History of the telescope

824: 1191: 224: 1227:-inch (16 cm) reflector mirror (the best of some 400 telescope mirrors which he had made) and with it, built a 7-foot (2.1 m) focal length telescope. Using this telescope, he made his early brilliant astronomical discoveries. In 1783, Herschel completed a reflector of approximately 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 20 ft (6.1 m) focal length. He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years, replacing the mirror several times. In 1789 Herschel finished building his largest reflecting telescope with a mirror of 49 inches (120 cm) and a focal length of 40 ft (12 m), (commonly known as his 1147:. After remarking that Newton's telescope had lain neglected for fifty years, they stated that Hadley had sufficiently shown that the invention did not consist in bare theory. They compared its performance with that of a 7.5 inches (190 mm) diameter aerial telescope originally presented to the Royal Society by Constantijn Huygens, Jr. and found that Hadley's reflector, "will bear such a charge as to make it magnify the object as many times as the latter with its due charge", and that it represents objects as distinct, though not altogether so clear and bright. 486: 1402: 994: 610: 1603: 1576:. In active optics, an image analyser senses the aberrations of a star image a few times per minute, and a computer adjusts many support forces on the primary mirror and the location of the secondary mirror to maintain the optics in optimal shape and alignment. This is too slow to correct for atmospheric blurring effects, but enables the use of thin single mirrors up to 8 m diameter, or even larger segmented mirrors. This method was pioneered by the ESO 1285: 4887: 1685: 362: 1478: 3803: 601: 4950: 1638:. In adaptive optics, the high-speed corrections needed mean that a fairly bright star is needed very close to the target of interest (or an artificial star is created by a laser). Also, with a single star or laser the corrections are only effective over a very narrow field (tens of arcsec), and current systems operating on several 8-10m telescopes work mainly in near-infrared wavelengths for single-object observations. 538: 19: 4974: 4899: 4926: 4962: 4938: 1009:, based on his theories of refraction and color, perceived that the faults of the refracting telescope were due more to a lens's varying refraction of light of different colors than to a lens's imperfect shape. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing chromatic aberrations, although he incorrectly concluded from some rough experiments that 1154:, having been instructed by Hadley in his methods of polishing speculum metal, succeeded in producing large reflecting telescopes of their own, one of which had a focal length of 8 ft (2.4 m). These methods of fabricating mirrors were passed on by Molyneux to two London opticians —Scarlet and Hearn— who started a business manufacturing telescopes. 982: 1087: 943: 1297:

discovered in 1666 that chromatic colors actually arose from the un-even refraction of light as it passed through the glass medium. This led opticians to experiment with lenses constructed of more than one type of glass in an attempt to canceling the errors produced by each type of glass. It was hoped that this would create an "

1398:, which led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light. Klingenstierna showed from purely geometrical considerations (fully appreciated by Dollond) that the results of Newton's experiments could not be brought into harmony with other universally accepted facts of refraction. 382:, invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590. This testimony seemed convincing to Boreel, who now recollected that Zacharias and his father– Hans Martens, must have been who he remembered. Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of another spectacle maker, 1182:

forum. It had its primary mirror tilted at four degrees to telescope's axis so the image could be viewed via an eyepiece mounted at the front of the telescope tube without the observer's head blocking the incoming light. This innovation was not published until 1827, so this type came to be called the

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made telescopes with focal lengths up to 600 ft (180 m). Telescopes of such great length were naturally difficult to use and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience of the observers. Aerial telescopes were employed by several other astronomers. Cassini discovered Saturn's third

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Galileo set himself to improving the telescope, producing telescopes of increased magnification. His first telescope had a 3x magnification, but he soon made instruments which magnified 8x, and finally, one nearly a meter long with a 37mm objective (which he would stop down to 16mm or 12mm) and a 23x

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coins lying about in fields, or private activities seven miles away, seems to be far beyond the technology of the time, and it may be that the "perspective glass" being described was a far simpler idea, originating with Bacon, of using a single lens held in front of the eye to magnify a distant view.

2086:. The signals from two radio antennas were added electronically to produce interference. Ryle and Vonberg's telescope used Earth's rotation to scan the sky in one dimension. With the development of larger arrays and of computers which could rapidly perform the necessary Fourier transforms, the first 1296:

From the time of the invention of the first refracting telescopes it was generally supposed that chromatic errors seen in lenses simply arose from errors in the spherical figure of their surfaces. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature to correct these errors. Isaac Newton

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All of these larger reflectors suffered from the poor reflectivity and fast tarnishing nature of their speculum metal mirrors. This meant they need more than one mirror per telescope since mirrors had to be frequently removed and re-polished. This was time-consuming since the polishing process could

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could have invented a telescope. Building upon 1939 observations by Domenico Argentieri of what look like lenses arranged like a telescope in da Vinci drawings, Bettini superimposed Argentieri's lens arrangement on an adjacent drawing of diverging rays, coming up with an arrangement that also looked

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by proportional Glasses duly situate in convenient angles, not only discovered things far off, read letters, numbered pieces of money with the very coin and superscription thereof, cast by some of his friends of purpose upon downs in open fields, but also seven miles off declared what hath been done

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a paper in which he tried to prove the possibility of correcting both the chromatic and the spherical aberration of a lens. Like Gregory and Hall, he argued that since the various humours of the human eye were so combined as to produce a perfect image, it should be possible by suitable combinations

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of the optical wave field entering the telescope. As this mathematical transformation was well understood and could be performed mathematically on paper, he noted that by using an array of small instruments it would be possible to measure the diameter of a star with the same precision as a single

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of 1652 that he tried replacing the lens of a refracting telescope with a bronze concave mirror in 1616. Zucchi tried looking into the mirror with a hand held concave lens but did not get a satisfactory image, possibly due to the poor quality of the mirror, the angle it was tilted at, or the fact

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In some of the very long refracting telescopes constructed after 1675, no tube was employed at all. The objective was mounted on a swiveling ball-joint on top of a pole, tree, or any available tall structure and aimed by means of string or connecting rod. The eyepiece was handheld or mounted on a

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would have been unwieldy; it needed very large mirrors and lens to work; the observer had to stand backwards to look at an upside down view, and Bourne noted that it had a very narrow field of view, making it unsuitable for military purposes. The optical performance required to see the details of

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refracting substances would diverge the prismatic colors in a constant proportion to their mean refraction. From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope. Newton's experiments with mirrors showed that they did not suffer from the chromatic

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were constructing telescopes with focal lengths as long as 150 feet (46 m). Besides having really long tubes these telescopes needed scaffolding or long masts and cranes to hold them up. Their value as research tools was minimal since the telescope's frame "tube" flexed and vibrated in the

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Adaptive optics uses a similar principle, but applying corrections several hundred times per second to compensate the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion due to the motion of turbulence in Earth's atmosphere. Adaptive optics works by measuring the distortions in a wavefront and then

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introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors. The silver layer was not only much more reflective and longer lasting than the finish on speculum mirrors, it had the advantage of being able to be removed and re-deposited without changing the shape of the glass

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tried to solve the mystery of who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg follow-up on Boreel's childhood and early adult recollections of a spectacle-maker named "Hans", who he remembered as the inventor of the telescope. The magistrate was contacted by a then-unknown

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built a more sophisticated purpose-built radio telescope in 1937, with a 31.4-foot (9.6 m) dish; using this, he discovered various unexplained radio sources in the sky. Interest in radio astronomy grew after the Second World War when much larger dishes were built including: the 250-foot

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which is free from color, and he reasonably argued that it might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses composed of different refracting media. After devoting some time to the inquiry he found that by combining two lenses formed of different kinds of glass, he could make an

394:. Discrepancies in Boreel's investigation and Zachariassen's testimony (including Zachariassen misrepresenting his date of birth and role in the invention) has led some historians to consider this claim dubious. The "Janssen" claim would continue over the years and be added on to with 1422:, he would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared. Dollond's paper recounts the successive steps by which he arrived at his discovery independently of Hall's earlier invention—and the logical processes by which these steps were suggested to his mind. 2317:

John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, was one of the first to coat a mirror with aluminum. He did it by thermal vacuum evaporation. The first mirror he aluminized, in 1932, is the earliest known example of a telescope mirror coated by this

1525:. In 1932, he became the first person to "aluminize" a mirror; three years later the 60-inch (1,500 mm) and 100-inch (2,500 mm) telescopes became the first large astronomical telescopes to have their mirrors aluminized. 1948 saw the completion of the 200-inch (510 cm) 462:. Bourne's is the best description of it, and from his writing it seemed to consist of peering into a large curved mirror that reflected the image produced by a large lens. The idea of an "Elizabethan Telescope" has been expanded over the years, including astronomer and historian 142:(1948); essentially all major research telescopes since 1900 have been reflectors. A number of 4-metre class (160 inch) telescopes were built on superior higher altitude sites including Hawaii and the Chilean desert in the 1975–1985 era. The development of the computer-controlled 1239:, England. To cut down on the light loss from the poor reflectivity of the speculum mirrors of that day, Herschel eliminated the small diagonal mirror from his design and tilted his primary mirror so he could view the formed image directly. This design has come to be called the 303: 1247:, the first night he used it (August 28, 1789), and on September 17, its seventh known moon, Mimas. This telescope was world's largest telescope for over 50 years. However, this large scope was difficult to handle and thus less used than his favorite 18.7-inch reflector. 2090:

imaging instruments were soon developed which could obtain high resolution images without the need of a giant parabolic reflector to perform the Fourier transform. This technique is now used in most radio astronomy observations. Radio astronomers soon developed the

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successfully used this technique for the measurement of astronomical angular diameters: the diameters of Jupiter's satellites (Michelson 1891). Thirty years later, a direct interferometric measurement of a stellar diameter was finally realized by Michelson &

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figures. Short then adopted telescope-making as his profession which he practised first in Edinburgh, and afterward in London. All Short's telescopes were of the Gregorian form. Short died in London in 1768, having made a considerable fortune selling telescopes.

