode
15076:Bibcode
14965:Bibcode
14881:Bibcode
14822:Bibcode
14763:Bibcode
14681:Bibcode
14612:Bibcode
14518:Bibcode
14427:Bibcode
14334:Bibcode
14285:Bibcode
14226:Bibcode
14116:Bibcode
14057:Bibcode
13936:Bibcode
13879:Bibcode
13824:Bibcode
13547:Bibcode
13488:Bibcode
13429:Bibcode
13370:Bibcode
13303:Bibcode
13244:Bibcode
13141:Bibcode
13055:Bibcode
12994:Bibcode
12975:Science
12925:Bibcode
12757:Science
12702:Bibcode
12640:Bibcode
12583:Bibcode
12513:Bibcode
12468:Bibcode
12406:Bibcode
12361:20 July
12339:Science
12314:16 July
12262:Bibcode
12137:Bibcode
12015:Bibcode
11921:Bibcode
11870:Bibcode
11798:Bibcode
11741:Bibcode
11675:Bibcode
11620:Bibcode
11561:Bibcode
11504:Bibcode
11432:Bibcode
11376:Bibcode
11254:Bibcode
11158:Bibcode
11089:Bibcode
10918:Bibcode
10864:Bibcode
10742:Bibcode
10687:Bibcode
10632:Bibcode
10577:Bibcode
10486:Bibcode
10160:Bibcode
10071:Bibcode
9913:Bibcode
9857:Bibcode
9766:Bibcode
9690:Bibcode
9648:Bibcode
9595:Bibcode
9557:Bibcode
9528:Bibcode
9499:Bibcode
9280:Bibcode
9245:Bibcode
9190:Bibcode
9144:Bibcode
9118:Bibcode
9080:Bibcode
9043:Bibcode
8995:Bibcode
8959:Bibcode
8932:Bibcode
8888:Bibcode
8845:Bibcode
8679:Bibcode
8443:Humason
8410:(est.)
8389:(est.)
8313:(est.)
7984:Ferrara
7633:et al.
7496:H0LiCOW
7115:in the
6681:et al.
6598:, like
6235:in one
5504:, then
4533:= 1/(1+
3947:is the
3939:is the
3453:
3434:
3031:< -1
1349:parsecs
1152:scatter
1073:Fit of
1055:nebulae
984:density
942:nebulae
910:dynamic
700:, with
511:Sunyaev
496:Schmidt
486:Penzias
481:Penrose
456:Huygens
446:Hawking
431:Galileo
36:raisins
15978:Forbes
15943:
15885:
15862:
15841:
15691:
15636:
15579:
15526:
15470:
15415:
15324:
15266:
15102:
15094:
15028:Nature
14985:
14926:13 May
14901:
14842:
14783:
14715:
14707:
14646:
14638:
14552:
14544:
14536:
14500:Nature
14447:
14388:13 May
14362:
14354:
14246:
14187:
14136:
14077:
14018:
13956:
13897:
13844:
13785:
13670:
13618:
13567:
13508:
13449:
13390:
13331:
13323:
13264:
13161:
13020:
13012:
12943:
12899:, and
12771:
12736:
12728:
12720:
12684:Nature
12660:
12601:
12539:
12531:
12505:Nature
12488:
12426:
12354:
12280:
12222:8 July
12194:8 July
12163:
12155:
12118:Nature
12035:
11947:
11939:
11816:
11759:
11701:
11693:
11640:
11581:
11522:
11458:
11450:
11394:
11364:: 49,
11274:
11176:
11119:
11109:
11040:
10882:
10852:: A1.
10838:et al.
10816:
10783:
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