787:, and his application of telescopic sights to precision astronomical instruments. It was not until about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its 248:

date back 4000 years although it is unknown if they were used for their optical properties or just as decoration. Greek accounts of the optical properties of water-filled spheres (5th century BC) were followed by many centuries of writings on optics, including

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began experimenting with building telescopes based on Gregory's designs in the 1730s. He first tried making his mirrors out of glass as suggested by Gregory, but he later switched to speculum metal mirrors creating Gregorian telescopes with original designers

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Developments of adaptive optics include systems with multiple lasers over a wider corrected field, and/or working above kiloHertz rates for good correction at visible wavelengths; these are currently in progress but not yet in routine operation as of 2015.

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In 1754, Euler sent to the Berlin Academy a further paper in which starting from the hypothesis that light consists of vibrations excited in an elastic fluid by luminous bodies—and that the difference of color of light is due to the greater or lesser

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As a practical man, Dollond at once put his doubts to the test of experiment: he confirmed the conclusions of Klingenstierna, discovered a difference far beyond his hopes in the refractive qualities of different kinds of glass with respect to the

978:"; but according to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of realizing his ideas and after some fruitless attempts, was obliged to abandon all hope of bringing his telescope into practical use. 1440:

The difficulties with the impractical metal mirrors of reflecting telescopes led to the construction of large refracting telescopes. By 1866 refracting telescopes had reached 18 inches (46 cm) in aperture with many larger

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The difficulty of procuring disks of glass (especially of flint glass) of suitable purity and homogeneity limited the diameter and light gathering power of the lenses found in the achromatic telescope. It was in vain that the

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mirror. He later devised means for grinding and polishing them, but chose a spherical shape for his mirror instead of a parabola to simplify construction. He added to his reflector what is the hallmark of the design of a

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The beginning of the 20th century saw construction of the first of the "modern" large research reflectors, designed for precision photographic imaging and located at remote high altitude clear sky locations such as the

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after much labor—in which his brother assisted him. With one of these: an objective diameter of 2.24 inches (57 mm) and a 12 ft (3.7 m) focal length, he discovered the brightest of Saturn's satellites

581:. A few days afterwards, having succeeded in making a better telescope than the first, he took it to Venice where he communicated the details of his invention to the public and presented the instrument itself to the 1338:

Hall was a man of independent means and seems to have been careless of fame; at least he took no trouble to communicate his invention to the world. At a trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to

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Dollond was aware of the conditions necessary for the attainment of achromatism in refracting telescopes, but relied on the accuracy of experiments made by Newton. His writings show that with the exception of his

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All of Euler's efforts to produce an actual objective of this construction were fruitless—a failure which he attributed solely to the difficulty of procuring lenses that worked precisely to the requisite curves.

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During the period 1850–1900, reflectors suffered from problems with speculum metal mirrors, and a considerable number of "Great Refractors" were built from 60 cm to 1 metre aperture, culminating in the

1363:. Adopting a hypothetical law of the dispersion of differently colored rays of light, he proved analytically the possibility of constructing an achromatic objective composed of lenses of glass and water. 2690:

Biographia Britannica: Or, The Lives of the Most Eminent Persons who Have Flourished in Great Britain and Ireland, from the Earliest Ages, Down to the Present Times, Volume 5, W. Innys - 1760, page 3130

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low-expansion glass for the mirrors. The arrival of substantially larger telescopes had to await the introduction of methods other than the rigidity of glass to maintain the proper shape of the mirror.

1213:) began to occupy his leisure hours with the construction of reflector telescope mirrors, finally devoted himself entirely to their construction and use in astronomical research. In 1778, he selected a 891:

although it is not clear that they invented it. Christiaan Huygens and his brother made objectives up to 8.5 inches (220 mm) diameter and 210 ft (64 m) focal length and others such as

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achromatic lens where the effects of the unequal refractions of two colors of light (red and blue) was corrected. In 1733, he succeeded in constructing telescope lenses which exhibited much reduced

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introduced by the non-uniform refractive properties of the objective lens. The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths.

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refractor in 1897; however, starting from the early 1900s a series of ever-larger reflectors with glass mirrors were built, including the Mount Wilson 60-inch (1.5 metre), the 100-inch (2.5 metre)

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in 1953, but did not come into common usage in astronomical telescopes until advances in computer and detector technology during the 1990s made it possible to calculate the compensation needed in

1812:. Ever since suitable detectors became available, most optical telescopes at high-altitudes have been able to image at infrared wavelengths. Some telescopes such as the 3.8-metre (150 in) 1517:. These and other telescopes of this size had to have provisions to allow for the removal of their main mirrors for re-silvering every few months. John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the 958:

proposed a telescope consisting of a paraboloidal primary mirror and a paraboloidal secondary mirror bouncing the image through a hole in the primary, solving the problem of viewing the image.

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satellite in 1983 revolutionized infrared astronomy from space. This reflecting telescope which had a 60-centimetre (24 in) mirror, operated for nine months until its supply of coolant (

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agreed with the accuracy of Euler's analysis, but disputed his hypothesis on the grounds that it was purely a theoretical assumption: that the theory was opposed to the results of Newton's

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is credited with building the first reflector in 1668 with a design that incorporated a small flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope.

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Since speculum metal mirror secondaries or diagonal mirrors greatly reduced the light that reached the eyepiece, several reflecting telescope designers tried to do away with them. In 1762

930:, and others, spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties to lenses, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective. 1729:(1963) was so large that it was fixed into a natural depression in the ground; the central antenna could be steered to allow the telescope to study objects up to twenty degrees from the 1658:

discovered astronomical objects gave off radio emissions; this prompted a new era of observational astronomy after World War II, with telescopes being developed for other parts of the

3157: 3348: 4012: 2177: 569:, by means of which distant objects appeared nearer and larger. Galileo states that he solved the problem of the construction of a telescope the first night after his return to 2871: 1347:

that "it was not the person who locked his invention in his scrutoire who ought to profit for such invention, but the one who brought it forth for the benefit of mankind."

3577:"On an optic pipe improvement" — Lomonosov M.V. Selected works in two volumes. Volume I: Natural sciences and philosophy. Moscow: Nauka (Science) publishing house, 1986 1055:

mounted on the side of the telescope. This unique addition allowed the image to be viewed with minimal obstruction of the objective mirror. He also made all the tube,

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radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, infrared astronomy at certain wavelengths can be conducted on high mountains where there is little absorption by atmospheric

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radiation shorter than 300 nm so most ultra-violet astronomy is conducted with satellites. Ultraviolet telescopes resemble optical telescopes, but conventional

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that is produced by the passage of the gamma-rays through Earth's atmosphere. Several Cerenkov imaging telescopes have been built around the world, including: the

673:(using the projection method rather than direct observation). Galileo noted that the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, rotation of the 1414:

of colors, and was thus rapidly led to the construction of lenses in which first the chromatic aberration—and afterwards—the spherical aberration were corrected.

4127:(died before 1624) – Historian Nick Pelling says Juan Roget, a Burgundian spectacle maker who died between 1617 and 1624 could have invented an early telescope. 1463:'s effect on the lens. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens will sag due to gravity, distorting the image it produces. 1425:

In 1765 Peter Dollond (son of John Dollond) introduced the triple objective, which consisted of a combination of two convex lenses of crown glass with a concave

353:. Telescopes seem to have been made in the Netherlands in considerable numbers soon after this date of "invention", and rapidly found their way all over Europe. 87:, which greatly reduced color aberrations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733 telescope made by 2107: 1583:

The 1990s saw a new generation of giant telescopes appear using active optics, beginning with the construction of the first of the two 10 m (390 in)

1447:" being built in the mid to late 19th century. In 1897, the refractor reached its maximum practical limit in a research telescope with the construction of the 2103:

technique was extended to visible light as well as infrared astronomy, providing the first very high resolution optical and infrared images of nearby stars.

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discovery of an astronomical radio source in 1931. Many types of telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range of wavelengths from radio to

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can study microwaves. Short wavelength microwaves are best studied from space because water vapor (even at high altitudes) strongly weakens the signal. The

3989: 395: 3585:: «Об усовершенствовании зрительных труб» — М. В. Ломоносов. Избранные произведения. В двух томах. Т. 1. Естественные науки и философия. М.: Наука. 1986 2494:"The Hague discussed the patent applications first of Hans Lipperhey of Middelburg, and then of Jacob Metius of Alkmaar... another citizen of Middelburg 2111: 3425: 2144:" design in which the lenses and mirrors could be dispensed with altogether when computers become fast enough to perform all the necessary transforms. 779:

was the first who commanded a chief advantage of the form of telescope suggested by Kepler: that a small material object could be placed at the common

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from space do not reach Earth's surface, so X-ray astronomy must be conducted above Earth's atmosphere. The first X-ray experiments were conducted on

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and longer wavelength radio telescopes including the microwave band from about 1 mm (1,000 μm) to 1,000 mm (1.0 m) in wavelength.

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also applied for a patent. The States General did not award a patent since the knowledge of the device already seemed to be ubiquitous but the Dutch

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in 1538, about combining lenses in eyeglasses to make the "moon or at another star" "so near that they would appear not higher than the towers".

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of these vibrations in a given time— he deduced his previous results. He did not doubt the accuracy of Newton's experiments quoted by Dollond.

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speculum metal mirrors. In 1721 he showed the first parabolic Newtonian reflector to the Royal Society. It had a 6-inch (15 cm) diameter,

2900: 1882:. Extreme-ultraviolet astronomy (10–100 nm) is a discipline in its own right and involves many of the techniques of X-ray astronomy; the 66:

described how a far more useful telescope could be made with a convex objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens. By 1655, astronomers such as

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noted that the purpose of the arrangement of mirrors or glass lenses in a conventional telescope was simply to provide an approximation to a

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No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until

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in 1672 described the design of a reflector with a small convex secondary mirror to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

1737:(1954) was an early example of an array which used two perpendicular lines of antennae 1,500 feet (460 m) in length to survey the sky. 2011:(1991) was a big improvement on previous surveys. Very high-energy gamma-rays (above 200 GeV) can be detected from the ground via the 959: 3822: 526:). This report was issued in October 1608 and distributed across Europe, leading to experiments by other scientists, such as the Italian 4009: 3831: 3345: 4158: 3774: 3193: 653:

magnification. With this last instrument, he began a series of astronomical observations in October or November of 1609, observing the

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from Venice and made his first telescope the next day by using a convex objective lens in one extremity of a leaden tube and a concave

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in Russia twenty-seven years later. The Hale reflector introduced several technical innovations used in future telescopes, including

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maker. Although Lippershey did not receive his patent, news of the invention soon spread across Europe. The design of these early

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Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective",

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was a source of radio emission while doing research on terrestrial static with a direction antenna. Building on Jansky's work,

433:' notes and observations) seemed to support an English claim to the invention of the telescope, describing Leonard as having a 2449: 478:

A 1959 research paper by Simon de Guilleuma claimed that evidence he had uncovered pointed to the French born spectacle maker

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Atti Della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, page 554

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The 1980s saw the introduction of two new technologies for building larger telescopes and improving image quality, known as

3014: 3219: 1878:(1978) systematically surveyed the sky for eighteen years, using a 45-centimetre (18 in) aperture telescope with two 1832:) ran out. It surveyed the entire sky detecting 245,000 infrared sources—more than 100 times the number previously known. 4021: 2663:

Albert Van Helden, Sven Dupré, Rob van Gent, The Origins of the Telescope, Amsterdam University Press - 2010, pages 37-38

1190: 482:(died before 1624) as another possible builder of an early telescope that predated Hans Lippershey's patent application. 3314: 1240: 823: 692:

Galileo's instrument was the first to be given the name "telescope". The name was invented by the Greek poet/theologian

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Lippershey's application for a patent was mentioned at the end of a diplomatic report on an embassy to Holland from the

3750:"New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology - "Resurfacing the 100-inch (2,500 mm) Telescope" by George Zamora" 2099:

Fourier imaging using much larger arrays of telescopes —often spread across more than one continent. In the 1980s, the

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first explained the theory and some of the practical advantages of a telescope constructed of two convex lenses in his

1343:(Watkin v. Dollond), Hall was admitted to be the first inventor of the achromatic telescope. However, it was ruled by 365:

Reproduction of one of the four optical devices that Zacharias Snijder in 1841 claimed were early telescopes built by

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Patrick Moore, Eyes on the Universe: The Story of the Telescope, Springer Science & Business Media - 2012, page 9

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claimed in 1858 that this shorter tube was an early microscope which he also attributed to Janssen, perpetuating the

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Engraved illustration of a 45 m (148 ft) focal length Keplerian astronomical refracting telescope built by

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in 1841 presenting 4 iron tubes with lenses in them claimed to be 1590 examples of Janssen's telescope and historian

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substrate. Towards the end of the 19th century very large silver on glass mirror reflecting telescopes were built.

3697: 1075:. Encouraged by this success, he made a second telescope with a magnifying power of 38x which he presented to the 4473: 2481:

The request however was turned down, also because other spectacle-makers had made similar claims at the same time

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The twentieth century saw the construction of telescopes which could produce images using wavelengths other than

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learned of Hall's invention and began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities, starting in 1758.

5009: 5004: 4151: 1301:"; a lens that would focus all colors to a single point, and produce instruments of much shorter focal length. 451: 3001: 2114:. The same techniques have now been applied at a number of other astronomical telescope arrays including: the 1778:(active since 2006) observes from 0.85 to 4 mm (850 to 4,000 μm), bridging between the far-infrared/ 1533:

which was the largest telescope in the world up until the completion of the massive 605 cm (238 in)

4999: 4759: 2008: 776: 3844:(International Astronomical Union. Symposium no. 27 ed.), London, New York: Academic Press, p. 234 2396: 524:

Embassy of the King of Siam sent to his Excellency Prince Maurice, arrived at The Hague on 10 September 1608

349:—telescopes that are constructed this way do not invert the image. Lippershey's original design had only 3x 286:

in Northern Italy beginning in the late 13th century. The invention of the use of concave lenses to correct

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array. A detailed description of the development of astronomical optical interferometry can be found here [

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for the first time, allowing a further improvement in resolution, and also allowing even higher resolution

1883: 1355: 1059:, and fittings. Newton's first compact reflecting telescope had a mirror diameter of 1.3 inches and a 1026:

in 1668 and it is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. After much experiment, he chose an

223: 3877: 2302: 2281: 2167: 2055: 2040: 1930:) have been built using nested grazing-incidence mirrors which deflect X-rays to a detector. Some of the 1312:. He argued that the different humours of the human eye refract rays of light to produce an image on the 1179: 1158: 1110:

secondary mirror placed near the prime focus to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

1051:", a secondary "diagonal" mirror near the primary mirror's focus to reflect the image at 90° angle to an 1015: 731: 3129: 2559:

Albert Van Helden, Sven Dupré, Rob Van Gent, Huib Zuidervaart, The Origins of the Telescope, pages 32-36

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as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refractors. The design he came up with bears his name: the "

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and the tilted path its spots followed for part of the year pointed to the validity of the sun-centered

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was invented around 1910, but not widely adopted until after 1950; many modern telescopes including the

4916: 4902: 4810: 4592: 4384: 2188: 2155: 1871: 1775: 1753: 1521:, developed a technique for coating a mirror with a much longer lasting aluminum coating using thermal 1434: 927: 520:

Ambassades du Roy de Siam envoyé à l'Excellence du Prince Maurice, arrivé à La Haye le 10 Septemb. 1608

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in the 1980s enabled a new generation of even larger telescopes, starting with the 10-metre (400 inch)

4831: 4648: 4613: 4606: 4453: 4144: 4058: 2185:, 2009 marking the 400th anniversary of Galileo's first astronomical observations using his telescope 1988: 1947: 1596: 1493: 1022:, so as a proof to his theories Newton set out to build a reflecting telescope. Newton completed his 848: 4033: 3071: 4620: 2904: 2198: 2083: 1995:-borne experiments in the early 1960s, but gamma-ray astronomy really began with the launch of the 1659: 1577: 1514: 1384: 1255: 888: 678: 447: 272: 966:(1663), pointing out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was shaped like the part of a 4715: 4501: 4360: 4339: 4298: 4262: 4230: 3818: 2208: 2203: 1779: 1139:-inch (159 cm) focal length speculum metal objective mirror. The instrument was examined by 1076: 626:, despite remaining near the sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that Venus orbits the 227:

Optical diagram showing light being refracted by a spherical glass container full of water, from

114:

in 1857; and the adoption of long-lasting aluminized coatings on reflector mirrors in 1932. The

3659: 3456: 3128:, Center for History of Physics, a Division of the American Institute of Physics, archived from 3000:

Jim Quinn, Stargazing with Early Astronomer Galileo Galilei, Sky & Telescope, July 31, 2008

4768: 4641: 4634: 4557: 4351: 1980: 1799: 1506: 879:

stand at the focus, and the image was found by trial and error. These were consequently termed

446:." Comments on the use of proportional or "perspective glass" are also made in the writings of 378:

claimant– the Middelburg spectacle-maker Johannes Zachariassen, who testified that his father–

310:

The first record of a telescope comes from the Netherlands in 1608. It is in a patent filed by

123: 3267: 4738: 4432: 4370: 4223: 4193: 3963: 2638: 2611: 2571: 2268: 2255: 2128:

https://web.archive.org/web/20091018192226/http://geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/2309/page1.html

1972: 1934:

conducted X-ray astronomy in the late 1960s, but the first dedicated X-ray satellite was the

1841: 1763:

allowing two or more widely separated instruments to simultaneously observe the same source.

1734: 1456: 1395: 1390:

Dollond did not reply to this, but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the

1060: 1023: 2335:

by Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications, 2003 Pgs 25-27

196:

after 1960 allowed access to several bands impossible to observe from the ground, including

4730: 4662: 4480: 4418: 4209: 4186: 4179: 3814: 3731: 3722:

Pettit, Edison (1956). "Pettit, E., Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 7".

3231: 3023: 2681:

Peter D. Usher, Shakespeare and the Dawn of Modern Science, Cambria Press, 2010, page 28-29

2360: 2162: 1718: 1610: 1592: 1538: 1318: 1099: 1091: 971: 909: 844: 707: 471: 260: 158: 119: 47: 4038: 3097: 1767:

extended the technique over thousands of kilometers and allowed resolutions down to a few

534:, who used a six-powered telescope by the summer of 1609 to observe features on the moon. 493:

In 2022, the Italian professor of physics Alessandro Bettini published a paper on whether

8: 4994: 4978: 4861: 4803: 4599: 4550: 4446: 4393: 4216: 4001: 2496: 2478: 2467: 2434: 2059: 2054:

telescope which was as large as the whole array— a technique which later became known as

1963: 1635: 1530: 1486: 1455:

with an objective of 49.2 inches (1.25 m) diameter was temporarily exhibited at the

1304:

The first person who succeeded in making a practical achromatic refracting telescope was

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By 1626 knowledge of the telescope had spread to China when German Jesuit and astronomer

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for equal deflections of the two mirrors as the tube sags under gravity, and the use of

981: 485: 4966: 4954: 4890: 4789: 4494: 4464: 4411: 4346: 4294: 4269: 4102: 4039:

A Brief History of the Telescope and Ideas for Use in the High School Physics Classroom

3941: 3652: 3247: 3039: 2767: 2730: 2408: 2400: 2137: 2100: 2096: 2087: 2012: 1863: 1795: 1791: 1522: 1448: 1360: 1305: 1103: 1043: 884: 840: 799: 792: 766: 693: 639: 578: 162: 131: 88: 77: 67: 51: 1991:

detectors. The angular resolution of these devices is typically very poor. There were

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Van Helden, Albert; Dupré, Sven; van Gent, Rob & Zuidervaart, Huib, eds. (2010),

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located a number of new cosmic radio sources by constructing a radio analogue of the

2050: 2028: 1935: 1759:

Because radio telescopes have low resolution, they were the first instruments to use

1726: 1631: 1372: 1335:

inches (6.4 cm) with a relatively short focal length of 20 inches (51 cm).

1232: 1228: 1175: 860: 828: 511: 494: 489:

Leonardo da Vinci's purported "telescope", with the described eyepiece-lens drawn in.

455: 399: 379: 366: 239: 218: 181: 143: 3251: 2412: 1086: 931: 530:, who received the report in November, and the English mathematician and astronomer 4930: 4701: 4680: 4515: 4508: 3945: 3925: 3679: 3353: 3239: 3072:"Head-On Intersection of East and West: The Overlooked History of Galileo in China" 3031: 2699:

Henry C. King, The History of the Telescope, Courier Corporation - 1955, page 28-29

2392: 2068: 2067:(1921) which was applied by their 20 ft (6.1 m) interferometer mounted on the 2064: 2046: 1927: 1867: 1749: 1689: 1588: 1510: 1244: 1194: 1184: 897: 880: 873: 763: 762:(1611). The first person who actually constructed a telescope of this form was the 682: 643: 592:

in return settled him for life in his lectureship at Padua and doubled his salary.

498:

like a telescope. Bettini also noted the writings of Italian scholar and professor

291: 255: 166: 135: 115: 4128: 2840: 1497: 1401: 111: 70:

were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with compound eyepieces.

4847: 4522: 4439: 4377: 4332: 4276: 4119: 4086: 4028: 4016: 3471: 1899: 1895: 1744:

and this has been an important area of astronomy ever since the discovery of the

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improved on this design the following year and applied it to astronomy. In 1611,

59: 39: 4053: 2830:

Henry C. King, The History of the Telescope, Courier Corporation - 1955, page 28

993: 4694: 4627: 4529: 3035: 2539: 2269:

Reflecting Telescope Optics: Basic design theory and its historical development

1938:(1970) which discovered 300 sources. More recent X-ray satellites include: the 1760: 1627: 1584: 1526: 1482: 1351: 1344: 1309: 1206: 1064: 1031: 955: 812: 713: 582: 531: 346: 276: 139: 3912:

Ryle, M. & Vonberg, D., 1946 Solar radiation on 175Mc/s, Nature 158 pp 339

402:'s 1906 claim that the man who tried to sell a broken telescope to astronomer 126:

use this design, which gives a wider field of view than a classic Cassegrain.

4988: 4752: 3835:. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 557–573. 3826: 3809: 3220:"Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century" 2886: 2092: 2079: 1984: 1874:

satellite carried out observations in the ultra-violet as early as 1962. The

1829: 1651: 1569: 1144: 998: 997:

A replica of Newton's second reflecting telescope which was presented to the

967: 915: 892: 788: 697: 654: 609: 422: 414: 374: 350: 245: 147: 4080:- documentary available online about the history and future of the telescope 3012:

Palmieri, Paolo (2001). "Galileo and the discovery of the phases of Venus".

4942: 4708: 4687: 4305: 3937: 1919: 1879: 1851: 1733:. However, not every radio telescope is of the dish type. For example, the 1714: 1693: 1602: 1376: 1368: 1340: 1072: 1006: 804: 515: 418: 403: 387: 327: 92: 73: 4076: 1197:'s 49-inch (1,200 mm) "40-foot" telescope of 1789. Illustration from 565:

in June 1609 and there heard of the "Dutch perspective glass", a military

4775: 3854: 2455:(spectacles) invention, an important step in the history of the telescope 2282:"Inventor Biographies – Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault Biography (1819–1868)" 2230:

Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications

2133: 2119: 2075: 1923: 1908: 1855: 1847: 1809: 1709: 1701: 1655: 1426: 1359:

of lenses of different refracting media to construct a perfect telescope

1140: 1114: 1107: 859:) in 1672 with a telescope 35 feet (11 m) long. Astronomers such as 856: 852: 780: 527: 463: 438: 282:

Actual use of lenses dates back to the widespread manufacture and use of

228: 185: 99: 35: 4054:

An early history of the telescope – From 3500 B.C. until about 1900 A.D.

4745: 4722: 4202: 3701: 2636: 2609: 2569: 2554: 2552: 2404: 1976: 1968: 1951: 1768: 1756:(1989) revolutionized the study of the microwave background radiation. 1741: 1722: 1663: 1411: 896:

and fourth satellites in 1684 with aerial telescope objectives made by

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on the refraction of light, and that it was impossible to determine a

1284: 4840: 4167: 3896: 3243: 1859: 1821: 1705: 1684: 1617:

systems, which counteract the blurring effects of Earth's atmosphere.

1477: 798:

The first powerful telescopes of Keplerian construction were made by

566: 546: 467: 361: 342: 107: 31: 4048: 2549: 783:

of the objective and the eyepiece. This led to his invention of the

470:

was built by Leonard Digges between 1540 and 1559. This "backwards"

454:(1585). Bourne was asked in 1580 to investigate the Diggs device by 3775:"Telescopes Have Grown from Huge to Humongous [Slide Show]" 3076:

Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology, and Society

1805: 1623: 1267: 1259: 1167: 1052: 600: 574: 369:. Its actual function and creator has been disputed over the years. 201: 55: 43: 3929: 3808:

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

1587:

in 1993. Other giant telescopes built since then include: the two

900:

that were 100 and 136 ft (30 and 41 m) in focal length.

3472:"Reflecting telescopes: Newtonian, two- and three-mirror systems" 3349:

Mirror Mirror: A History of the Human Love Affair With Reflection

1999:

satellite in 1967; the first dedicated gamma-ray satellites were

1992: 1460: 1419: 1210: 1205:

About the year 1774 William Herschel (then a teacher of music in

1068: 923: 811:" which, for the first time, gave a true explanation of Saturn's 686: 670: 658: 537: 250: 18: 4109:

by Colin A Ronan, M.Sc., F.R.A.S. - originally published in the

1862:-coated mirrors cannot be used and alternative coatings such as 1846:

Although optical telescopes can image the near ultraviolet, the

1254:

built his 72-inch (180 cm) Newtonian reflector called the "

934:, an Italian Jesuit astronomer and physicist, wrote in his book 306:

Notes on Hans Lippershey's unsuccessful telescope patent in 1608

4870: 2178:

Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology

2020: 1939: 1911: 1904: 1730: 1451:' 40-inch (100 cm) refractor (although a larger refractor 1437:

offered prizes for large perfect disks of optical flint glass.

1391: 1313: 1236: 1039: 919: 589: 577:

lens in the other end, an arrangement that came to be called a

562: 335: 287: 197: 154:

in 1993/1996, and a number of 8-metre telescopes including the

3885:

Michelson, A. A. & Pease, F. G. 1921 Astrophys. J. 53, 249

2383:

Bardell, David (May 2004). "The Invention of the Microscope".

1914:

flights, which enabled the first detection of X-rays from the

4022:

Articles on the history of the telescope and related subjects

3951:

Van Helden, Albert (1977), "The Invention of the Telescope",

3519: 2982: 2707: 2705: 2016: 2004: 1996: 1943: 1813: 1546: 1534: 1027: 666: 631: 570: 268: 4136: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 302: 30:

can be traced to before the invention of the earliest known

3860:

Fizeau, H. 1868 C. R. Hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci. Paris 66, 932

3839: 2962:. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society. p. 16. 1957: 1835: 1825: 1079:

in December 1671. This type of telescope is still called a

662: 4937: 2702: 4312: 3588: 3544: 2505: 1915: 1606: 1429:

lens between them. He made many telescopes of this kind.

1266:

change the curve of the mirror, so it usually had to be "

1035: 674: 627: 155: 1918:(1948), and then from the first galactic X-ray sources: 815:—founded on observations made with the same instrument. 466:

concluding in the 1990s that this reflecting/refracting

429:, (a book on measurement, partially based on his father 2397:

10.1893/0005-3155(2004)75<78:TIOTM>2.0.CO;2

1886:(1992) was a satellite operating at these wavelengths. 1824:— are dedicated infrared telescopes. The launch of the 918:

to form an image may have been known since the time of

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of the image in Kepler's telescope was limited by the

4914: 3973:, Sydney, Cambridge: Allen & Unwin, Da Capo Press 3955:, Vol. 67, No. 4 – reprinted with corrections in 2008 1889: 864:

slightest breeze and sometimes collapsed altogether.

334:

awarded Lippershey with a contract for copies of his

98:

Important developments in reflecting telescopes were

3882:

Michelson, A. A. 1891 Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 3, 274

2723:"Did the reflecting telescope have English origins?" 2637:

Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).

2610:

Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).

2570:

Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).

2106:

In 1995, this imaging technique was demonstrated on

1321:. One of his instruments had an objective measuring 1063:

of f/5. With it he found that he could see the four

326:" A few weeks later another Dutch instrument-maker, 259:, who wrote about the properties of light including 4010:

400th Anniversary of the Invention of the Telescope

2499:

The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope

2437:

The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope

1786:

Infrared telescopes (700 nm/ 0.7 μm – 1000 μm/1 mm)

1725:telescope (1971). The huge 1,000-foot (300 m) 1273: 4104:Did the reflecting telescope have English origins? 4049:Physics 1040 – Beginning Astronomy – The Telescope 3953:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 3651: 3217: 2869: 2714: 2643:. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 32–36, 43. 2479:Osservatorio Astronomico di Bologna - TELESCOPES " 1459:). No larger refractors could be built because of 324:for seeing things far away as if they were nearby. 3971:Star Gazer: The Life and History of the Telescope 3126:Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology 3091: 3089: 2971: 2969: 341:The original Dutch telescopes were composed of a 22:Early depiction of a "Dutch telescope" from 1624. 4986: 4034:The Prehistory of the Invention of the Telescope 2468:Osservatorio Astronomico di Bologna - TELESCOPES 1975:, so most gamma-ray astronomy is conducted with 1183:Herschelian telescope after a similar design by 1121:) developed ways to make precision aspheric and 4111:Journal of the British Astronomical Association 2759:Journal of the British Astronomical Association 2563: 1626:applied to a small deformable mirror or with a 1473:List of largest optical telescopes historically 818: 696:at a banquet held on April 14, 1611, by Prince 3863: 3649: 3450: 3086: 2966: 2960:On the Brink of Tomorrow: Frontiers of Science 2924: 2818:Stargazer: The Life and Times of the Telescope 2792:Stargazer: The Life and Times of the Telescope 2074:The next major development came in 1946, when 1926:(October 1962). Since then, X-ray telescopes ( 1466: 1258:" with which he discovered the spiral form of 1014:errors of lenses, for all colors of light the 939:that his head partially obstructed the image. 4152: 3892:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3888: 3365: 2872:"Did Leonardo da Vinci Invent the Telescope?" 2795:. London: Allen & Unwin. pp. 38–43. 2720: 2576:. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 21–2. 2194:List of largest optical refracting telescopes 2034: 1564:List of largest optical reflecting telescopes 1553: 705: 3968: 3724:Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 3695: 2328: 2326: 1178:presented a reflecting telescope before the 356: 3312: 3279: 1717:telescope (1957), the 300-foot (91 m) 1243:. He discovered Saturn's sixth known moon, 1098:A third form of reflecting telescope, the " 4159: 4145: 3915: 3874:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler 3813: 3601: 3565: 3525: 2988: 2903:. News.aol.com. 2009-01-14. Archived from 2865: 2863: 2861: 2745: 2616:. Amsterdam University Press. p. 25. 2526: 2376: 1622:compensating for them by rapid changes of 505: 3840:Crawford, David Livingstone, ed. (1966), 3730:(331). Articles.adsabs.harvard.edu: 249. 3098:"Largest optical telescopes of the world" 3095: 2323: 1630:array filter. AO was first envisioned by 642:, and it disproved the then-conventional 3539:Compleat system of opticks in four books 3069: 3011: 3005: 2809: 1958:Gamma-ray telescopes (less than 0.01 nm) 1836:Ultra-violet telescopes (10 nm – 400 nm) 1721:(1962), and the 100-metre (330 ft) 1683: 1601: 1476: 1453:Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 1400: 1283: 1189: 1085: 992: 980: 941: 903: 822: 750: 536: 484: 360: 301: 222: 17: 3889:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), 3868:, London: Charles Griffin & Co. Ltd 3848: 3142: 2858: 2382: 2108:an array of separate optical telescopes 1509:of 1908, and the 100-inch (2.5 m) 1018:reflected in a mirror was equal to the 588:, who was sitting in full council. The 4987: 3721: 3116: 3114: 2788: 2782: 2600:Courier Dover Publications. 1955/2003. 1591:, the four separate telescopes of the 1042:as the most suitable material for his 807:) in 1655; in 1659, he published his " 745: 322:on 2 October 1608 for his instrument " 212: 4140: 3423: 2975:adapted from the 1888 edition of the 2957: 2751: 2116:Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer 1746:cosmic microwave background radiation 1740:High-energy radio waves are known as 1199:Encyclopædia Britannica Third Edition 962:went into further detail in his book 769:who gives a description of it in his 437:in the mid-1500s based on an idea by 207: 4898: 3842:The Construction of Large Telescopes 3191: 3015:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2931:. Courier Corporation. p. 137. 2870:Alessandro Bettini (February 2022). 1645: 1157:The British mathematician, optician 922:and had been extensively studied by 867: 4003:The Galileo Project – The Telescope 3541:, bk, iii. ch. I. (Cambridge, 1738) 3458:Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought 3372:. Courier Corporation. p. 74. 3111: 2841:"Controversy over telescope origin" 1700:Radio astronomy began in 1931 when 1669: 1117:(best known as the inventor of the 1106:. The telescope had a small convex 13: 4093:Other possible telescope inventors 3319:. Allen & Unwin. p. 109. 3286:. Allen & Unwin. p. 108. 3218:Bell. Ph.D., M.Sc., A. E. (1948), 1890:X-ray telescopes (0.01 nm – 10 nm) 1876:International Ultraviolet Explorer 1519:California Institute of Technology 1252:William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse 1073:crescent phase of the planet Venus 835:" (first part), published in 1673. 138:(1917) and the 200-inch (5 metre) 14: 5021: 4130:Controversy over telescope origin 3978: 2353: 1765:Very long baseline interferometry 1379:from analytical reasoning alone. 622:observed with his telescope that 444:at that instant in private places 320:States General of the Netherlands 38:, when a patent was submitted by 4972: 4960: 4948: 4936: 4924: 4897: 4886: 4885: 4656:Southern African Large Telescope 3801: 3698:"Building the 60-inch Telescope" 3460:, by Alfred Rupert Hall, page 67 3070:Schreier, Jeremy (4 June 2013). 2173:Timeline of telescope technology 2142:Fast Fourier Transform Telescope 1816:, and the 3-metre (120 in) 1274:Achromatic refracting telescopes 712:. The word was created from the 608: 599: 541:19th-century painting depicting 106:mirrors in 1721; the process of 34:, which appeared in 1608 in the 3767: 3742: 3715: 3689: 3684:the largest telescope lens sag. 3643: 3631: 3619: 3607: 3571: 3531: 3506: 3485: 3464: 3417: 3405: 3392: 3359: 3339: 3306: 3273: 3257: 3211: 3185: 3164: 3063: 3050: 2994: 2951: 2918: 2901:"Old Moon Map Corrects History" 2893: 2833: 2824: 2721:Satterthwaite, Gilbert (2002). 2693: 2684: 2675: 2666: 2657: 2630: 2603: 2590: 2538:Dutch biologist and naturalist 2532: 2487: 2472: 2461: 2443: 2428: 2303:"Bakich sample pages Chapter 2" 2183:International Year of Astronomy 4065:– The Early Period (1608–1672) 3700:. Mtwilson.edu. Archived from 3198:, Courier Dover Publications, 2419: 2295: 2274: 2261: 2248: 2221: 1394:mathematician and astronomer, 926:in the 11th century. Galileo, 883:. and have been attributed to 1: 4166: 3996:History of telescope articles 3650:Stan Gibilisco (2002-08-01). 3427:Isaac Newton By Michael White 2958:Price, Derek deSolla (1982). 2925:Stillman Drake (2003-02-20). 2789:Watson, Fred (13 June 2006). 2598:The History of the Telescope. 2215: 2058:. It was not until 1891 that 2009:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 4132:– BBC News 16 September 2008 3960:The Origins of the Telescope 3866:The History of the Telescope 3864:King, Henry C., ed. (1955), 3430:. Basic Books. p. 170. 3369:The History of the Telescope 3195:The history of the telescope 2821:, page 40. Allen & Unwin 2640:The Origins of the Telescope 2613:The Origins of the Telescope 2573:The Origins of the Telescope 2453:By Henry C. King, page 27, " 2451:The History of the Telescope 2333:The history of the telescope 2228:The history of the telescope 1884:Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 1356:Prussian Academy of Sciences 819:Long focal length refractors 791:was much larger than in the 740:Explanation of the Telescope 685:such as the one proposed by 413:In 1682, the minutes of the 392:De vero telescopii inventore 373:In 1655, the Dutch diplomat 297: 240:Lens (optics) § History 233:De multiplicatione specierum 110:glass mirrors introduced by 91:, who did not publicize it. 7: 3878:University of Chicago Press 3849:Elliott, Robert S. (1966), 3058:The Naming of the Telescope 2754:"Leonard and Thomas Digges" 2168:Astronomical interferometer 2147: 2112:imaging of stellar surfaces 2056:astronomical interferometry 2041:Astronomical interferometry 1979:. Gamma-ray telescopes use 1748:in 1964. Many ground-based 1541:for very low friction, the 1467:Large reflecting telescopes 1180:Russian Academy of Sciences 732:Johann Adam Schall von Bell 661:, hills and valleys on the 10: 5026: 4044:A History Of The Telescope 3984:History of optics articles 3969:Watson, Fred, ed. (2004), 3794: 3779:www.scientificamerican.com 3512:Pound reported upon it in 3036:10.1177/002182860103200202 2189:List of optical telescopes 2156:400 Years of the Telescope 2038: 2035:Interferometric telescopes 1961: 1893: 1872:Orbiting Solar Observatory 1839: 1789: 1776:Large Millimeter Telescope 1754:Cosmic Background Explorer 1673: 1557: 1554:Active and adaptive optics 1481:The 200-inch (5.1 m) 1470: 1435:French Academy of Sciences 1277: 928:Giovanni Francesco Sagredo 907: 871: 441:. Thomas described it as " 237: 216: 4880: 4672: 4649:Large Binocular Telescope 4614:Extremely Large Telescope 4607:Extremely large telescope 4580: 4463: 4403: 4324: 4286: 4247: 4240: 4174: 4107:Leonard and Thomas Digges 3990:Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open 3962:, Amsterdam: KNAW Press 3752:. nmt.edu. Archived from 3495:. amazing-space.stsci.edu 3156:, Cartage, archived from 3150:"How Telescopes Improved" 2879:Optics and Photonics News 2069:100 inch Hooker Telescope 1688:The 250-foot (76 m) 1597:Large Binocular Telescope 1513:in 1917, both located at 1494:Karl August von Steinheil 1102:" was devised in 1672 by 706: 514:sent by the Siamese king 357:Claims of prior invention 4621:Gran Telescopio Canarias 3872:Lindberg, D. C. (1976), 3516:, 1723, No. 378, p. 382. 3402:, bk. i. pt. ii. prop. 3 3270:accessed 23 October 2007 2752:Ronan, Colin A. (1991). 2199:List of space telescopes 2084:Michelson interferometer 1780:submillimeter telescopes 1660:electromagnetic spectrum 1578:New Technology Telescope 1515:Mount Wilson Observatory 1270:" to the correct shape. 1256:Leviathan of Parsonstown 889:Constantijn Huygens, Jr. 742:) in Chinese and Latin. 410:must have been Janssen. 102:'s production of larger 28:history of the telescope 4716:Astrology and astronomy 4426:Gravitational radiation 4063:Historical Introduction 3895:, vol. 1 & 3, 3832:Encyclopædia Britannica 3658:. Mcgraw-hill. p. 3424:White, Michael (1999). 3266:by J. B. Calvert, 2000 3192:King, Henry C. (2003), 2977:Encyclopædia Britannica 2209:Visible-light astronomy 2204:List of telescope types 1077:Royal Society of London 506:Spread of the invention 4635:Hubble Space Telescope 3696:Mike Simmons (2008) . 3602:Taylor & Gill 1911 3566:Taylor & Gill 1911 3526:Taylor & Gill 1911 3474:. Telescope-optics.net 3366:Henry C. King (1955). 3122:"The First Telescopes" 2989:Taylor & Gill 1911 2546:claim to both devices. 2527:Taylor & Gill 1911 1981:scintillation counters 1870:are used instead. The 1800:Far-infrared astronomy 1697: 1690:Lovell radio telescope 1654:starting in 1931 when 1618: 1507:60-inch Hale Telescope 1489: 1406: 1293: 1288:Light path through an 1231:) at his new home, at 1202: 1095: 1002: 990: 951: 836: 683:Earth-centered systems 554: 490: 370: 307: 235: 200:and longer wavelength 192:. The development of 124:Hubble Space Telescope 50:consisted of a convex 23: 5010:Copernican Revolution 5005:History of technology 4739:Astroparticle physics 4474:Australian Aboriginal 4060:Reflecting telescopes 3815:Taylor, Harold Dennis 3154:History of Telescopes 2815:Fred Watson, (2007), 2361:"Perfecting the lens" 1971:are absorbed high in 1842:Ultraviolet astronomy 1774:A telescope like the 1735:Mills Cross Telescope 1687: 1605: 1480: 1457:Paris 1900 Exposition 1404: 1396:Samuel Klingenstierna 1287: 1241:Herschelian telescope 1193: 1089: 996: 984: 945: 904:Reflecting telescopes 826: 751:Refracting telescopes 557:The Italian polymath 540: 488: 364: 305: 253:(2nd century) in his 238:Further information: 226: 48:refracting telescopes 21: 5000:History of astronomy 4731:Astronomers Monument 4663:Very Large Telescope 4210:Astronomical symbols 3493:"Hadley's Reflector" 3313:Fred Watson (2007). 3280:Fred Watson (2007). 2727:The Digges Telescope 2163:History of astronomy 2093:mathematical methods 1922:(June 1962) and the 1719:Green Bank Telescope 1704:discovered that the 1593:Very Large Telescope 1539:hydrostatic bearings 1319:chromatic aberration 1100:Cassegrain reflector 1092:Cassegrain telescope 972:spherical aberration 910:Reflecting telescope 845:chromatic aberration 723:= 'to look or see'; 708:Accademia dei Lincei 472:reflecting telescope 159:Very Large Telescope 120:Cassegrain reflector 4804:List of astronomers 4217:Astronomical object 3756:on October 13, 2008 3736:1956ASPL....7..249P 3654:Physics Demystified 3528:, pp. 559–560. 3236:1948Natur.162..472A 3028:2001JHA....32..109P 2991:, pp. 558–559. 2907:on January 19, 2009 2847:. 16 September 2008 2766:(6). Archived from 2060:Albert A. Michelson 1987:and more recently, 1964:Gamma-ray astronomy 1580:in the late 1980s. 1449:Yerkes Observatorys 1081:Newtonian telescope 1049:Newtonian telescope 1020:angle of reflection 987:Newtonian telescope 976:Gregorian telescope 948:Gregorian telescope 746:Further refinements 624:Venus showed phases 500:Girolamo Fracastoro 408:Frankfurt Book Fair 275:(10th century) and 244:Objects resembling 213:Optical foundations 194:space observatories 54:lens and a concave 4790:Physical cosmology 4118:2004-10-29 at the 4085:2015-02-24 at the 4027:2012-03-17 at the 4015:2010-04-25 at the 3412:Treatise on Optics 2770:on 29 October 2004 2733:on 29 October 2004 2138:Matias Zaldarriaga 2101:aperture synthesis 2097:aperture synthesis 2088:aperture synthesis 2013:Cerenkov radiation 1973:Earth's atmosphere 1864:magnesium fluoride 1796:Infrared astronomy 1792:Infrared telescope 1698: 1619: 1523:vacuum evaporation 1490: 1407: 1405:Dollond telescope. 1306:Chester Moore Hall 1294: 1203: 1201:published in 1797. 1104:Laurent Cassegrain 1096: 1016:angle of incidence 1003: 991: 952: 936:Optica philosophia 885:Christiaan Huygens 837: 831:. From his book, " 800:Christiaan Huygens 793:Galilean telescope 767:Christoph Scheiner 694:Giovanni Demisiani 640:heliocentric model 634:, as predicted by 579:Galilean telescope 555: 491: 371: 308: 236: 208:Optical telescopes 163:Gemini Observatory 132:Yerkes Observatory 89:Chester Moore Hall 78:Laurent Cassegrain 68:Christiaan Huygens 24: 4912: 4911: 4797:Quantum cosmology 4783:Planetary geology 4576: 4575: 4287:Celestial subject 4078:Eyes on the Skies 3924:(10): 1157–1177, 3614:Mem. Acad. Berlin 3437:978-0-7382-0143-6 3379:978-0-486-43265-6 3326:978-1-74176-392-8 3293:978-1-74176-392-8 3230:(4117): 472–473, 3205:978-0-486-43265-6 3100:. Stjarnhimlen.se 2938:978-0-486-49542-2 2650:978-90-6984-615-6 2623:978-90-6984-615-6 2583:978-90-6984-615-6 2497:galileo.rice.edu 2435:galileo.rice.edu 2349:978-0-486-43265-6 2267:Wilson, Ray N.; ' 2256:Optical anecdotes 2244:978-0-486-43265-6 2071:on Mount Wilson. 2051:Fourier transform 1928:Wolter telescopes 1727:Arecibo telescope 1646:Other wavelengths 1632:Horace W. Babcock 1589:Gemini telescopes 1233:Observatory House 1229:40-foot telescope 1176:Mikhail Lomonosov 914:The ability of a 881:aerial telescopes 868:Aerial telescopes 861:Johannes Hevelius 855:fifth satellite ( 833:Machina coelestis 829:Johannes Hevelius 809:Systema Saturnium 777:William Gascoigne 679:Copernican system 495:Leonardo da Vinci 458:'s chief advisor 456:Queen Elizabeth I 435:fare seeing glass 400:Cornelis de Waard 396:Zacharias Snijder 390:in his 1656 book 386:, was adopted by 380:Zacharias Janssen 375:William de Boreel 367:Zacharias Janssen 219:History of optics 182:Karl Guthe Jansky 146:in the 1970s and 144:alt-azimuth mount 5017: 4977: 4976: 4975: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4941: 4940: 4929: 4928: 4927: 4920: 4905: 4901: 4900: 4893: 4889: 4888: 4873: 4864: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4834: 4827: 4820: 4818:Medieval Islamic 4813: 4806: 4799: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4762: 4755: 4748: 4741: 4734: 4725: 4718: 4711: 4704: 4702:Astroinformatics 4697: 4690: 4683: 4681:Archaeoastronomy 4665: 4658: 4651: 4644: 4642:Keck Observatory 4637: 4630: 4623: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4569: 4560: 4553: 4546: 4539: 4537:Medieval Islamic 4532: 4525: 4518: 4511: 4504: 4497: 4490: 4483: 4476: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4414: 4396: 4387: 4380: 4373: 4366: 4364: 4356: 4354: 4342: 4335: 4315: 4308: 4301: 4279: 4272: 4265: 4258: 4245: 4244: 4233: 4226: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4196: 4189: 4182: 4161: 4154: 4147: 4138: 4137: 4005:by Al Van Helden 3974: 3948: 3909: 3869: 3857: 3851:Electromagnetics 3845: 3836: 3807: 3805: 3804: 3789: 3788: 3786: 3785: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3761: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3709: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3680:Internet Archive 3677: 3676: 3657: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3586: 3580: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3542: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3480: 3479: 3468: 3462: 3454: 3448: 3447: 3445: 3444: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3386: 3363: 3357: 3354:Mark Pendergrast 3343: 3337: 3336: 3334: 3333: 3310: 3304: 3303: 3301: 3300: 3277: 3271: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3244:10.1038/162472a0 3215: 3209: 3208: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3180: 3179: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3146: 3140: 3139: 3138: 3137: 3118: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3105: 3093: 3084: 3083: 3067: 3061: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3009: 3003: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2980: 2973: 2964: 2963: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2946: 2945: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2913: 2912: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2876: 2867: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2837: 2831: 2828: 2822: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2729:. Archived from 2718: 2712: 2709: 2700: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2664: 2661: 2655: 2654: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2607: 2601: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2567: 2561: 2556: 2547: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2503: 2501:by Al Van Helden 2491: 2485: 2476: 2470: 2465: 2459: 2447: 2441: 2439:by Al Van Helden 2432: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2380: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2370: 2365: 2357: 2351: 2330: 2321: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2307: 2299: 2293: 2292: 2290: 2289: 2278: 2272: 2265: 2259: 2254:Lovell, D. J.; ' 2252: 2246: 2225: 2065:Francis G. Pease 1868:lithium fluoride 1769:milli-arcseconds 1750:radio telescopes 1670:Radio telescopes 1613:boasts advanced 1511:Hooker telescope 1444:Great refractors 1334: 1333: 1329: 1326: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1218: 1195:William Herschel 1185:William Herschel 1138: 1137: 1133: 1130: 1090:Light path in a 985:Light path in a 970:, would correct 946:Light path in a 898:Giuseppe Campani 887:and his brother 874:Aerial telescope 849:Giovanni Cassini 727:= 'far-seeing'. 711: 710: 704:a member of the 671:spots on the sun 665:, the phases of 644:geocentric model 612: 603: 314:spectacle-maker 292:Nicholas of Cusa 288:near-sightedness 279:(11th century). 180:) was born with 174:radio telescopes 167:Subaru Telescope 136:Hooker Telescope 116:Ritchey-Chretien 5025: 5024: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5015: 5014: 4985: 4984: 4983: 4973: 4971: 4961: 4959: 4949: 4947: 4935: 4925: 4923: 4915: 4913: 4908: 4896: 4884: 4876: 4869: 4860: 4853: 4848:X-ray telescope 4846: 4839: 4830: 4823: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4788: 4781: 4774: 4767: 4758: 4751: 4744: 4737: 4728: 4721: 4714: 4707: 4700: 4693: 4686: 4679: 4668: 4661: 4654: 4647: 4640: 4633: 4626: 4619: 4612: 4605: 4598: 4591: 4583: 4572: 4565: 4556: 4549: 4542: 4535: 4528: 4521: 4514: 4507: 4500: 4493: 4486: 4479: 4472: 4459: 4454:Multi-messenger 4452: 4445: 4438: 4431: 4424: 4417: 4410: 4399: 4392: 4383: 4376: 4369: 4362: 4359: 4350: 4345: 4338: 4331: 4320: 4311: 4304: 4293: 4282: 4277:Space telescope 4275: 4268: 4261: 4254: 4236: 4229: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4201: 4192: 4185: 4178: 4170: 4165: 4120:Wayback Machine 4087:Wayback Machine 4029:Wayback Machine 4017:Wayback Machine 3981: 3907: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3792: 3783: 3781: 3773: 3772: 3768: 3759: 3757: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3720: 3716: 3707: 3705: 3694: 3690: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3648: 3644: 3636: 3632: 3624: 3620: 3612: 3608: 3600: 3589: 3583:Name in Russian 3578: 3576: 3572: 3564: 3545: 3537:Smith, Robert, 3536: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3511: 3507: 3498: 3496: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3477: 3475: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3455: 3451: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3406: 3397: 3393: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3364: 3360: 3344: 3340: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3311: 3307: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3278: 3274: 3262: 3258: 3216: 3212: 3206: 3190: 3186: 3177: 3175: 3174:. Angelfire.com 3172:"The Telescope" 3170: 3169: 3165: 3148: 3147: 3143: 3135: 3133: 3120: 3119: 3112: 3103: 3101: 3096:Paul Schlyter. 3094: 3087: 3068: 3064: 3056:Rosen, Edward, 3055: 3051: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2995: 2987: 2983: 2974: 2967: 2956: 2952: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2928:Galileo at Work 2923: 2919: 2910: 2908: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2874: 2868: 2859: 2850: 2848: 2839: 2838: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2814: 2810: 2803: 2787: 2783: 2773: 2771: 2750: 2746: 2736: 2734: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2703: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2651: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2608: 2604: 2596:King, Henry C. 2595: 2591: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2550: 2537: 2533: 2525: 2506: 2492: 2488: 2477: 2473: 2466: 2462: 2448: 2444: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2381: 2377: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2331: 2324: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2287: 2285: 2280: 2279: 2275: 2266: 2262: 2253: 2249: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2150: 2043: 2037: 1966: 1960: 1902: 1900:X-ray astronomy 1896:X-ray telescope 1892: 1844: 1838: 1802: 1788: 1682: 1680:Radio astronomy 1676:Radio telescope 1672: 1648: 1615:adaptive optics 1585:Keck telescopes 1574:adaptive optics 1566: 1560:Adaptive optics 1556: 1543:Serrurier truss 1475: 1469: 1331: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1299:achromatic lens 1290:achromatic lens 1282: 1280:Achromatic lens 1276: 1223: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1152:Samuel Molyneux 1135: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1024:first telescope 912: 906: 876: 870: 821: 756:Johannes Kepler 753: 748: 702:Galileo Galilei 650: 649: 648: 647: 646:(second image). 620:Galileo Galilei 615: 614: 613: 605: 604: 586:Leonardo Donato 559:Galileo Galilei 551:Leonardo Donato 545:displaying his 543:Galileo Galilei 512:Kingdom of Siam 508: 384:Hans Lippershey 359: 316:Hans Lippershey 300: 290:is ascribed to 242: 221: 215: 210: 178:radio astronomy 152:Keck telescopes 85:achromatic lens 64:Johannes Kepler 40:Hans Lippershey 12: 11: 5: 5023: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4982: 4981: 4969: 4957: 4945: 4933: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4906: 4894: 4881: 4878: 4877: 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4041: 4036: 4031: 4019: 4007: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3980: 3979:External links 3977: 3976: 3975: 3966: 3956: 3949: 3913: 3910: 3905: 3886: 3883: 3880: 3870: 3861: 3858: 3846: 3837: 3827:Chisholm, Hugh 3796: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3766: 3741: 3714: 3688: 3668: 3642: 3640:, 1758, p. 733 3630: 3628:, 1753, p. 289 3618: 3606: 3604:, p. 561. 3587: 3570: 3568:, p. 560. 3543: 3530: 3518: 3505: 3484: 3463: 3449: 3436: 3416: 3404: 3398:Isaac Newton, 3391: 3378: 3358: 3338: 3325: 3305: 3292: 3272: 3264:Reading Euclid 3256: 3210: 3204: 3184: 3163: 3141: 3110: 3085: 3062: 3049: 3022:(2): 109–129. 3004: 2993: 2981: 2965: 2950: 2937: 2917: 2892: 2857: 2832: 2823: 2808: 2801: 2781: 2744: 2713: 2701: 2692: 2683: 2674: 2665: 2656: 2649: 2629: 2622: 2602: 2589: 2582: 2562: 2548: 2540:Pieter Harting 2531: 2529:, p. 559. 2504: 2486: 2471: 2460: 2442: 2427: 2418: 2375: 2352: 2322: 2294: 2273: 2260: 2247: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2036: 2033: 1985:spark chambers 1959: 1956: 1932:OAO satellites 1891: 1888: 1837: 1834: 1804:Although most 1787: 1784: 1761:interferometry 1671: 1668: 1662:from radio to 1647: 1644: 1628:liquid crystal 1555: 1552: 1527:Hale reflector 1483:Hale Telescope 1468: 1465: 1352:Leonhard Euler 1345:Lord Mansfield 1310:Essex, England 1275: 1272: 1065:Galilean moons 1032:speculum metal 964:Optica Promota 956:Marin Mersenne 932:Niccolò Zucchi 905: 902: 872:Main article: 869: 866: 820: 817: 752: 749: 747: 744: 736:Yuan jing shuo 617: 616: 607: 606: 598: 597: 596: 595: 594: 532:Thomas Harriot 507: 504: 452:William Bourne 431:Leonard Digges 358: 355: 299: 296: 277:Ibn Al-Haytham 271:, followed by 214: 211: 209: 206: 140:Hale Telescope 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5022: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4980: 4970: 4968: 4958: 4956: 4946: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4932: 4922: 4921: 4918: 4904: 4895: 4892: 4883: 4882: 4879: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4856: 4852: 4849: 4845: 4844: 4842: 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3733: 3729: 3725: 3718: 3704:on 2013-08-05 3703: 3699: 3692: 3685: 3681: 3671: 3669:0-07-138201-1 3665: 3661: 3656: 3655: 3646: 3639: 3634: 3627: 3622: 3615: 3610: 3603: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3584: 3574: 3567: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3540: 3534: 3527: 3522: 3515: 3509: 3494: 3488: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3459: 3453: 3439: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3420: 3413: 3408: 3401: 3395: 3381: 3375: 3371: 3370: 3362: 3355: 3351: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3328: 3322: 3318: 3317: 3309: 3295: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3276: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3214: 3207: 3201: 3197: 3196: 3188: 3173: 3167: 3160:on 2009-03-11 3159: 3155: 3151: 3145: 3132:on 2008-04-09 3131: 3127: 3123: 3117: 3115: 3099: 3092: 3090: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3059: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3016: 3008: 3002: 2997: 2990: 2985: 2978: 2972: 2970: 2961: 2954: 2940: 2934: 2930: 2929: 2921: 2906: 2902: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2846: 2842: 2836: 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" 3316:Stargazer 3283:Stargazer 3044:117985979 2887:1047-6938 2132:In 2008, 2045:In 1868, 1860:aluminium 1822:Mauna Kea 1706:Milky Way 1636:real time 1624:actuators 1385:frequency 1361:objective 1350:In 1747, 1245:Enceladus 1164:parabolic 1123:parabolic 1044:objective 841:sharpness 618:In 1610, 547:telescope 468:telescope 318:with the 298:Invention 294:in 1451. 108:silvering 52:objective 32:telescope 4891:Category 4600:Category 4495:Egyptian 4412:Neutrino 4347:Infrared 4295:Galactic 4270:Sidewalk 4224:Glossary 4194:Timeline 4116:Archived 4083:Archived 4025:Archived 4013:Archived 3964:pdf link 3938:11721819 3414:, p. 112 3252:29596446 2845:BBC News 2413:96668398 2148:See also 2031:(2004). 2023:(2001), 2019:(1987), 1954:(1999). 1946:(1990), 1942:(1983), 1854:absorbs 1806:infrared 1260:galaxies 1250:In 1845 1168:elliptic 1071:and the 1053:eyepiece 1005:In 1666 1001:in 1672. 954:In 1636 853:Saturn's 773:(1630). 738:, (遠鏡說, 700:to make 630:and not 575:eyepiece 567:spyglass 553:in 1609. 448:John Dee 273:Ibn Sahl 202:infrared 56:eyepiece 44:eyeglass 4917:Portals 4903:Commons 4855:history 4825:Russian 4673:Related 4582:Optical 4567:Tibetan 4551:Serbian 4544:Persian 4488:Chinese 4465:Culture 4385:History 4256:Amateur 4187:History 4180:Outline 3946:8185797 3829:(ed.). 3812:: 3795:Sources 3732:Bibcode 3616:, 1753. 3356:Page 88 3268:Duke U. 3232:Bibcode 3024:Bibcode 2544:Janssen 2405:4608700 2271:', p.14 1993:balloon 1948:Chandra 1850:in the 1461:gravity 1420:bravado 1392:Swedish 1330:⁄ 1222:⁄ 1211:England 1134:⁄ 1069:Jupiter 924:Alhazen 721:skopein 687:Ptolemy 659:Jupiter 561:was in 425:' 1571 251:Ptolemy 204:bands. 60:Galileo 4871:Zodiac 4811:French 4516:Indian 4509:Hebrew 4248:Manner 3944: 3936: 3903: 3825:". In 3806: 3666: 3434: 3400:Optics 3376: 3323: 3290: 3250: 3224:Nature 3202: 3060:(1947) 3042: 2935: 2885: 2799: 2647: 2620: 2580: 2411: 2403: 2347: 2339: 2242: 2234: 2118:, the 2047:Fizeau 2021:STACEE 1952:Newton 1940:EXOSAT 1912:rocket 1905:X-rays 1798:, and 1731:zenith 1314:retina 1237:Slough 1119:octant 1040:copper 920:Euclid 764:Jesuit 590:senate 563:Venice 421:noted 345:and a 343:convex 336:design 267:, and 256:Optics 246:lenses 198:X-rays 4943:Stars 4862:lists 4832:Women 4523:Inuit 4502:Greek 4440:Radar 4378:X-ray 4333:Radio 4313:Solar 3942:S2CID 3248:S2CID 3040:S2CID 2875:(PDF) 2409:S2CID 2401:JSTOR 2364:(PDF) 2306:(PDF) 2029:MAGIC 2017:HEGRA 2005:Cos B 2001:SAS B 1997:OSO 3 1944:ROSAT 1936:Uhuru 1814:UKIRT 1547:Pyrex 1535:BTA-6 1427:flint 1308:from 1057:mount 1034:) of 1028:alloy 805:Titan 714:Greek 667:Venus 632:Earth 571:Padua 269:color 42:, an 4593:List 4558:folk 4530:Maya 3934:PMID 3901:ISBN 3664:ISBN 3432:ISBN 3374:ISBN 3321:ISBN 3288:ISBN 3200:ISBN 3082:(2). 2933:ISBN 2883:ISSN 2797:ISBN 2776:2012 2739:2012 2645:ISBN 2618:ISBN 2578:ISBN 2385:BIOS 2345:ISBN 2337:ISBN 2240:ISBN 2232:ISBN 2136:and 2124:IOTA 2078:and 2025:HESS 1898:and 1826:IRAS 1818:IRTF 1678:and 1572:and 1562:and 1496:and 1207:Bath 1166:and 1143:and 1038:and 857:Rhea 839:The 813:ring 717:tele 669:and 663:moon 583:doge 165:and 83:The 26:The 4760:IAU 3926:doi 3660:515 3352:by 3240:doi 3228:162 3032:doi 2764:101 2393:doi 1916:sun 1866:or 1692:at 1611:VLT 1609:'s 1607:ESO 1529:at 1485:at 1235:in 1067:of 1036:tin 1011:all 675:sun 657:of 638:'s 628:sun 549:to 184:'s 156:ESO 4991:: 4297:/ 3940:, 3932:, 3922:30 3920:, 3899:, 3853:, 3817:; 3777:. 3726:. 3682:. 3662:. 3590:^ 3581:. 3546:^ 3246:, 3238:, 3226:, 3222:, 3152:, 3124:, 3113:^ 3088:^ 3078:. 3074:. 3038:. 3030:. 3020:21 3018:. 2968:^ 2881:. 2877:. 2860:^ 2843:. 2762:. 2756:. 2725:. 2704:^ 2551:^ 2507:^ 2483:." 2407:. 2399:. 2389:75 2387:. 2343:, 2325:^ 2315:. 2238:, 1983:, 1794:, 1771:. 1666:. 1599:. 1262:. 1209:, 1187:. 1127:62 1083:. 795:. 689:. 518:: 338:. 263:, 231:, 169:. 161:, 58:. 4919:: 4355:) 4349:( 4160:e 4153:t 4146:v 3928:: 3787:. 3763:. 3738:. 3734:: 3728:7 3711:. 3502:. 3481:. 3446:. 3388:. 3335:. 3302:. 3242:: 3234:: 3181:. 3107:. 3080:6 3046:. 3034:: 3026:: 2979:. 2947:. 2914:. 2889:. 2854:. 2805:. 2778:. 2741:. 2653:. 2626:. 2586:. 2457:" 2415:. 2395:: 2372:. 2291:. 1441:" 1332:2 1328:1 1325:+ 1323:2 1292:. 1224:4 1220:1 1217:+ 1215:6 1136:4 1132:3 1129:+ 1094:. 1047:" 1030:( 989:. 950:. 803:( 522:(

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